MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Table 4-1 Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, Lo, and Minimum Concentrated Live Loads

Occupancy or Use Uniform psf (kN/m2) Conc. lb (kN)

Apartments (see Residential)
Access floor systems
Office use 50 (2.4) 2,000 (8.9)
Computer use 100 (4.79) 2,000 (8.9)
Armories and drill rooms 150 (7.18)a
Assembly areas and theaters
Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 60 (2.87)a
Lobbies 100 (4.79)a
Movable seats 100 (4.79)a
Platforms (assembly) 100 (4.79)a
Stage floors 150 (7.18)a
Balconies and decks 1.5 times the live load for the
occupancy served. Not required
to exceed 100 psf (4.79 kN/m2)
Catwalks for maintenance access 40 (1.92) 300 (1.33)
Corridors
First floor 100 (4.79)
Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated
Dining rooms and restaurants 100 (4.79)a
Dwellings (see Residential)
Elevator machine room grating (on area of 2 in. by 2 in. (50 mm by 300 (1.33)
50 mm))
Finish light floor plate construction (on area of 1 in. by 1 in. (25 mm 200 (0.89)
by 25 mm))
Fire escapes 100 (4.79)
On single-family dwellings only 40 (1.92)
Fixed ladders See Section 4.5
Garages
Passenger vehicles only 40 (1.92)a,b,c
c
Trucks and buses
Handrails, guardrails, and grab bars See Section 4.5
Helipads 60 (2.87)d,e e,f,g

Nonreducible
Hospitals
Operating rooms, laboratories 60 (2.87) 1,000 (4.45)
Patient rooms 40 (1.92) 1,000 (4.45)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 1,000 (4.45)
Hotels (see Residential)
Libraries
Reading rooms 60 (2.87) 1,000 (4.45)
Stack rooms 150 (7.18)a,h 1,000 (4.45)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 1,000 (4.45)
Manufacturing
Light 125 (6.00)a 2,000 (8.90)
Heavy 250 (11.97)a 3,000 (13.40)

Continued

17
CHAPTER 4 LIVE LOADS

Table 4-1 (Continued)

Occupancy or Use Uniform psf (kN/m2) Conc. lb (kN)

Office buildings
File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads based
on anticipated occupancy
Lobbies and first-floor corridors 100 (4.79) 2,000 (8.90)
Offices 50 (2.40) 2,000 (8.90)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 2,000 (8.90)
Penal institutions
Cell blocks 40 (1.92)
Corridors 100 (4.79)

Recreational uses
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar uses 75 (3.59)a
Dance halls and ballrooms 100 (4.79)a
Gymnasiums 100 (4.79)a
Reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleachers 100 (4.79)a,k
Stadiums and arenas with fixed seats (fastened to the floor) 60 (2.87)a,k
Residential
One- and two-family dwellings
Uninhabitable attics without storage 10 (0.48)l
Uninhabitable attics with storage 20 (0.96)m
Habitable attics and sleeping areas 30 (1.44)
All other areas except stairs 40 (1.92)
All other residential occupancies
Private rooms and corridors serving them 40 (1.92)
Public roomsa and corridors serving them 100 (4.79)
Roofs
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs 20 (0.96)n
Roofs used for roof gardens 100 (4.79)
Roofs used for assembly purposes Same as occupancy served
o o
Roofs used for other occupancies
Awnings and canopies
Fabric construction supported by a skeleton structure 5 (0.24) nonreducible 300 (1.33) applied to
skeleton structure
Screen enclosure support frame 5 (0.24) nonreducible and 200 (0.89) applied to
applied to the roof frame supporting roof frame
members only, not the screen members only
All other construction 20 (0.96)
Primary roof members, exposed to a work floor
Single panel point of lower chord of roof trusses or any point 2,000 (8.9)
along primary structural members supporting roofs over
manufacturing, storage warehouses, and repair garages
All other primary roof members 300 (1.33)
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance workers 300 (1.33)
Schools
Classrooms 40 (1.92) 1,000 (4.45)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 1,000 (4.45)
First-floor corridors 100 (4.79) 1,000 (4.45)
Scuttles, skylight ribs, and accessible ceilings 200 (0.89)
a,p
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards subject to trucking 250 (11.97) 8,000 (35.60)q
Stairs and exit ways 100 (4.79) 300r
One- and two-family dwellings only 40 (1.92) 300r

18
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Table 4-1 (Continued)

Occupancy or Use Uniform psf (kN/m2) Conc. lb (kN)

Storage areas above ceilings 20 (0.96)
Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required
for anticipated storage)
Light 125 (6.00)a
Heavy 250 (11.97)a
Stores
Retail
First floor 100 (4.79) 1,000 (4.45)
Upper floors 75 (3.59) 1,000 (4.45)
Wholesale, all floors 125 (6.00)a 1,000 (4.45)

