Module 8

Transmission Line and Antenna Theory

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Module 8 Objectives

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Determine transmission line length using an R2000 or R2670 Service Monitor

equipped with the necessary module.
• Discuss transmission line theory, including the "Traveling Wave" theory.
• Discuss how RF wavelength varies with respect to the different frequency bands
used in radio communications.
• Discuss VSWR and how it affects a systems ability to transmit the RF power from
the transmitting antenna.
• Use the VSWR Nomograph to determine Return Loss, Effected Radiated Power
(Transmitted Power), Reflected Power, and Transmission Loss.
• Discuss how inductance and capacitance affect an antenna’s ability to transmit
RF power.
• Discuss what an Antenna Resonance Point is, and how it affects an antenna’s
ability to transmit RF.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Course Structure

• Module 0 Course Introduction

• Module 1 Chronology
• Module 2 Introduction To Two-Way Radio
• Module 3 Two-Way Frequency Applications
• Module 4 Conventional Systems Overview
• Module 5 Trunking Systems
• Module 6 Modulation Concepts
• Module 7 Decibel Overview
• Module 8 Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
• Module 9 RF Propagation
• Module 10 RF Interference

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Module Outline

• Section 8.1 Transmission Line Theory

• Section 8.2 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
• Section 8.3 Basic Antenna Theory

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Section 8.1

Transmission Line Theory

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Introduction

• Understanding transmission line theory will help understand many RF circuit and
system concepts
• A piece of wire acts as a circuit; displaying the characteristics of inductance,
capacitance, and resistance
• Transmission lines are used between base radios and antennas. Understanding
how a transmission line functions will aid in the understanding of:
– Basic antenna theory
– Grounding and bonding principles
– Lightning protection practices
In transmission line concepts, we will look at:
• The velocity of propagation
• The characteristic impedance
• The effects of load impedance

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

• Normally we view a sine wave in terms of time and frequency. We measure the
frequency by measuring the time from crest to crest or trough to trough and
reciprocate (divide by) the time.
• Example

Time

Time

• Using the following equation we solve for frequency:

1
Frequency 
time

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

Time

Time
1
Frequency 
time
• The sine wave can also represent distance from crest to crest and trough to
trough.
• To find this distance, we need to know the frequency and the speed of light.
Using the following equation, we can find the physical distance covered by one
cycle of the sine wave:
300
Wavelength (meters) 
Frequency(mHz)
• Since we measure frequency in mHz, the 300,000,000 meters/sec (speed of light
in meters/sec) is shortened to 300.
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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

• Calculate at the minimum and maximum ideal wavelength of the typical two-way
frequencies:

Two-Way Maximum to Minimum Wavelength

Frequency Band
29.7 – 50 mHz
136 – 174 mHz
450 – 470 mHz
806 – 870 mHz
896 – 941 mHz

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

• The ideal wavelength and the electrical wavelength are different.

• The electrical wavelength will vary according to the material’s dielectric constant
the RF energy is traveling through.
• Typical examples of dielectric materials and their associated Dielectric Constants
found in transmission lines are:

Material Dielectric
Constant
Polythene 2.3
Foam 1.6 – 1.8
Polyethylene
Teflon 2.1

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

• The thickness and geometry of the dielectric or insulating material will cause the
dielectric constant to vary.
• Given this information, we can calculate the velocity of propagation of RF energy
through a transmission line using the equation:

1
Velocity propagatio n 
ε

• The typical value for the value of velocity of propagation (also referred to as
Velocity Factor, or Vf) will vary from 0.60 to 0.90.
• This will mean the wavelength will be shortened in the transmission line but the
frequency will remain the same.
• The next slide contains a table of nominal characteristics of commonly used
transmission lines.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

Nominal Characteristics of Commonly Used Transmission Lines

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

Nominal Characteristics of Commonly Used Transmission Lines

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Velocity of Propagation

• Knowing the Velocity of Propagation, the length of a transmission line or the

distance to a potential problem in the transmission line system can be calculated.
The following equation can be used to calculate this distance, if a good square
wave generator and oscilloscope are available.

