Semiconductor Physics and

Computational Methods
(21PYB102J)

Course Instructor: Dr. Venkata Ravindra A

Assistant Professor
Department of Physics and Nanotechnology
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 8019448666
13 February 2023 Office: UB-709/A 1
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

The free electron theory of materials is to explain the structure and

properties of solids through their electronic structure.

▪It also gives information about bonding in solids, energy levels in

metals and cohesive & repulsive forces in metals.

Development of Free Electron Theory

1. The classical free electron theory (Drude and Lorentz Model)

2. The quantum free electron theory (Sommerfeld Model)

3. Band Theory (Brillouin Zone Theory)

 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

1. The Classical free electron theory [Drude and Lorentz]

It is a macroscopic theory, through which free electrons in lattice and
it obeys the laws of classical mechanics. Here the electrons are
assumed to move in a constant potential.

2. The Quantum free electron theory [Sommerfeld Theory]

It is a microscopic theory, according to this theory the electrons in
lattice moves in a constant potential and it obeys law of quantum
mechanics.

3. Brillouin Zone Theory [Band Theory]

Bloch developed this theory in which the electrons move in a periodic
potential provided by periodicity of crystal lattice. It explains the
mechanisms of conductivity, semiconductivity on the basis of energy
bands.
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

Drude Theory
According to kinetic theory of gases in a metal, Drude assumed
free electrons are as a gas of electrons.
This theory initially proposed by Drude in 1900
It’s the first theory to explain the electrical conduction in
conducting materials and reveals that free electrons are responsible
for the electrical conduction.
Free electrons
In certain metals especially in Cu, Ag and Al valence
electrons are so weakly attached to the nuclei they can be easily
removed or detached such electrons are called as free electrons.

But all the valence electrons in the metals are not free electrons.
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

Concept of Classical Free electron Theory

• According to this theory, metals consists of positive ions fixed in

lattice and negative ions vander freely within the boundaries of the
metal.
• As they are responsible for conductivity called as Conduction
electrons
• This cloud of free electrons are called as electron gas
• They differ from ordinary gas in two aspects

1. Free electron gas is charged while molecules of ordinary gases

are neutral
2. Concentration of electron is > ordinary gas concentration
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals
Electron gas model in metals
Valence electrons form the electron gas

(a) Schematic picture of an isolated atom

(b) In a metal the nucleus and ion core retain their configuration in the free atom,
but the valence electrons leave the atom to form the electron gas.
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

In absence of external field

 In the absence of external fields, random motion of

electrons is observed.

 Net current is zero.

In presence of external field

 In the presence of external fields, electrons gain a

constant velocity , DRIFT VELOCITY (Vd). vd

I
 Net current will not be zero.
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

Important characteristics
 RELAXATION TIME ():
Time taken for drift velocity to decay (1/e) of its initial
value
 MEAN COLLISION TIME (c):
• Mean or average time taken by an electron between
two successive collisions
• It is also called mean free time [or] collision time
 MEAN FREE PATH (λ):
Average distance travelled by an electron between two
successive collisions
λ = Vrms . c
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

Electrons are assumed to achieve thermal equilibrium with their

surroundings only through collision. These collisions are assumed to
maintain local thermodynamic equilibrium in a particularly simple
way.

Trajectory of a conduction electron

 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals
Success of classical free electron theory:

(1) It verifies Ohm’s law.

(2) It explains the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.

(3) It derives Wiedemann – Franz law. (i.e., the relation between

Introduction to Classical free electron theory
electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity)

(4) It explains optical properties of metals.

10
 Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

Drawbacks of classical free electron theory:

1. The phenomena such a photoelectric effect, Compton effect and

the black body radiation couldn’t be explained by classical free
electron theory.
2. Cannot explain the electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
Insulators.

3. Ferromagnetism cannot be explained by theory.

11
 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

Classical free electron theory could not explain many physical

properties.

In 1928, Sommerfield developed a new theory applying quantum

mechanical concepts and Fermi-Dirac statistics to the free
electrons in the metal.
This theory is called quantum free electron theory.

Classical free electron theory permits all electrons to gain energy.

But quantum free electron theory permits only a fraction of
electrons to gain energy.

12
 Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals

According to Quantum mechanics moving particles has some sort

of wave motion
Then wavelength λ=h/p (De-Broglie wavelength)

To characterize moving particle having wave motion-(ψ)-

wavefunction is introduced

According to quantum theory of free electrons energy of a free

electron is given by

En = n2h2/8mL2

• According to quantum theory of free electrons the electrical

conductivity is given by
σ = ne2T/m
13
 Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals

MERITS OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It successfully explains the electrical and thermal

conductivity of metals.