Vehicle barriers See Section 4.5

Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit ways) 60 (2.87)
Yards and terraces, pedestrian 100 (4.79)a
a
Live load reduction for this use is not permitted by Section 4.7 unless specific exceptions apply.
b
Floors in garages or portions of a building used for the storage of motor vehicles shall be designed for the uniformly distributed live loads of
Table 4-1 or the following concentrated load: (1) for garages restricted to passenger vehicles accommodating not more than nine passengers,
3,000 lb (13.35 kN) acting on an area of 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm); and (2) for mechanical parking structures without slab or deck
that are used for storing passenger vehicles only, 2,250 lb (10 kN) per wheel.
c
Design for trucks and buses shall be per AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications; however, provisions for fatigue and dynamic load
allowance are not required to be applied.
d
Uniform load shall be 40 psf (1.92 kN/m2) where the design basis helicopter has a maximum take-off weight of 3,000 lbs (13.35 kN) or less.
This load shall not be reduced.
e
Labeling of helicopter capacity shall be as required by the authority having jurisdiction.
f
Two single concentrated loads, 8 ft (2.44 m) apart shall be applied on the landing area (representing the helicopter’s two main landing gear,
whether skid type or wheeled type), each having a magnitude of 0.75 times the maximum take-off weight of the helicopter and located to
produce the maximum load effect on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated loads shall be applied over an area of 8 in. by
8 in. (200 mm by 200 mm) and shall not be concurrent with other uniform or concentrated live loads.
g
A single concentrated load of 3,000 lbs (13.35 kN) shall be applied over an area 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm), located so as to
produce the maximum load effects on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated load need not be assumed to act concurrently
with other uniform or concentrated live loads.
h
The loading applies to stack room floors that support nonmobile, double-faced library book stacks subject to the following limitations: (1) The
nominal book stack unit height shall not exceed 90 in. (2,290 mm); (2) the nominal shelf depth shall not exceed 12 in. (305 mm) for each face;
and (3) parallel rows of double-faced book stacks shall be separated by aisles not less than 36 in. (914 mm) wide.
k
In addition to the vertical live loads, the design shall include horizontal swaying forces applied to each row of the seats as follows: 24 lb per
linear ft of seat applied in a direction parallel to each row of seats and 10 lb per linear ft of seat applied in a direction perpendicular to each row
of seats. The parallel and perpendicular horizontal swaying forces need not be applied simultaneously.
l
Uninhabitable attic areas without storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joist and rafter is less than 42 in. (1,067 mm),
or where there are not two or more adjacent trusses with web configurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 in. (1,067 mm)
in height by 24 in. (610 mm) in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses. This live load need not be assumed to act concurrently with
any other live load requirement.
m
Uninhabitable attic areas with storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joist and rafter is 42 in. (1,067 mm) or greater, or
where there are two or more adjacent trusses with web configurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 in. (1,067 mm) in
height by 24 in. (610 mm) in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses. At the trusses, the live load need only be applied to those portions
of the bottom chords where both of the following conditions are met:
i. The attic area is accessible from an opening not less than 20 in. (508 mm) in width by 30 in. (762 mm) in length that is located where the
clear height in the attic is a minimum of 30 in. (762 mm); and
ii. The slope of the truss bottom chord is no greater than 2 units vertical to 12 units horizontal (9.5% slope).
The remaining portions of the bottom chords shall be designed for a uniformly distributed nonconcurrent live load of not less than 10 lb/ft2
(0.48 kN/m2).
n
Where uniform roof live loads are reduced to less than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2) in accordance with Section 4.8.1 and are applied to the design of
structural members arranged so as to create continuity, the reduced roof live load shall be applied to adjacent spans or to alternate spans,
whichever produces the greatest unfavorable load effect.
o
Roofs used for other occupancies shall be designed for appropriate loads as approved by the authority having jurisdiction.
p
Other uniform loads in accordance with an approved method, which contains provisions for truck loadings, shall also be considered where appropriate.
q
The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area of 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm).
r
Minimum concentrated load on stair treads (on area of 2 in. by 2 in. [50 mm by 50 mm]) is to be applied nonconcurrent with the uniform load.

19
 Chapter 7
SNOW LOADS

7.1 SYMBOLS designated CS in Fig. 7-1. Ground snow loads for

sites at elevations above the limits indicated in Fig.
Ce = exposure factor as determined from Table 7-2 7-1 and for all sites within the CS areas shall be
Cs = slope factor as determined from Fig. 7-2 approved by the authority having jurisdiction. Ground
Ct = thermal factor as determined from Table 7-3 snow load determination for such sites shall be based
h = vertical separation distance in feet (m) between on an extreme value statistical analysis of data
the edge of a higher roof including any parapet available in the vicinity of the site using a value with
and the edge of a lower adjacent roof excluding a 2 percent annual probability of being exceeded
any parapet (50-year mean recurrence interval).
hb = height of balanced snow load determined by Snow loads are zero for Hawaii, except in
dividing ps by γ, in ft (m) mountainous regions as determined by the authority
hc = clear height from top of balanced snow load to having jurisdiction.
(1) closest point on adjacent upper roof, (2) top
of parapet, or (3) top of a projection on the roof,
in ft (m) 7.3 FLAT ROOF SNOW LOADS, pf
hd = height of snow drift, in ft (m)
ho = height of obstruction above the surface of the The flat roof snow load, pf, shall be calculated in lb/ft2
roof, in ft (m) (kN/m2) using the following formula:
Is = importance factor as prescribed in Section 7.3.3
pf = 0.7CeCt Ispg (7.3-1)
lu = length of the roof upwind of the drift, in ft (m)
pd = maximum intensity of drift surcharge load, in
7.3.1 Exposure Factor, Ce
lb/ft2 (kN/m2)
The value for Ce shall be determined from
pf = snow load on flat roofs (“flat” = roof slope ≤ 5°),
Table 7-2.
in lb/ft2 (kN/m2)
pg = ground snow load as determined from Fig. 7-1
7.3.2 Thermal Factor, Ct
and Table 7-1; or a site-specific analysis, in lb/ft2
The value for Ct shall be determined from
(kN/m2)
Table 7-3.
pm = minimum snow load for low-slope roofs, in lb/ft2
(kN/m2)
7.3.3 Importance Factor, Is
ps = sloped roof (balanced) snow load, in lb/ft2
The value for Is shall be determined from Table
(kN/m2)
1.5-2 based on the Risk Category from Table 1.5-1.
s = horizontal separation distance in feet (m)
between the edges of two adjacent buildings
7.3.4 Minimum Snow Load for Low-Slope Roofs, pm
S = roof slope run for a rise of one
A minimum roof snow load, pm, shall only apply to
θ = roof slope on the leeward side, in degrees
monoslope, hip and gable roofs with slopes less than
w = width of snow drift, in ft (m)
15°, and to curved roofs where the vertical angle from
W = horizontal distance from eave to ridge, in ft (m)
the eaves to the crown is less than 10°. The minimum
γ = snow density, in lb/ft3 (kN/m3) as determined
roof snow load for low-slope roofs shall be obtained
from Eq. 7.7-1
using the following formula:
Where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2) or less:
7.2 GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg
pm = Ispg (Importance Factor times pg)
Ground snow loads, pg, to be used in the determina- Where pg exceeds 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2):
tion of design snow loads for roofs shall be as set
pm = 20 (Is ) (20 lb/ft2 times Importance Factor)
forth in Fig. 7-1 for the contiguous United States and
Table 7-1 for Alaska. Site-specific case studies shall This minimum roof snow load is a separate
be made to determine ground snow loads in areas uniform load case. It need not be used in determining

29
CHAPTER 7 SNOW LOADS

Table 7-1 Ground Snow Loads, pg, for Alaskan Locations

pg pg pg

Location lb/ft2 kN/m2 Location lb/ft2 kN/m2 Location lb/ft2 kN/m2

Adak 30 1.4 Galena 60 2.9 Petersburg 150 7.2
Anchorage 50 2.4 Gulkana 70 3.4 St. Paul 40 1.9
Angoon 70 3.4 Homer 40 1.9 Seward 50 2.4
Barrow 25 1.2 Juneau 60 2.9 Shemya 25 1.2
Barter 35 1.7 Kenai 70 3.4 Sitka 50 2.4
Bethel 40 1.9 Kodiak 30 1.4 Talkeetna 120 5.8
Big Delta 50 2.4 Kotzebue 60 2.9 Unalakleet 50 2.4
Cold Bay 25 1.2 McGrath 70 3.4 Valdez 160 7.7
Cordova 100 4.8 Nenana 80 3.8 Whittier 300 14.4
Fairbanks 60 2.9 Nome 70 3.4 Wrangell 60 2.9
Fort Yukon 60 2.9 Palmer 50 2.4 Yakutat 150 7.2