983.6  Vf  T
Length (ft) 
2

T = Time in µsec
Vf = The Velocity of Propagation

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Effects of Load on a Transmission Line

• Under ideal conditions:

– The impedance of the load equals the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line.
– The impedance of the source equals the impedance of the transmission line.
• Under these ideal conditions, all the power transferred to the transmission line
will be dissipated at the load with no energy returned to the source in the form of
reflected waves.
• It will take some time for the load impedance to affect the RF energy. In this ideal
case, the current and voltage are in phase on their journey to the load or
termination.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Traveling Wave Concept

• There are three wave fronts in a typical transmission line system:

– The forward wave or the incident wave. This wave leaves the generator
and terminates at the load. The voltage and current are in phase as the wave
travels to the termination.
– At the load, in-phase reflected wave, either current or voltage depending on
the termination due to impedance mismatches between the characteristic
impedance of the source, the transmission line or the termination. This wave
front will return to the source with no phase reversal.
– At the load, out-of-phase reflected wave, either current or voltage
depending on the termination due to the impedance mismatch between the
characteristic impedance of the source, transmission line, and termination.
This wave front will return to the source with phase reversal.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Traveling Wave Concept

• The resultant between the forward and reflected voltage or current waveform will
make the transmission line appear resistive or reactive. Consider the
possibilities:
– At the termination point:
• For the in-phase reflection, the forward and reflected voltage will be the
sum of the reflected voltage or current wave. At the termination point, the
voltage or current wave will be at maximum.
• For the out-of-phase reflection, the resultant will be the difference between
the forward and reflected wave. At the termination, the voltage or current
wave will be at minimum.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Traveling Wave Concept

• One quarter wavelength from the termination:

– The resultant for the in-phase reflected with the forward current or voltage
wave will be a minimum.
– The resultant for the out-of-phase reflected with the forward current or voltage
wave will be a maximum.
• One half-wavelength from the termination:
– The resultant waveforms will repeat the resultants impedance occurring at the
termination.
• This is easily shown in the following drawing.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Traveling Wave Concept (Transmit)

The traveling wave theory shows Current and Voltage in phase as the signal travels
down the transmission line.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Traveling Wave Concept (Receive)

The travelling wave theory shows Current and Voltage out of phase as the signal is
reflected back down the transmission line.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Section 8.2

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

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Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

• Depending on what information we are given, we can determine the Voltage

Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR).
• The VSWR tells us of the impedance matching and power transfer effectiveness
of the transmission line.

Pr
1
Pf
SWR 
P
1 r
Pf

• Pr is the reflected power

• Pf is the forward power

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

• Perform the following calculations solving for the standing wave ratio:

Forward Power Reflected Power VSWR

100 W 50 W
45 W 15 W
80 W 20 W
75 W 15 W
10 W 1W
100 W 4W

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

• Notice the ratios from the previous slide’s calculations.

Ratio Of Reflected And Forward VSWR

Power
5.83 : 1
3.73 : 1
3.00 : 1
2.62 : 1
1.92 : 1
1.5 : 1

• We can look at the ratio of reflected power and forward power and have an idea
of the standing wave ratio.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

Using the VSWR Nomograph to the

right, complete the table below for
Power Transmitted, and Transmission
Line Loss (Draw a horizontal line
across the graph, starting at the VSWR
(ex. 10:1 is 10).

VSWR % Pwr Tx Tx Line Loss

(dB)
10 : 1
5:1
3:1
2.5 : 1
2:1
1.5 : 1
Nomograph for transmission and reflection of
power at high voltage standing wave ratios
(VSWR)
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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

Look at these results closely. Imagine an ideal transmission line is used.

• In some cases, we may discover the VSWR is really not all that bad considering
the transmission loss in decibels, especially at 3:1 through 6:1.
• But what if? What if there is a power control circuit that reduces power by half if
the VSWR exceeds 4 : 1, what will happen to our transmission loss in decibels?
– At 4:1 with no power cutback, loss would be about 2 dB.
– With a power cutback of 3 dB, the loss now will be about 5 dB.
– If the output power was 50 watts, with no cutback, the transmitted power
would be about 33 watts.
– With a cutback of about 5 dB and the output power was 50 watts originally,
the transmitted power would be about 16 watts.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

A short summary concerning VSWR:

• Standing waves are due to mismatches in impedance between the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line and the impedance of the source and load.
• The transformation of impedances happens every quarter wave length; that is
from a maximum to a minimum and a minimum to a maximum.
• Every half wave length, the standing wave pattern repeats.
• We can take advantage of knowing the ratio of reflected and forward power to
determine if the standing wave ratio is within acceptable limits.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Transmission Line Losses

There are several factors that affect loss as the RF energy travels to the load or as
the reflected RF energy is reflected from the load to the source:
• Radiation Losses
• Heat Losses
• Dielectric Losses
• Coupling Losses
• Corona Losses