2. It can explain the thermionic phenomenon.

3. Temperature dependence of conductivity of metals can be

explained by this theory.

4. It can explain the specific heat of metals.

5. It explains magnetic susceptibility of metals.

14
 Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals

DEMERITS OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It is unable to explain the metallic properties of exhibited by

only certain crystals

2. Failed to give difference of metals/semiconductors/ insulators

3. It is unable to explain why the atomic arrays in metallic crystals

should prefer certain structures only

15
 DENSITY OF STATES

Definition: Density of States Z (E) dE is defined as the number

of available electron states per unit volume in an energy interval
(dE).

To find the number of energy levels in a cubical metal piece and to

find number of electrons that can be filled in a given energy level, let
us construct a sphere of radius ‘n’ in the space.
16
The sphere is further divided in to many shells and each of this shell
represents a particular combination of quantum numbers (nx, ny, and
nz) and therefore represents a particular energy value.

Let us consider two energy values E and E + dE. The number of

energy states between E and E + dE can be found by finding the
number of energy states between the shells of the radius n and n + Δn,
from the origin.

The number of energy states within the sphere of radius ‘n’ is = 4/3 π
n3
Since nx, ny, and nz will have only positive values, we have to take
only one octant of the sphere (i.e) 1/8 th of the sphere volume.
17
The number of available energy states within the sphere of radius
n = 1/8 [4/3 π n3]

Similarly the number of available energy states within the sphere of

radius

n + dn = 1/8 [4/3 π (n+dn)3]

The number of available energy states between the shells of radius n
and n + dn (or) between the energy levels

E and E + dE = 1/8 [4/3 π (n+dn)3- 4/3 π n3 ]

The number of available energy states between the energy interval

Z(E)dE = 1/8 X 4/3 π [n3+dn3+3n2dn+3dn2n- n3]

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Energy Band Structures in solids
WHY ENERGY BANDS ARE FORMED?

• Electrons of one atom are perturbed by the electrons and

nuclei of the adjacent atoms.

• Results in splitting of atomic states into a series of closely

spaced electron states to from what are called
ELECTRON ENERGY BAND.

• Extent of splitting depends on interatomic separation.

 K K
L L
M M

1 Atom 2 Atoms 3 Atoms N Atoms

Energy Band Structures in solids
Energy Band Structures in solids

 For 12 atoms, each of the 1s and 2s atomic states splits to form an electron energy
band consisting of 12 states.
Energy Band Structures in solids
• Valence band – filled – highest occupied energy levels
• Conduction band – empty – lowest unoccupied energy levels

At Equilibrium spacing :
Band formation may not occur
 Formation of Bands in Solids
In solids the outer electron energy levels split into a series
of closely packed electron states to form bands

Allowed band

Forbidden band
Allowed band
Energy bands in solids

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30
 Energy Band Structure of Semiconductor
Brillouin zone
To understand the Energy band structure, consider silicon atom.

A schematic representation of an isolated silicon atom is shown in Figure.

Ten of the 14 silicon atom electrons occupy deep-lying energy levels close
to the nucleus. The four remaining valence electrons are relatively weakly
bound and are the electrons involved in chemical reactions.
 Energy Band Structure of Semiconductor
Brillouin zone

Above Figure shows the band splitting of silicon. We need only to consider
the n=3 level for the valence electrons, since the first two energy shells are
completely full and are tightly bound to the nucleus.

The 3s state corresponds to n=3 and l=0 and contains two quantum states
per atom. This state will contain two electrons at T= 0 K. The 3p state
corresponds to n= 3 and l=1 and contains six quantum states per atom. This
state will contain the remaining two electrons in the individual silicon
atom.
 Energy Band Structure of Semiconductor
Brillouin zone

As the interatomic distance decreases, the 3s and 3p states interact and

overlap (covalent bonding and crystal formation).

At the equilibrium interatomic distance, the bands have again split, but now
four quantum states per atom are in the lower band and four quantum states
per atom are in the upper band.

At absolute zero degrees, electrons are in the lowest energy state, so that all
states in the lower band (the valence band) will be full and all states in the
upper band (the conduction band) will be empty.