Table 7-2 Exposure Factor, Ce

Exposure of Roofa

Terrain Category Fully Exposed Partially Exposed Sheltered

B (see Section 26.7) 0.9 1.0 1.2
C (see Section 26.7) 0.9 1.0 1.1
D (see Section 26.7) 0.8 0.9 1.0
Above the treeline in windswept mountainous areas. 0.7 0.8 N/A
In Alaska, in areas where trees do not exist within a 2-mile (3-km) radius of 0.7 0.8 N/A
the site.
The terrain category and roof exposure condition chosen shall be representative of the anticipated conditions during the life of the structure. An
exposure factor shall be determined for each roof of a structure.
a
Definitions: Partially Exposed: All roofs except as indicated in the following text. Fully Exposed: Roofs exposed on all sides with no shelterb
afforded by terrain, higher structures, or trees. Roofs that contain several large pieces of mechanical equipment, parapets that extend above the
height of the balanced snow load (hb), or other obstructions are not in this category. Sheltered: Roofs located tight in among conifers that qualify
as obstructions.
b
Obstructions within a distance of 10ho provide “shelter,” where ho is the height of the obstruction above the roof level. If the only obstructions
are a few deciduous trees that are leafless in winter, the “fully exposed” category shall be used. Note that these are heights above the roof.
Heights used to establish the Exposure Category in Section 26.7 are heights above the ground.

Table 7-3 Thermal Factor, Ct

Thermal Conditiona Ct
All structures except as indicated below 1.0
Structures kept just above freezing and others with cold, ventilated roofs in which the thermal resistance (R-value) 1.1
between the ventilated space and the heated space exceeds 25 °F × h × ft2/Btu (4.4 K × m2/W).
Unheated and open air structures 1.2
Structures intentionally kept below freezing 1.3
b 2
Continuously heated greenhouses with a roof having a thermal resistance (R-value) less than 2.0 °F × h × ft /Btu 0.85
(0.4 K × m2/W)
a
These conditions shall be representative of the anticipated conditions during winters for the life of the structure.
b
Greenhouses with a constantly maintained interior temperature of 50 °F (10 °C) or more at any point 3 ft above the floor level during winters
and having either a maintenance attendant on duty at all times or a temperature alarm system to provide warning in the event of a heating failure.

30
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

or in combination with drift, sliding, unbalanced, or slide off the eaves, the roof slope factor Cs shall be
partial loads. determined using the dashed line on Fig. 7-2c. For
all other cold roofs with Ct = 1.2, the solid line in
Fig. 7-2c shall be used to determine the roof slope
7.4 SLOPED ROOF SNOW LOADS, ps factor Cs.

Snow loads acting on a sloping surface shall be 7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs
assumed to act on the horizontal projection of that Portions of curved roofs having a slope exceeding
surface. The sloped roof (balanced) snow load, ps, 70° shall be considered free of snow load (i.e.,
shall be obtained by multiplying the flat roof snow Cs = 0). Balanced loads shall be determined from the
load, pf, by the roof slope factor, Cs: balanced load diagrams in Fig. 7-3 with Cs determined
ps = Cspf (7.4-1) from the appropriate curve in Fig. 7-2.

Values of Cs for warm roofs, cold roofs, curved roofs, 7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate,
and multiple roofs are determined from Sections 7.4.1 Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs
through 7.4.4. The thermal factor, Ct, from Table 7-3 Multiple folded plate, sawtooth, or barrel vault
determines if a roof is “cold” or “warm.” “Slippery roofs shall have a Cs = 1.0, with no reduction in snow
surface” values shall be used only where the roof’s load because of slope (i.e., ps = pf).
surface is unobstructed and sufficient space is avail-
able below the eaves to accept all the sliding snow. A 7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves
roof shall be considered unobstructed if no objects Two types of warm roofs that drain water over
exist on it that prevent snow on it from sliding. their eaves shall be capable of sustaining a uniformly
Slippery surfaces shall include metal, slate, glass, and distributed load of 2pf on all overhanging portions:
bituminous, rubber, and plastic membranes with a those that are unventilated and have an R-value less
smooth surface. Membranes with an imbedded than 30 ft2 hr °F/Btu (5.3 °C m2/W) and those that are
aggregate or mineral granule surface shall not be ventilated and have an R-value less than 20 ft2 hr °F/
considered smooth. Asphalt shingles, wood shingles, Btu (3.5 °C m2/W). The load on the overhang shall be
and shakes shall not be considered slippery. based upon the flat roof snow load for the heated
7.4.1 Warm Roof Slope Factor, Cs portion of the roof up-slope of the exterior wall. No
For warm roofs (Ct ≤ 1.0 as determined from other loads except dead loads shall be present on the
Table 7-3) with an unobstructed slippery surface that roof when this uniformly distributed load is applied.
will allow snow to slide off the eaves, the roof slope
factor Cs shall be determined using the dashed line in 7.5 PARTIAL LOADING
Fig. 7-2a, provided that for nonventilated warm roofs,
their thermal resistance (R-value) equals or exceeds The effect of having selected spans loaded with the
30 ft2 hr °F/Btu (5.3 °C m2/W) and for warm venti- balanced snow load and remaining spans loaded with
lated roofs, their R-value equals or exceeds 20 ft2 hr half the balanced snow load shall be investigated as
°F/Btu (3.5 °C m2/W). Exterior air shall be able to follows:
circulate freely under a ventilated roof from its eaves
to its ridge. For warm roofs that do not meet the 7.5.1 Continuous Beam Systems
aforementioned conditions, the solid line in Fig. 7-2a Continuous beam systems shall be investigated
shall be used to determine the roof slope factor Cs. for the effects of the three loadings shown in Fig. 7-4:
7.4.2 Cold Roof Slope Factor, Cs Case 1: Full balanced snow load on either exterior span
Cold roofs are those with a Ct > 1.0 as deter- and half the balanced snow load on all other spans.
mined from Table 7-3. For cold roofs with Ct = 1.1 Case 2: Half the balanced snow load on either exterior
and an unobstructed slippery surface that will allow span and full balanced snow load on all other spans.
snow to slide off the eaves, the roof slope factor Cs Case 3: All possible combinations of full balanced
shall be determined using the dashed line in Fig. 7-2b. snow load on any two adjacent spans and half the
For all other cold roofs with Ct = 1.1, the solid line in balanced snow load on all other spans. For this
Fig. 7-2b shall be used to determine the roof slope case there will be (n –1) possible combinations
factor Cs. For cold roofs with Ct = 1.2 and an unob- where n equals the number of spans in the continu-
structed slippery surface that will allow snow to ous beam system.