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Transmission Line Losses

Radiation Losses
• Radiation Losses are due to the inductance of the transmission line. Any
opportunity for RF energy to leave the transmission line represents lost energy.
Radiation losses are not necessarily bad, because without radiation losses, there
will be no antenna action.
Heat Losses
• Heat losses are due to the resistance of the conductors. The resistance is
inversely proportional to the diameter of the conductor and directly proportional to
the length of the conductor. Attenuation due to the conductor can be minimized
using a larger conductor. With extremely high frequencies, the advantage will be
nullified due to the skin effect.
Dielectric Losses
• The difference of potential between the conductors will cause the dielectric
material to heat. This heat represents lost propagation energy. As the frequency
increases, the heating effect increases.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Transmission Line Losses

Coupling Loss
• Ideally, a long cable run should have no connectors. Realistically though, if we
have only the connector at the source and load, we are doing well. Many times,
the transmission line is lengthened with “barrel” connectors, or breaks in the
cable will be repaired with a splice. Each connection represents an “ohmic”
contact that is a discontinuity in the cable. Each “ohmic” contact represents a
loss of propagating energy through heat.
Corona
• When the voltage between the conductors in the transmission line exceeds the
breakdown potential of the dielectric, a corona (arcing) may appear. This arcing
can be due to VSWR. A general rule of thumb to follow: When we find a
transmission line that has been subjected to corona or arcing, that line should be
replaced and the defective transmission line discarded. It has become unreliable.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Approximate Power Handling Capability of Transmission Lines

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Approximate Power Handling Capability of Transmission Lines

Approximate Power Handling Capability (1:1 SWR, 40°C Ambient) Legend:

1.8 mHz 7 14 30 50 150 220 450 1 gHz ** Not Available or varies
RG-58 Style 1350 700 500 350 250 150 120 100 50 ASPE Air Spaced Polyethylene
BC Bare Copper
RG-59 Style 2300 1100 800 550 400 250 200 130 90
CC Corrugated Copper
RG-8X Style 1830 840 560 360 270 145 115 80 50 CCA Copper Cover Aluminium
RG-8/213 CCS Copper Covered Steel
5900 3000 2000 1500 1000 600 500 350 250 CXP Cable X-Perts, Inc.
Style
D Double Copper Braids
RG-217
20000 9200 6100 3900 2900 1500 1200 800 500 DRF Davis RF
Style
FC Foil + Tinned Copper Braid
LDF4-50A 38000 18000 13000 8200 6200 3400 2800 1900 1200 FEP Teflon® Type IX
LDF5-50A 67000 32000 22000 14000 11000 5900 4800 3200 2100 Flex Flexible Stranded Wire
LMR500 18000 9200 6500 4400 3400 1900 1600 1100 700 FPE Foamed Polyethylene
Heliax Andrew Corp Heliax
LMR1200 52000 26000 19000 13000 10000 5500 4500 3000 2000

N Non-Contaminating SM Smooth Aluminum

P1 PVC, Class 1 SPC Silver Plated Copper
P2 PVC, Class 2 TC Tinned Copper
PE Polyethylene TFE Teflon®
S Single Braided Shield TMS Times Microwave Systems
SC Single Coated Braid UF Ultra Flex
SCCS Silver Plated Copper Coated Steel WM Wireman
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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Section 8.3

Basic Antenna Theory

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Basic Antenna Theory

• There are many types of antennas (as previously seen in the videos on Monday).
This discussion will be limited to a basic Dipole Antenna.
• Recall the following characteristics of a transmission line terminated in an open:
– Voltage at the end is maximum.
– Current at the end is minimum.
– Impedance at the end is maximum.
– Voltage λ/4 (one quarter wavelength) from the end is minimum.
– Current λ/4 from the end is maximum.
– Impedance λ/4 from the end is minimum.
– The forward voltage and reflected voltage λ/4 from the end is out-of-phase.
– The forward current and reflected current λ/4 from the end is in-phase.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Basic Antenna Theory

Standing Waves on Open Transmission Line

Forward voltage

Forward current
λ/2 λ/4 LOAD
Reverse Current

λ/2 λ/4 LOAD

Voltage Resultant

Current Resultant

Maximum Minimum Maximum

Imprendance impedance impedance impedance
Transformations

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Basic Antenna Theory

• We will fold out the last λ/4 of the transmission line and redraw the voltage,
current and impedance distribution. Compare the transmission line with the
dipole antenna.