The bandgap energy Eg between the top of the valence band and the bottom
of the conduction band is the width of the forbidden energy band.
 Energy Band Structure of Semiconductor
Brillouin zone
At T = 0 K, the 4 N states in the lower band, the valence band, are filled
with the valence electrons. All of the valence electrons are in the valence
band. The upper energy band, the conduction band, is completely
empty at T = 0 K.

As the temperature increases above 0 K, a few valence band electrons may

gain enough thermal energy to break the covalent bond and jump into the
conduction band.

This means that, as the negatively charged electron breaks away from its
covalent bonding position, a positively charged “empty state” is created in
the original covalent bonding position in the valence band.

As the temperature further increases, more covalent bonds are broken,

more electrons jump to the conduction band, and more positive “empty
states” are created in the valence band.
 Energy Band Structure of Semiconductor
Brillouin zone
This bond breaking can be related to the E versus k energy bands(first
brillouin zone).

Figure shows the E versus k diagram of the conduction and valence bands at
T=0 K. The energy states in the valence band are completely full and the
states in the conduction band are empty.
 Energy Band Structure of Semiconductor
Brillouin zone
Below Figure shows these same bands for T >0 K, in which some electrons
have gained enough energy to jump to the conduction band and have left
empty states in the valence band.
Kroning Penney model :

According to Kroning and Penney the electrons move in a periodic

square well potential.

This potential is produced by the positive ions (ionized atoms) in

the lattice.

 The potential is zero near to the nucleus of positive ions and

maximum between the adjacent nuclei. The variation of potential is
shown in figure.

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 Bloch Theorem

• Most of the semiconductors are in crystalline form,

i.e the atoms are arranged in periodic manner.
• The motion of electron in a crystal is governed by
the laws of quantum mechanics.
• If we have one electron and one proton system like
hydrogen atom it is easy to solve Schrodinger
equation.
• But in solid there are large number of atoms and
electrons present, so its very difficult to solve the
Schrodinger equation.
• If we consider a one dimensional periodic lattice
and the potential energy (PE) of a moving electron
depends on its position inside the lattice, but the PE
is said to be periodic in nature by F. Bloch, and the
probability of finding a electron is also periodic,
the wave-function associated with electron is also
periodic in nature.

• Since the probability of finding electron is equal to

|Ψ|2

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Schrödinger’s one-Dimensional time
independent wave equation

39
 variation of potential with distance in real
solid

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variation of potential with distance by Kronig-
Penny
 Kronig-Penney Model
Uniform potential is replaced by periodic potential

V(x) = 0, for 0 < x < a (potential well)

V(x) = U0, for –b < x < 0 (potential barrier)
It is not easy to solve Schrödinger’s equation with these potentials.
So, Kroning and Penney approximated these potentials inside the
crystal to the shape of rectangular steps as shown in Fig. (c). This
model is called Kroning-Penney model of potentials.

The energies of electrons can be known by solving Schrödinger’s

wave equation in such a lattice. The Schrödinger time-independent
wave equation for the motion of an electron along X-direction is
given by:

The energies and wave functions of electrons associated with this

model can be calculated by solving time-independent one-dimensional
Schrödinger’s wave equations for the two regions I and II as shown in
Fig 42
 II I

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The Schrödinger’s equations are:
for 0<x<a.............(2)

for -b<x<0.............(3)

We define two real quantities (say) α and β such that:

for 0<x<a

for -b<x<0

The total wave function is therefore of the form

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where u(x) is the periodic function as defined by u(x) = u(x + a), and
k(x) is the wave number. Rewriting the wave function in such form
allows the simplification of the Schrödinger equation, which we now
apply to region I, between the barriers where V(x) = 0 and region II,
the barrier region where V(x) = V0:

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47
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Vob is potential barrier or barrier strength, P is height of
potential barrier or it is a measure of the strength with
which electrons are bound to the positive ions.
This is a relation between parameter k, total Energy E
(through parameter α) and potential barrier bVo.

This is not a solution to Schrodinger’s equation but a

condition for a solution to exist.
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 Conclusions from the above graph

 There exists a number of energy bands

separated by forbidden energy ranges called
energy gaps.

 The width of the allowed energy bands

increases with increasing value of αa i.e. with
increase in energy values.