31
CHAPTER 7 SNOW LOADS

If a cantilever is present in any of the above cases, it at the 30° point value. This distribution is shown as a
shall be considered to be a span. dashed line in Fig. 7-3.
Partial load provisions need not be applied to
structural members that span perpendicular to the 7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded
ridgeline in gable roofs with slopes of 2.38˚ (½ on 12) Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs
and greater. Unbalanced loads shall be applied to folded plate,
sawtooth, and barrel-vaulted multiple roofs with a
7.5.2 Other Structural Systems slope exceeding 3/8 in./ft (1.79°). According to
Areas sustaining only half the balanced snow load Section 7.4.4, Cs = 1.0 for such roofs, and the
shall be chosen so as to produce the greatest effects balanced snow load equals pf. The unbalanced snow
on members being analyzed. load shall increase from one-half the balanced load at
the ridge or crown (i.e., 0.5pf) to two times the
balanced load given in Section 7.4.4 divided by Ce at
7.6 UNBALANCED ROOF SNOW LOADS the valley (i.e., 2pf/Ce). Balanced and unbalanced
loading diagrams for a sawtooth roof are presented in
Balanced and unbalanced loads shall be analyzed Fig. 7-6. However, the snow surface above the valley
separately. Winds from all directions shall be shall not be at an elevation higher than the snow
accounted for when establishing unbalanced loads. above the ridge. Snow depths shall be determined by
dividing the snow load by the density of that snow
7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and
from Eq. 7.7-1, which is in Section 7.7.1.
Gable Roofs
For hip and gable roofs with a slope exceeding 7 7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs
on 12 (30.2°) or with a slope less than 2.38° (½ on Unbalanced snow loads shall be applied to domes
12) unbalanced snow loads are not required to be and similar rounded structures. Snow loads, deter-
applied. Roofs with an eave to ridge distance, W, of mined in the same manner as for curved roofs in
20 ft (6.1 m) or less, having simply supported Section 7.6.2, shall be applied to the downwind 90°
prismatic members spanning from ridge to eave shall sector in plan view. At both edges of this sector, the
be designed to resist an unbalanced uniform snow load shall decrease linearly to zero over sectors of
load on the leeward side equal to Ipg. For these roofs 22.5° each. There shall be no snow load on the
the windward side shall be unloaded. For all other remaining 225° upwind sector.
gable roofs, the unbalanced load shall consist of 0.3ps
on the windward side, ps on the leeward side plus a
rectangular surcharge with magnitude hdγ/ S and 7.7 DRIFTS ON LOWER ROOFS
horizontal extent from the ridge 8 Shd / 3 where hd is (AERODYNAMIC SHADE)
the drift height from Fig. 7-9 with lu equal to the eave
to ridge distance for the windward portion of the roof, Roofs shall be designed to sustain localized loads
W. For W less than 20 ft (6.1 m), use W = lu = 20 ft in from snowdrifts that form in the wind shadow of
Fig 7-9. Balanced and unbalanced loading diagrams (1) higher portions of the same structure and
are presented in Fig. 7-5. (2) adjacent structures and terrain features.

7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs 7.7.1 Lower Roof of a Structure
Portions of curved roofs having a slope exceeding Snow that forms drifts comes from a higher roof
70° shall be considered free of snow load. If the slope or, with the wind from the opposite direction, from the
of a straight line from the eaves (or the 70° point, if roof on which the drift is located. These two kinds of
present) to the crown is less than 10° or greater than drifts (“leeward” and “windward” respectively) are
60°, unbalanced snow loads shall not be taken into shown in Fig. 7-7. The geometry of the surcharge load
account. due to snow drifting shall be approximated by a
Unbalanced loads shall be determined according triangle as shown in Fig. 7-8. Drift loads shall be
to the loading diagrams in Fig. 7-3. In all cases the superimposed on the balanced snow load. If hc/hb is
windward side shall be considered free of snow. If the less than 0.2, drift loads are not required to be applied.
ground or another roof abuts a Case II or Case III (see For leeward drifts, the drift height hd shall be
Fig. 7-3) curved roof at or within 3 ft (0.91 m) of its determined directly from Fig. 7-9 using the length of
eaves, the snow load shall not be decreased between the upper roof. For windward drifts, the drift height
the 30° point and the eaves, but shall remain constant shall be determined by substituting the length of the