λ/4
Voltage

Current

λ/2
Impedance
λ/2

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Yagi Antenna

Yagi is the name of the Japanese man who designed this type of antenna. It is a
uni-directional antenna

Refl DE Dir Spacing of the elements:

Refl: Reflector Reflector - Driven

Element: .125 ×
DE: Driven Element Wavelength
Dir: Director Driven Element - Director
Element: .125 ×
wavelength
Additional directors are
placed .250 ×
Element Lengths are: wavelength apart.
Reflector: .495 × Wavelength
Driven Element: .473 × wavelength
Director: .440 × wavelength (if additional directors are used, they are placed .005 ×
wavelength apart)

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Dos & Don’ts Regarding Antennas

• DON'T mount skirts of coaxial antennas or ground rods of ground planes right
down on the top of the tower. Keep them at least 18" (4572 mm) clear of the top.
• DON'T trim off any cable (even if it looks extra) from an antenna or array feed
harness. It may be a matching transformer or phasing length.
• DO check connector between antenna and line for water or lightning breakdown.
If UHF fittings are used, check the splicer first.
• DO inspect a pressurized line for water or moisture if it has lost pressure. Repair
leak and purge line with dry air or nitrogen before re-pressurizing.
• DO make sure all outside connectors are snug and properly taped with good cold
weather poly tape.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Dos & Don’ts Regarding Antennas

• DO watch carefully in mating Type N Male to Female Connectors so that the pin
of the male is lined up and not at an angle with the female.
• DO protect antennas from lightning wherever possible. Letting the pipe extend
several feet above the antenna can protect directional antennas mounted on a
pipe. All antennas themselves should have a good heavy duty DC path to the
tower or ground.
• DO protect systems against precipitation static (mostly 25-50 mHz) by use of
side mount antennas and/or wrapping elements with good heavy duty continuous
overlap wrap of cold weather poly electrical tape. Wrapped side mount antennas
will give maximum protection where this is a problem.
• DO make sure all tubular radiator elements are plugged to prevent undue wind
vibration fatigue.
• DO make sure all vertical tubular elements have drain holes near bottom so
water can drain out. Otherwise water can freeze and split element.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
Dos & Don’ts Regarding Antennas

• DO check antenna VSWR upon installation and make record to compare on

future checks.
• DO check transmission line and connectors for open or short. Connectors and
line are subject to damage and trouble resulting from installation. Do retain plug
at termination (when at top) of an inverted station antenna and remove plug at
top (when inverted).
The Following Applies especially to 800 mHz systems.
• DON'T use UHF (PL259) connectors in an 800 mHz system.
• DON'T forget to check that antenna is plumb, especially high gain antenna. Even
a few degrees of physical tilt will cause the radiation pattern to down tilt on one
side and up tilt on the other side.
• DON'T expect to get omni-directional coverage when side mounting an antenna,
or when installing it on a cluttered rooftop.

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
 Review Question 1

Which of the equations below is correct for computing the RF frequency?

1
Frequency 
Time

1
Frequency 
Wavelength

1
Time 
Frequency

1
Frequency 
Period

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
 Review Question 2

983.6  Vf  T 
In this formula  Length (ft)   , time is measured in _______.
 2 

Microseconds

Milliseconds

Nanoseconds

Seconds

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
 Review Question 3

A Yagi antenna is a omni-directional antenna.

True

False

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
 Review Question 4

Which of the losses listed is not a transmission line loss?

Radiation Loss

Dielectric Loss

Heat Loss

Line Loss

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
 Review Question 5

You have computed VSWR, and found the value to be 5. This is an acceptable
level for use in your communication system.

True

False

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Module 8: Transmission Line and Antenna Theory
End of Module
You should now be able to:​
• Determine transmission line length using an R2000 or R2670 Service Monitor equipped
with the necessary module.

• Discuss transmission line theory, including the "Traveling Wave" theory.

• Discuss how RF wavelength varies with respect to the different frequency bands used
in radio communications.

• Discuss VSWR and how it affects a systems ability to transmit the RF power from the
transmitting antenna.

• Use the VSWR Nomograph to determine Return Loss, Effected Radiated Power
(Transmitted Power), Reflected Power, and Transmission Loss.

• Discuss how inductance and capacitance affect an antenna’s ability

to transmit RF power.

• Discuss what an Antenna Resonance Point is, and how

it affects an antenna’s ability to transmit RF.

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