 The width of a particular band decreases with

increasing value of P, i.e. with increasing
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binding energy of the electron.
 P 0

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P infinity

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 Strength of the barrier

P P0 P  Intermediate

 0 π/a 2π/a 3π/a

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E-K Diagram
 The conventional band diagram shows the band
gap energy only
 To know more about electrical and optical
properties of semiconductor material, we need to
know about the E-K diagram.
 An E-K diagram shows characteristics of C.B

particular semiconductor material Eg

 It shows the relationship between energy and

momentum of available states for electron in the V.B

crystal
 K being the momentum and E as the energy.
From a mathematical point of view K is the wave
vector
 The E-K diagram of semiconductor is obtained
by solving the Schrodinger’s equation. 60
There are three types of E-K
diagram

 Periodic zone scheme

 Extended zone scheme
 Reduced zone scheme

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62
Reduced zone scheme :

 In this scheme the first Brillouin zone is

shown, since the E-K diagram is
periodic, it is sufficient to restrict to first
zone in the reduced scheme.
 If we know the energy values of first
zone with respect to K then we know
every where because
energy Eigen values are periodic
 In many of optoelectronic text books the
reduce zone scheme is shown

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What are the significance of E-K diagram
 No theoretical study, experimentation and technological application can
take place without E-K diagram.
 This diagram indicates the band gap Eg which is the difference in energy
between top of the valance band and bottom of the conduction band
 This diagram demonstrate electron (hole) mobility
 This diagram explains electron (hole) effective mass
 This diagram indicate how the electron states are equally spaced in K-
Space
 This diagram clearly shows direct vs indirect band gap
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 Direct and Indirect band gap
semiconductors
• We know the relation between energy and
wave number for an one dimensional
lattice. In real crystals the E – K
relationship is much more complicated.
• In crystals the interatomic distances and
internal potential energy distribution vary
with direction of the crystal.
• Hence the E – K relationship and energy
band formation depends on the orientation
of the electron wave vector to the
crystallographic axes.
• In few crystals like GaAs, the maximum of
the valence band occurs at the same value
of K as the minimum of the conduction
band.
• This is called direct band gap
semiconductor. 66
 Direct and Indirect band gap
semiconductors

• In few semiconductors like Si the maximum of the valence band

does not always occur at the same K values the maximum of the
conduction band. This we call indirect band gap semiconductor.

• In direct band gap semiconductors the direction of motion of an

electron during a transition across the energy gap, remains
unchanged.

• Hence the efficiency of transition of charge carriers across the

band gap is more in direct band gap than in indirect band gap
semiconductors.
 Direct and Indirect band gap
semiconductors

We know
P=ℏk

Indirect bandgap semiconductors:

A direct recombination occurs with the release of energy equals to energy difference
between two levels such as Eg .
The probability of radiative recombination is high and hence direct bandgap
semiconductors are used in optical sources
Indirect bandgap semiconductors:
Due to relative difference in momentum, first the momentum is conserved by release of
energy only after both the momentum align themselves. The probability of radiative
68
recombination is comparatively low.
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 Brillouin Zone

Brillouin zone is defined as

the Wigner-Seitz primitive
cell in the reciprocal lattice

Reciprocal Lattice
It is easy to think a set of
parallel crystal planes in
terms of their normals, since
as the planes are two
dimensional, their normals
will be one dimensional in First Brillouin Zone of Square
nature. Lattice
Wigner-Seitz cell: smallest possible primitive cell, which consist of
one lattice point and all the surrounding space closer to it than to any
other point.
The construction of the W-S cell in the reciprocal lattice delivers the
first Brillouin zone (important for diffraction)

Importance of Brillouin zone:

The Brillouin zones are used to describe and analyze the electron
energy in the band energy structure of crystals.
Brillouin Zones

 Electrons in solids are permitted to be in allowed energy bands

separated by forbidden energy gaps.

 The allowed energy band width increases with kα.

 The electron has allowed energy values in the region or zone

extending from k = (-π/a) to (π/a), called the first Brillouin zone.

 Similarly, second Brillouin zone extends from

k = (-π/a) to (-2π/a) and

k = (π/a) to (2π/a).
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 Brillouin zone