32
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

lower roof for lu in Fig. 7-9 and using three-quarters of other (i.e., nonslippery) upper roofs with slopes
hd as determined from Fig. 7-9 as the drift height. The greater than 2 on 12. The total sliding load per unit
larger of these two heights shall be used in design. If length of eave shall be 0.4pfW, where W is the
this height is equal to or less than hc, the drift width, horizontal distance from the eave to ridge for the
w, shall equal 4hd and the drift height shall equal hd. If sloped upper roof. The sliding load shall be distrib-
this height exceeds hc, the drift width, w, shall equal uted uniformly on the lower roof over a distance of
4hd2/hc and the drift height shall equal hc. However, 15 ft (4.6 m) from the upper roof eave. If the width of
the drift width, w, shall not be greater than 8hc. If the the lower roof is less than 15 ft (4.6 m), the sliding
drift width, w, exceeds the width of the lower roof, the load shall be reduced proportionally.
drift shall be truncated at the far edge of the roof, not The sliding snow load shall not be further
reduced to zero there. The maximum intensity of the reduced unless a portion of the snow on the upper
drift surcharge load, pd, equals hdγ where snow roof is blocked from sliding onto the lower roof by
density, γ, is defined in Eq. 7.7-1: snow already on the lower roof.
For separated structures, sliding loads shall be
γ = 0.13pg + 14 but not more than 30 pcf (7.7-1)
considered when h/s > 1 and s < 15 ft (4.6 m). The
(in SI: γ = 0.426pg + 2.2, but not more than 4.7 kN/m3) horizontal extent of the sliding load on the lower roof
This density shall also be used to determine hb by shall be 15 – s with s in feet (4.6 – s with s in meters),
dividing ps by γ (in SI: also multiply by 102 to get the and the load per unit length shall be 0.4 pf W (15 – s)/15
depth in m). with s in feet (0.4pfW (4.6 – s)/4.6 with s in meters).
Sliding loads shall be superimposed on the
7.7.2 Adjacent Structures balanced snow load and need not be used in combina-
If the horizontal separation distance between tion with drift, unbalanced, partial, or rain-on-snow
adjacent structures, s, is less than 20 ft (6.1 m) and less loads.
than six times the vertical separation distance (s < 6h),
then the requirements for the leeward drift of Section 7.10 RAIN-ON-SNOW SURCHARGE LOAD
7.7.1 shall be used to determine the drift load on the
lower structure. The height of the snow drift shall be For locations where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2) or
the smaller of hd, based upon the length of the adjacent less, but not zero, all roofs with slopes (in degrees)
higher structure, and (6h – s)/6. The horizontal extent less than W/50 with W in ft (in SI: W/15.2 with W in
of the drift shall be the smaller of 6hd or (6h – s). m) shall include a 5 lb/ft2 (0.24 kN/m2) rain-on-snow
For windward drifts, the requirements of Section surcharge load. This additional load applies only to
7.7.1 shall be used. The resulting drift is permitted to the sloped roof (balanced) load case and need not be
be truncated. used in combination with drift, sliding, unbalanced,
minimum, or partial loads.
7.8 ROOF PROJECTIONS AND PARAPETS
7.11 PONDING INSTABILITY
The method in Section 7.7.1 shall be used to calculate
drift loads on all sides of roof projections and at parapet Roofs shall be designed to preclude ponding instabil-
walls. The height of such drifts shall be taken as ity. For roofs with a slope less than ¼ in./ft (1.19˚)
three-quarters the drift height from Fig. 7-9 (i.e., and roofs where water can be impounded, roof
0.75hd). For parapet walls, lu shall be taken equal to the deflections caused by full snow loads shall be evalu-
length of the roof upwind of the wall. For roof projec- ated when determining the likelihood of ponding
tions, lu shall be taken equal to the greater of the length instability (see Section 8.4).
of the roof upwind or downwind of the projection. If the
side of a roof projection is less than 15 ft (4.6 m) long, a
7.12 EXISTING ROOFS
drift load is not required to be applied to that side.
Existing roofs shall be evaluated for increased snow
7.9 SLIDING SNOW loads caused by additions or alterations. Owners or
agents for owners of an existing lower roof shall be
The load caused by snow sliding off a sloped roof advised of the potential for increased snow loads
onto a lower roof shall be determined for slippery where a higher roof is constructed within 20 ft
upper roofs with slopes greater than ¼ on 12, and for (6.1 m). See footnote to Table 7-2 and Section 7.7.2.

33
CHAPTER 7 SNOW LOADS

FIGURE 7-1 Ground Snow Loads, Pg, for the United States (Lb/Ft2).

34
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

FIGURE 7-1. (Continued)

35
36
CHAPTER 7
SNOW LOADS

FIGURE 7-2 Graphs for Determining Roof Slope Factor Cs, for Warm and Cold Roofs (See Table 7-3 for Ct Definitions).
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

FIGURE 7-3 Balanced and Unbalanced Loads for Curved Roofs.

37
CHAPTER 7 SNOW LOADS

FIGURE 7-4 Partial Loading Diagrams for Continuous Beams.

38
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

1
S

Balanced ps

Unbalanced
W < 20 ft with I * pg
roof rafter system
8
hd S
3

hdγ S
0.3 ps
Unbalanced ps
Other

Note: Unbalanced loads need not be considered

for θ > 30.2° (7 on 12) or for θ ≤ 2.38° (1/2 on 12).

FIGURE 7-5 Balanced and Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs.

39
CHAPTER 7 SNOW LOADS

Balanced pf
Load 0

2 pf/Ce∗
Unbalanced
Load
0

0.5 p f
* May be somewhat less; see Section 7.6.3

FIGURE 7-6 Balanced and Unbalanced Snow Loads for a Sawtooth Roof.

FIGURE 7-7 Drifts Formed at Windward and Leeward Steps.

40
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

FIGURE 7-8 Configuration of Snow Drifts on Lower Roofs.

FIGURE 7-9 Graph and Equation for Determining Drift Height, hd.

41
CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

Table 1.5-1 Risk Category of Buildings and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow, Earthquake,
and Ice Loads

Use or Occupancy of Buildings and Structures Risk Category

Buildings and other structures that represent a low risk to human life in the event of failure I

All buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III, and IV II

Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial risk to human life. III
Buildings and other structures, not included in Risk Category IV, with potential to cause a substantial
economic impact and/or mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life in the event of failure.
Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that
manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous
chemicals, hazardous waste, or explosives) containing toxic or explosive substances where their quantity
exceeds a threshold quantity established by the authority having jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a threat
to the public if released.

Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities. IV

Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could pose a substantial hazard to the community.
Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store,
use, or dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing
sufficient quantities of highly toxic substances where the quantity exceeds a threshold quantity established by
the authority having jurisdiction to be dangerous to the public if released and is sufficient to pose a threat to
the public if released.a
Buildings and other structures required to maintain the functionality of other Risk Category IV structures.
a
Buildings and other structures containing toxic, highly toxic, or explosive substances shall be eligible for classification to a lower Risk Category
if it can be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the authority having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as described in Section 1.5.2 that a
release of the substances is commensurate with the risk associated with that Risk Category.

exceed the member design strength (also called “load R Rain load.
and resistance factor design”). S Snow load.
TEMPORARY FACILITIES: Buildings or
other structures that are to be in service for a limited
time and have a limited exposure period for environ- 1.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS
mental loadings.
TOXIC SUBSTANCE: As defined in 29 CFR 1.3.1 Strength and Stiffness
1910.1200 Appendix A with Amendments as of Buildings and other structures, and all parts
February 1, 2000. thereof, shall be designed and constructed with
adequate strength and stiffness to provide structural
1.1.2 Symbols and Notations stability, protect nonstructural components and
systems from unacceptable damage, and meet the
Fx A minimum design lateral force applied to level
serviceability requirements of Section 1.3.2.
x of the structure and used for purposes of
Acceptable strength shall be demonstrated using
evaluating structural integrity in accordance with
one or more of the following procedures:
Section 1.4.2.
Wx The portion of the total dead load of the struc- a. the Strength Procedures of Section 1.3.1.1,
ture, D, located or assigned to Level x. b. the Allowable Stress Procedures of Section 1.3.1.2,
D Dead load. or
L Live load. c. subject to the approval of the authority
Lr Roof live load. having jurisdiction for individual projects,
N Notional load used to evaluate conformance with the Performance-Based Procedures of Section
minimum structural integrity criteria. 1.3.1.3.

2
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

for each beam, girder, or truss either directly to its the purposes of applying flood, wind, snow, earth-
supporting elements or to slabs designed to act as quake, and ice provisions. Each building or other
diaphragms. Where the connection is through a structure shall be assigned to the highest applicable
diaphragm, the member’s supporting element shall risk category or categories. Minimum design loads for
also be connected to the diaphragm. The connection structures shall incorporate the applicable importance
shall have the strength to resist a force of 5 percent of factors given in Table 1.5-2, as required by other
the unfactored dead load plus live load reaction sections of this Standard. Assignment of a building or
imposed by the supported member on the supporting other structure to multiple risk categories based on the
member. type of load condition being evaluated (e.g., snow or
seismic) shall be permitted.
1.4.5 Anchorage of Structural Walls When the building code or other referenced
Walls that provide vertical load bearing or lateral standard specifies an Occupancy Category, the Risk
shear resistance for a portion of the structure shall be Category shall not be taken as lower than the Occu-
anchored to the roof and all floors and members that pancy Category specified therein.
provide lateral support for the wall or that are
supported by the wall. The anchorage shall provide a 1.5.2 Multiple Risk Categories
direct connection between the walls and the roof or Where buildings or other structures are divided
floor construction. The connections shall be capable into portions with independent structural systems, the
of resisting a strength level horizontal force perpen- classification for each portion shall be permitted to be
dicular to the plane of the wall equal to 0.2 times the determined independently. Where building systems,
weight of the wall tributary to the connection, but not such as required egress, HVAC, or electrical power,
less than 5 psf (0.24 kN/m2). for a portion with a higher risk category pass through
or depend on other portions of the building or other
1.4.6 Extraordinary Loads and Events structure having a lower risk category, those portions
When considered, design for resistance to shall be assigned to the higher risk category.
extraordinary loads and events shall be in accordance
with the procedures of Section 2.5. 1.5.3 Toxic, Highly Toxic, and Explosive Substances
Buildings and other structures containing toxic,
highly toxic, or explosive substances are permitted to
1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS AND be classified as Risk Category II structures if it can be
OTHER STRUCTURES demonstrated to the satisfaction of the authority
having jurisdiction by a hazard assessment as part of
1.5.1 Risk Categorization an overall risk management plan (RMP) that a release
Buildings and other structures shall be classified, of the toxic, highly toxic, or explosive substances is
based on the risk to human life, health, and welfare not sufficient to pose a threat to the public.
associated with their damage or failure by nature of To qualify for this reduced classification, the
their occupancy or use, according to Table 1.5-1 for owner or operator of the buildings or other structures

Table 1.5-2 Importance Factors by Risk Category of Buildings and Other Structures for Snow, Ice, and
Earthquake Loadsa

Risk Category Snow Importance Ice Importance Ice Importance Seismic Importance
from Factor, Factor—Thickness, Factor—Wind, Factor,
Table 1.5-1 Is Ii Iw Ie
I 0.80 0.80 1.00 1.00
II 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
III 1.10 1.25 1.00 1.25
IV 1.20 1.25 1.00 1.50
a
The component importance factor, Ip, applicable to earthquake loads, is not included in this table because it is dependent on the importance of
the individual component rather than that of the building as a whole, or its occupancy. Refer to Section 13.1.3.

5
 BEAM DESIGN FORMULAS
WITH SHEAR AND MOMENT
DIAGRAMS
2005 EDITION
ANSI/AF&PA NDS-2005
Approval Date: JANUARY 6, 2005

ASD/LRFD

N DS
®

NATIONAL DESIGN SPECIFICATION®

FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION

WITH COMMENTARY AND

SUPPLEMENT: DESIGN VALUES FOR WOOD CONSTRUCTION

American
ᐉ Forest &
x Paper
Association
wᐉ

American Wood Council

R R
ood Council

ᐉ ᐉ
2 2
V

Shear V
Wood
American W

Mmax

Moment

American
Forest &
Paper
DESIGN AID No. 6 Association
 BEAM FORMULAS WITH
SHEAR AND MOMENT
DIAGRAMS

The American Wood Council (AWC) is part of the wood products group of the
American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA). AF&PA is the national trade
association of the forest, paper, and wood products industry, representing member
companies engaged in growing, harvesting, and processing wood and wood fiber,
manufacturing pulp, paper, and paperboard products from both virgin and recycled
fiber, and producing engineered and traditional wood products. For more information
see www.afandpa.org.

While every effort has been made to insure the accuracy

of the information presented, and special effort has been
made to assure that the information reflects the state-of-
the-art, neither the American Forest & Paper Association
nor its members assume any responsibility for any
particular design prepared from this publication. Those
using this document assume all liability from its use.

Copyright © 2007
American Forest & Paper Association, Inc.

American Wood Council

1111 19th St., NW, Suite 800
Washington, DC 20036
202-463-4713
[email protected]
www.awc.org
AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
Introduction
Introduction Notations Relative to “Shear and Moment
Diagrams”
Figures 1 through 32 provide a series of shear
and moment diagrams with accompanying formulas E = modulus of elasticity, psi
for design of beams under various static loading I = moment of inertia, in.4
conditions. L = span length of the bending member, ft.
Shear and moment diagrams and formulas are R = span length of the bending member, in.
excerpted from the Western Woods Use Book, 4th M= maximum bending moment, in.-lbs.
edition, and are provided herein as a courtesy of P = total concentrated load, lbs.
Western Wood Products Association. R = reaction load at bearing point, lbs.
V = shear force, lbs.
W= total uniform load, lbs.
w = load per unit length, lbs./in.
Δ = deflection or deformation, in.
x = horizontal distance from reaction to point
on beam, in.
List of Figures
Figures
Figure 1 Simple Beam – Uniformly Distributed Load ................................................................................................ 4
Figure 2 Simple Beam – Uniform Load Partially Distributed..................................................................................... 4
Figure 3 Simple Beam – Uniform Load Partially Distributed at One End .................................................................. 5
Figure 4 Simple Beam – Uniform Load Partially Distributed at Each End ................................................................ 5
Figure 5 Simple Beam – Load Increasing Uniformly to One End .............................................................................. 6
Figure 6 Simple Beam – Load Increasing Uniformly to Center .................................................................................. 6
Figure 7 Simple Beam – Concentrated Load at Center ............................................................................................... 7
Figure 8 Simple Beam – Concentrated Load at Any Point.......................................................................................... 7
Figure 9 Simple Beam – Two Equal Concentrated Loads Symmetrically Placed....................................................... 8
Figure 10 Simple Beam – Two Equal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically Placed .................................................. 8
Figure 11 Simple Beam – Two Unequal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically Placed .............................................. 9
Figure 12 Cantilever Beam – Uniformly Distributed Load ........................................................................................... 9
Figure 13 Cantilever Beam – Concentrated Load at Free End .................................................................................... 10
Figure 14 Cantilever Beam – Concentrated Load at Any Point .................................................................................. 10
Figure 15 Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other – Uniformly Distributed Load ............................................. 11
Figure 16 Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other – Concentrated Load at Center ........................................... 11
Figure 17 Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other – Concentrated Load at Any Point ..................................... 12
Figure 18 Beam Overhanging One Support – Uniformly Distributed Load ............................................................... 12
Figure 19 Beam Overhanging One Support – Uniformly Distributed Load on Overhang ......................................... 13
Figure 20 Beam Overhanging One Support – Concentrated Load at End of Overhang ............................................. 13
Figure 21 Beam Overhanging One Support – Concentrated Load at Any Point Between Supports ........................... 14
Figure 22 Beam Overhanging Both Supports – Unequal Overhangs – Uniformly Distributed Load ......................... 14
Figure 23 Beam Fixed at Both Ends – Uniformly Distributed Load ........................................................................... 15
Figure 24 Beam Fixed at Both Ends – Concentrated Load at Center .......................................................................... 15
Figure 25 Beam Fixed at Both Ends – Concentrated Load at Any Point .................................................................... 16
Figure 26 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Uniform Load on One Span ....................................................... 16
Figure 27 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Concentrated Load at Center of One Span ................................. 17
Figure 28 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Concentrated Load at Any Point ................................................ 17
Figure 29 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Uniformly Distributed Load ....................................................... 18
Figure 30 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Two Equal Concentrated Loads Symmetrically Placed ............. 18
Figure 31 Continuous Beam – Two Unequal Spans – Uniformly Distributed Load ................................................... 19
Figure 32 Continuous Beam – Two Unequal Spans – Concentrated Load on Each Span Symmetrically Placed ..... 19