▪The different Brillouin zones correspond to primitive cells of a

different type that come up in the theory of electronic levels in a
periodic potential.
▪The first Brillouin zone is considered as the Wigner-Seitz (WS)
primitive cell in the reciprocal lattice. In other words, the first Brillouin
zone is a geometrical construction to the WS primitive cell in the k-
space.
▪In a direct lattice, the procedure of drawing a WS cell is as follows:
1. Draw lines to connect a given lattice points to all nearby lattice
points.
2. Draw new lines or plane at the mid point and normal to the lines in
(i)
3. The smallest volume enclosed in this way is the WS primitive cell.
First Brillouin Zone of linear lattice
First Brillouin zone is determined
by:
• Select lattice point and draw a line
segment to all neighbouring lattice
points (blue).
• Draw center normal planes (black,
dotted). In 2D they are lines.
• The bounded area closest to the
selected point is Brillouin zone
(orange).
• The next area (going over one line
only) is 2. Brillouin zone (green).
Remarks:
-The planes divide the Fourier space of the crystal into fragments as
shown for a square lattice.
-The central square is a primitive cell of the reciprocal lattice. It is a
Wigner-Seitz cell of the reciprocal lattice (called the first Brillouin
zone).
- The first Brillouin zone is the smallest volume entirely enclosed by
the planes.
Construction of a Wigner-Seitz cell in the reciprocal lattice
(called first Brillouin zone):
•To construct the first Brillouin zone, we need to find the relation
between the incident beam (like electron or neutron or phonon beam)
of wave vector k and the reciprocal lattice vector G.
•This relation may be found as

•For example, an x-ray beam in the crystal will be diffracted if its

wave vector k has the magnitude and direction required by this
relation.
Thus the procedure to build up the first Brillouin zone is
as follows:
i) Select a vector G from the origin to a reciprocal
lattice point.
ii) Construct a plane normal to the vector G at its mid
point. This plane forms a part of the zone boundary.
iii) The diffracted beam will be in the direction k-G .
iv) Thus the Brillouin construction exhibits all the
wave vectors k which can be Bragg-reflected by the
crystal.
Important note:
A wave whose wave vector drawn from the origin
terminates on any of the planes will satisfy the
condition of diffraction. Such planes are the
perpendicular bisectors of the reciprocal vectors.
 CONCEPT OF PHONONS

• Any solid crystal consists of atoms bound into a specific repeating

three-dimensional spatial pattern called a lattice.
• Here the atoms behave as if they are connected by tiny springs, their
own thermal energy or outside forces make the lattice vibrate.
• This generates mechanical waves that carry heat and sound through the
material.
• A packet of these waves can travel throughout the crystal with a
definite energy and momentum, so in quantum mechanical terms the
waves can be treated as a particle, called a phonon.
• A phonon is a definite discrete unit or quantum of
vibrational mechanical energy, just as a photon is a quantum
of electromagnetic or light energy.

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 Atomic Vibrations
Atomic vibrations are in the form of lattice waves or phonons.

• The energy of a lattice vibration is quantized

• The quantum of energy is called a phonon
• Analogous to photon-quantum of electromagnetic radiation
Vibrations of crystal with monatomic basis
(a) (b)

Transverse wave

Schematic illustration of displacements of

planes along one spatial direction.
Phonon:
❖ A photon is the smallest unit of light. Similarly, for sound, the
smallest unit is called phonon. In a lattice structure, vibrations are
created by atoms. The quantized, lowest state energy of vibration is
called phonon.

❖Atoms were considered as rigid, with atoms stuck in their lattice. In

reality, atoms can be considered as simple harmonic oscillators. The
harmonic oscillator has a ground state energy and an associated
vibrational mode even at 0 °K.

❖It is named phonons because at high energy levels long wavelength

phonons give rise to sound. According to quantum mechanics, similar
particles have wave nature, waves must also have particle nature. So,
phonon is also treated as quasi particle. Similar to particles, these
waves can carry throughout the crystal, heat, energy and momentum.
❖In solid state physics, the elementary particles are electrons and phonons.
The arrangement of the electrons will help determine material's electrical
properties whereas the speed of sound through material and heat required to
change its temperature is given by phonons.
❖Another important application of phonons is in the field of
superconductivity, where the electrical resistance of certain materials become
zero near absolute zero. In ordinary crystals, there is a loss of energy as heat as
the electrons collide with impurities. But in superconductors, at low
temperatures, they tend to attract slightly because of phonons. Now the
movement occur as a coherent group thus minimizing energy loss.

❖Phonons also have important application in detectors like Cryogenic Dark

Matter Search, which aim to detect even the slightest vibration in a crystal
lattice caused by even a single phonon.
Comparison between Phonons and Photons
 Fermi-Dirac Statistics (Quantum law)

This statistics applicable to the identical, indistinguishable particles of half

spin.

These particles obey Pauli’s exclusion principle and are called fermions
(e.g.) Electrons, protons, neutrons …,

In such system of particles, not more than one particle can be in one
quantum state.