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

Figure 1 Simple Beam – Uniformly Distributed Load

ᐉ
x
wᐉ

R R

ᐉ ᐉ
2 2
V

Shear V

Mmax

Moment

7-36 A
Figure 2 Simple Beam – Uniform Load Partially Distributed

ᐉ
a b c
wb

R1 R2

V1
Shear
V2

R
a + —1
w

Mmax

Moment

7-36 B

AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL

Figure 3 Simple Beam – Uniform Load Partially Distributed at One End

ᐉ
a
wa

R1 R2

x
V1
Shear

V2

R
—1
w

Mmax

Moment

Figure 4 7-37 ASimple Beam – Uniform Load Partially Distributed at Each End

ᐉ
a b c
w1a
w2c

R1 R2

V1

V2
Shear

R1
—
w1

Mmax

Moment

7-37 B

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

Figure 5 Simple Beam – Load Increasing Uniformly to One End

x
W

R1 R2

.57741

V1
Shear
V2

Mmax

Moment

Figure 6 Simple Beam – Load Increasing Uniformly to Center

7-38 A

ᐉ
x
W

R R
ᐉ ᐉ
2 2

V
Shear
V

Mmax

Moment

7-38 B

AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL

Figure 7 Simple Beam – Concentrated Load at Center

x P

R R

ᐉ ᐉ
2 2

V
Shear
V

Mmax

Moment

Figure 8 Simple Beam – Concentrated Load at Any Point

7-39 A

x P

R1 R2

a b

V1
V2
Shear

Mmax

Moment

7-39-b AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

Figure 9 Simple Beam – Two Equal Concentrated Loads Symmetrically Placed

x P P

R R

a a

V
Shear V

Mmax

Moment

Figure 10 7-40 A Simple Beam – Two Equal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically

Placed

x P P

R1 R2

a b

V1

Shear V2

M2
M1

Moment

7-40 B AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL

Figure 11 Simple Beam – Two Unequal Concentrated Loads Unsymmetrically
Placed

ᐉ
P1 P2
x

R1 R2

a b

V1
Shear V2

M1 M2

Moment

Figure 12 Cantilever Beam – Uniformly Distributed Load

7-41-a
wᐉ

V
Shear

Mmax
Moment

7-41- B

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

Figure 13 Cantilever Beam – Concentrated Load at Free End

Shear

Mmax
Moment

Figure 14 7-42 A
Cantilever Beam – Concentrated Load at Any Point

x P

a b

Shear V

Mmax
Moment

7-42-b
AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
Figure 15 Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other – Uniformly Distributed
Load

wᐉ

R2
R1

V1
Shear
V2

3
ᐉ
8
ᐉ
—
4
M1

Mmax

Figure 16 Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other – Concentrated Load at

Center
7-43 A

x P
R2
R1

ᐉ ᐉ
2 2

V1
Shear V2

M1

M2

3
—ᐉ
11

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

7-43 B
Figure 17 Beam Fixed at One End, Supported at Other – Concentrated Load at
Any Point

x P

R2
R1

a b

V1
Shear V2

M1

Moment M2
Pa
—
R2

Figure 18 Beam Overhanging One Support – Uniformly Distributed Load

ᐉ 7-44 A a

x x1
w(ᐉ+ a)

R1 R2

ᐉ (1 – a 2 )
2 ᐉ2

V1 V2

V3
Shear

M1
Moment
M2
a2 )
ᐉ (1 –
ᐉ2

7-44 B
AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL
Figure 19 Beam Overhanging One Support – Uniformly Distributed Load on
Overhang

ᐉ a

x x1
wa

R1 R2

V2

V1
Shear

Mmax
Moment

7-45 A

Figure 20 Beam Overhanging One Support – Concentrated Load at End of

Overhang

ᐉ a
x x1
P

R1 R2

V2

V1
Shear

Mmax
Moment

7-45 B

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

Figure 21 Beam Overhanging One Support – Concentrated Load at Any Point
Between Supports

x x1

R1 R2

a b

V1

V2
Shear

Mmax

Moment

Figure 22 Beam
7-46 A Overhanging Both Supports – Unequal Overhangs – Uniformly
Distributed Load

wᐉ

R1 R2
ᐉ
a b c

V2 V4
V1 V3
X
X1
M3
Mx 1
M1
M2

7-46 B

AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL

Figure 23 Beam Fixed at Both Ends – Uniformly Distributed Load

ᐉ
x
wᐉ

R R

ᐉ ᐉ
2 2

V
Shear
V

.2113 ᐉ

M1
Moment Mmax

7-47 A
Figure 24 Beam Fixed at Both Ends – Concentrated Load at Center

ᐉ
x
P

R R

ᐉ ᐉ
2 2

V
Shear
V

ᐉ
4

Mmax
Moment Mmax

7-47 B

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

Figure 25 Beam Fixed at Both Ends – Concentrated Load at Any Point

ᐉ
x
P

R1 R2

a b

V1

Shear V2

Ma

M1 Moment
M2

7-48 A
Figure 26 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Uniform Load on One Span

wᐉ

R1 R2 R3

ᐉ ᐉ
V1
V2 Shear V3
7ᐉ
16

Mmax

M1
Moment

7-48 B

AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL

Figure 27 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Concentrated Load at Center
of One Span

ᐉ ᐉ
2 2
P

R1 R2 R3

ᐉ ᐉ
V1 V3
V2 Shear

Mmax

M1
Moment

7-49 A

Figure 28 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Concentrated Load at Any

Point

a b

R1 R2 R3

ᐉ ᐉ

V1
V3
V2 Shear

Mmax
Moment
M1

7-49 B

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

Figure 29 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Uniformly Distributed Load

wl wl

R1 R2 R3
l l

V1 V2
V2 V3
3l/8 3l/8

M2

M1

Δ max
0.4215 l 0.4215 l

7-50 A

Figure 30 Continuous Beam – Two Equal Spans – Two Equal Concentrated Loads
Symmetrically Placed

P P

R1 R2 R3

a a a a

V1 V2
V3 V2

x
Mx M2

M1

l l

AMERICAN WOOD COUNCIL

Figure 31 Continuous Beam – Two Unequal Spans – Uniformly Distributed Load

w l1 w l2

R1 R2 R3

l l
1 2

V1 V3
V4
V2

x1 x2

Mx1 Mx2

M1

Figure 32 Continuous Beam – Two Unequal Spans – Concentrated Load on Each

Span Symmetrically Placed

P1 P2

R1 R2 R3
l l
1 2

a a b b

V3
V1
V2 V4

Mm
1 M m2
M1

AMERICAN FOREST & PAPER ASSOCIATION

American FForest
orest & P aper Association
Paper A F & P A®
American W ood Council
Wood
1111 19th S tree
Stree t, NW
treet,
Suite 800
Suite
Washingt on, DC 20036
ashington,
Phone: 202-463-4 713
202-463-47
Fax: 202-463-279
202-463-279
7911
awcinf [email protected]
[email protected]
www
www.a.awc.org
.aw 11-07
 1/27/20

STRUCTURAL
CONNECTIONS,
REACTIONS,
AND SUPPORTS

1
 1/27/20

2
 1/27/20

3
 1/27/20

4
 1/27/20

10

5
 1/27/20

11

12

6
3
Building Codes
Purpose:
• Establish standards to minimize accidents/claims. (Driven by the insurance
industry)
• Eliminate squalor & impacts on health. (Social considerations)
• Regulations that deliver health & safety to taxpayers. (Established by local
governments)
• Mitigate loss of life & property based on public demand. (Spurred by losses
incurred during disastrous events)
• Specify the minimum legal design & construction requirements for a given
jurisdiction.
Who develops codes?
• International Code Council (ICC)
• American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
• American Concrete Institute (ACI)
• American Wood Council & USDA -> National Design Specs (NDS)
• Government & Jurisdictional Authorities
• For bridges and roads: American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Construction Code Considerations

Planning & Zoning

Local Ordinances

Infrastructure
Type

Underground Hydraulic
Bidges Buildings
Structures Structures

Building Type &

Classiication
ICC

Loading
Conditions
ASCE

Sections (floor,
roof, etc)

Components
(beams, columns)
& connections
AISC, ACI, AWD
Structural Loading
Common Load Types (ASCE 7):
D = dead load
L = live load
Lr = roof live load
S = snow load
W = wind load
E = earthquake load
R = nominal load due to initial rainwater or ice exclusive of ponding contribution
Load Combinations – Evaluate all relevant options, choose highest value load
combination (most critical scenario).
Per Allowable Stress Design (ASD):
1. D
2. D+L
3. D + (Lr or S or R)
4. D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
5. D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
6. D + 0.75L +0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
7. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.7E) + 0.7S
8. 0.6D + 0.6W
9. 0.6D + 0.7E
Per Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD):
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.5W)
4. 1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S
6. 0.9D + 1.0W
7. 0.9D + 1.0E
Risk Category Designations 1604.5

http://publicecodes.cyberregs.com/icod/ibc/2012/icod_ibc_2012_16_par023.htm

1604.5 Risk category.

Each building and structure shall be assigned a risk category in accordance with Table 1604.5. Where a
referenced standard specifies an occupancy category, the risk category shall not be taken as lower than the
occupancy category specified therein.

TABLE 1604.5 RISK CATEGORY OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER STRUCTURES

RISK
NATURE OF OCCUPANCY
CATEGORY
Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of
failure, including but not limited to:
I • Agricultural facilities.
• Certain temporary facilities.
• Minor storage facilities.
II Buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk Categories I, III and IV
Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human life in the
event of failure, including but not limited to:
• Buildings and other structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly with an
occupant load greater than 300.
• Buildings and other structures containing elementary school, secondary school or day
care facilities with an occupa load greater than 250.
• Buildings and other structures containing adult education facilities, such as colleges
and universities, with an occupant load greater than 500.
• Group I-2 occupancies with an occupant load of 50 or more resident care recipients
but not having surgery or emergency treatment facilities.
III
• Group I-3 occupancies.
• Any other occupancy with an occupant load greater than 5,000a.
• Power-generating stations, water treatment facilities for potable water, waste water
treatment facilities and other public utility facilities not included in Risk Category IV.
• Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category IV containing quantities
of toxic or explosive materials that:
Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table 307.1(1) or
307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in accordance with the International Fire Code;
and
Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if releasedb.
Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities, including but not limited
to:
• Group I-2 occupancies having surgery or emergency treatment facilities.
• Fire, rescue, ambulance and police stations and emergency vehicle garages.
• Designated earthquake, hurricane or other emergency shelters.
• Designated emergency preparedness, communications and operations centers and
IV
other facilities required for emergency response.
• Power-generating stations and other public utility facilities required as emergency
backup facilities for Risk Category IV structures.
• Buildings and other structures containing quantities of highly toxic materials that:
Exceed maximum allowable quantities per control area as given in Table
307.1(2) or per outdoor control area in accordance with the International Fire Code;
 and
Are sufficient to pose a threat to the public if releasedb.
• Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers and emergency aircraft hangars.
• Buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions.
• Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain water pressure for
fire suppression.

a. For purposes of occupant load calculation, occupancies required by Table 1004.1.2 to use gross floor area
calculations shall be permitted to use net floor areas to determine the total occupant load.
b. Where approved by the building official, the classification of buildings and other structures as Risk Category
III or IV based on their quantities of toxic, highly toxic or explosive materials is permitted to be reduced to Risk
Category II, provided it can be demonstrated by a hazard assessment in accordance with Section 1.5.3 of ASCE
7 that a release of the toxic, highly toxic or explosive materials is not sufficient to pose a threat to the public.