Fermi Dirac Distribution Law is

gi
ni   Ei
(e ) 1

88
 Fermi Energy

Fermi Energy (EF)

Fermi Energy is the energy of the state at which the probability of electron
occupation is ½ at any temperature above 0 K.

It is also the maximum kinetic energy that a free electron can have at 0 K.

The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature is

called the Fermi Energy or Fermi Level.

89
 Fermi Energy

The Fermi energy at 0 K for metals is given by

 3N 
2/3
 h2 
EF     
   8m 
When temperature increases, the Fermi level or Fermi energy also
slightly decreases.
The Fermi energy at non–zero temperatures,
  kT 
2

1   2
  
E F  E F0
 12  EF  
  0  

Here the subscript ‘0’ refers to the quantities at zero kelvin

90
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)

The free electron gas in a solid obeys Fermi-Dirac statistics.

Suppose in an assemblage of fermions, there are M(E) allowed quantum

states in an energy range between E and E+dE and N(E) is the number
of particles in the same range.

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is defined as,

N (E) 1

M ( E ) 1  exp (E  EF )/kT

N(E) / M(E) is the fraction of the possible quantum states which are occupied.

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 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)

The distribution of electrons among the levels is described by function f

(E), probability of an electron occupying an energy level ‘E’.

If the level is certainly empty, then f(E) = 0. Generally the f(E) has a
value in between zero and unity.

When E< EF (i.e.,) for energy levels lying below EF, (E –EF) is a
negative quantity and hence,

1 1
f(E) 
 1
1 e 1 0
That means all the levels below EF are occupied by the electrons.

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 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)

When E > EF (i.e.) for energy levels lying above EF, (E – EF) is a
positive quantity
1 1
f(E) 
 0
1 e 1 

This equation indicates all the levels above EF are vacant.

At absolute zero, all levels below EF are completely filled and all levels
above EF are completely empty.

This level, which divides the filled and vacant states, is known as the
Fermi energy level.

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 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)

Fermi Dirac distribution function at different temperatures

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Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)

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 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)

When E = EF ,

1 1 1
f (E)    at all temperatures
1 e0 11 2

The probability of finding an electron with energy equal to the Fermi

energy in a metal is ½ at any temperature.

At T = 0 K all the energy level upto EF are occupied and all the energy
levels above EF are empty .

When T > 0 K, some levels above EF are partially filled while some
levels below EF are partially empty.

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 Classification Of Electronic Materials

Classification of electronic materials

Conductors
Semiconductors
Insulators
Superconductor

Conductors

Conductors are substances which have free electrons, which can move under the
action of an electric field. The electrons are free in the sense that they belong to
the crystal as a whole and not tied down (bound) to a particular atom or a
molecule.

Example : copper , silver etc.

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 Classification Of Electronic Materials
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials which have the conductivity between
conductors and insulators. Semiconductors are the elements of group-III,
group-IV and group-V.

At normal temperature the conductivity of semiconductor is very low.

With increase in temperature the conductivity of semiconductors increases
exponentially.

Example: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) etc.

Insulators
Insulators are very poor conductor of electricity. The forbidden gap value
is 3e V

Example: wood, oil, mica.

98
 Classification of materials Conduction Band

Conduction Band Eg
Eg Ef
Conduction Band Ef
Ef
Valance Band Valance Band Valance Band

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

• Overlapping of • Lower energy gap • Large energy gap
bands between the bands between the bands
• Fermi energy level • Fermi energy level • Fermi energy level
lies in valance band lies at middle of the lies at middle of the
• Ex: Ag, Cu, Au… two bands two bands
• Ex: Si, Ge etc… • Ex: Plastic, Paper…
Classification Of Electronic Materials

100
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
18PYB103J –Semiconductor Physics

SOLVING PROBLEMS

101
1. The electrical resistivity of copper at 27⁰ C is 1.72 x 10-8 Ohm m.
Compute its thermal conductivity if the Lorentz number is 2. 26 x 10-8 W
Ohm K-2

102
2. Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in copper and current
density in wire of diameter 0.16 cm which carries a steady current
of 10 A. Given n
= 8.46 × 1028 m–3.

103
3. Find the lowest energy of an electron confined in one dimensional
potential box separated by distance 0.1 nm.

104
4. An electron is bound in one dimensional infinite well of width 1 x 10-10m.
Find the energy value in the ground state, first and second excited states.

105
5. Find the least energy of an electron moving in one-dimensional
potential box (infinite height) of width 0.05nm.

106
21PYB102J