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 A Walk Through
Weak
Hyperstructures
Hv-Structures

Bijan Davvaz
Yazd University, Iran

Thomas Vougiouklis
Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO

11229_9789813278868_tp.indd 2 15/11/18 12:09 PM

 Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Davvaz, Bijan, author. | Vougiouklis, Thomas, author.
Title: A walk through weak hyperstructures : Hv-structures / by Bijan Davvaz
(Yazd University, Iran), Thomas Vougiouklis (Democritus University of Thrace, Greece).
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, 2019. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018048126 | ISBN 9789813278868 (hardcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Hypergroups. | Group theory. | Ordered algebraic structures.
Classification: LCC QA174.2 .D3845 2019 | DDC 511.3/3--dc23
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October 30, 2018 15:28 ws-book9x6 BC: 11229 - A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures ... Davvaz-Vougiouklis page v

Preface

Hyperstructures were born as a generalization of an operation by the hy-

peroperation, from the single-valued operation to the multi-valued one.
It was then that the problem of generalizations was transferred into the
generalizations of axioms. In 1934 Frederick Marty, who introduced the
hyperoperation and gave the definition of the hypergroup, used the ‘dou-
ble’ axiom of reproductivity instead of the two axioms: the existence of
the unit element and the existence of the inverses. This is a revolutionary
generalization since the majority of the hyperstructures do not have unit
elements. In mathematics, any generalization of a structure should contain
the generalized one as a sub-case. In hyperstructures the problem becomes
complicated as in the result we replace the elements by sets, in fact, we
replace a set by a power set. Therefore, we need new tools to achieve the
connection of the hyperstructures with the classical structures. This new
tool is the fundamental relation of each new hyperstructure. It is a fact
that any fundamental relation is based on the ‘result’. For example, in
hypergroups the fundamental relation β ∗ is the transitive closure of the
relation β, where two elements are in β-relation if they belong to a hyper-
product of two elements. In the fundamental relation β ∗ , introduced by M.
Koskas in 1970, a classical group corresponds to any hypergroup. In other
words, any hypergroup hides a group. The largest generalization in order
to have this correspondence, the existence of the β ∗ fundamental relation,
is the one by using the so called weak axioms. In the weak axioms, defined
in all known classical structures as introduced by Vougiouklis in 1990, the
‘equality’ in any relation is replaced by the ‘non-empty intersection’ and
this leads to the largest class of hyperstructures called Hv -structures. The
main way to prove theorems in this topic is the reduction to absurdity. Since
the weak generalization is the most general, the number of Hv -structure is

v
October 30, 2018 15:28 ws-book9x6 BC: 11229 - A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures ... Davvaz-Vougiouklis page vi

vi A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures: Hv -Structures

dramatically big. Therefore, many problems in life and in other sciences

can be expressed by models using Hv -structures. In order to specify the ap-
propriate Hv -structure in models, one can use more restrictions or axioms
to reduce the number of possible cases. In generalizations new concepts
appear. Moreover, new axioms, new properties and new classes of hy-
perstructures, are discovered. Consequently, new classifications are needed
and very interesting mathematical problems are revealed. The present book
consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 contains a fairly detailed discussion
of the basic ideas underlying the fundamentals of algebraic structures such
as semigroups, groups, rings, modules and vector spaces. Chapter 2 gives
a brief introduction to algebraic hyperstructures to be used in the next
chapters. Many readers, already familiar with these theories, may wish to
skip them or to regard them as a survey. In Chapter 3, the concept of
Hv -semigroups, Hv -groups and some examples are presented. Fundamen-
tal relations on Hv -groups are discussed. Reversible Hv -groups, a sequence
of finite Hv -groups, fuzzy Hv -groups and Hv -semigroups as noise problem
are studied. In Chapter 4, we present the notion of Hv -rings. Hv -rings are
the largest class of algebraic hyperstructures that satisfy ring-like axioms.
We consider the fundamental relation γ ∗ defined on Hv -rings and give some
properties of this important relation. The fundamental relation on an Hv -
ring is the smallest equivalence relation such that the quotient would be the
(fundamental) ring. Then, we present several kinds of Hv -rings. In partic-
ular, we investigate multiplicative Hv -rings, Hv -fields, P -hyperoperations,
∂-hyperoperations, Hv -ring of fractions, Hv -near rings and fuzzy Hv -ideals.
Chapter 5 begins with the definition of Hv -module. Then the concepts of
Hv -module of fractions, direct system and direct limit of Hv -modules are
provided. It is proved that direct limit always exists in the category of
Hv -modules. We study M [−] and −[M ] functors and investigate the ex-
actness and some related concepts. Next, we prove Five Short Lemma and
Shanuel’s lemma in Hv -modules. At the end of this chapter, the concepts of
fuzzy and intuitionistic fuzzy Hv -submodules are presented. In Chapter 6,
we cover Hv -vector space, hyperalgebra, e-hyperstructures and Hv -matrix
representations. Moreover, we study Lie-Santilli theory. In the quiver of
hyperstructures Santilli, in early 90’es, tried to find algebraic structures
in order to express his pioneer Lie-Santilli’s Theory. Santilli’s theory on
‘isotopies’ and ‘genotopies’, born in 1960’s, desperately needs ‘units e’ on
left or right, which are nowhere singular, symmetric, real-valued, positive-
defined for n-dimensional matrices based on the so called isofields. These
elements can be found in hyperstructure theory, especially in Hv -structure
October 30, 2018 15:28 ws-book9x6 BC: 11229 - A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures ... Davvaz-Vougiouklis page vii

Preface vii

theory introduced. This connection appeared first in 1996 and actually

several Hv -fields, the e-hyperfields, can be used as isofields or genofields,
in such way that they should cover additional properties and satisfy more
restrictions. Several large classes of hyperstructures as the P -hyperfields,
can be used in Lie-Santilli’s theory when multivalued problems appeared,
either in finite or in infinite case. Chapter 7, which is novel in a book of this
kind, illustrates the use of weak hyperstructures. We present examples of
weak hyperstructures associated with chain reactions and dismutation re-
actions. For the first time Davvaz and Dehghan-Nezhad provided examples
of hyperstructures associated with chain reactions. Also, we investigate the
examples of hyperstructures and weak hyperstructures associated with re-
dox reactions and electrochemical cells. Another motivation for the study
of hyperstructures comes from biology, more specifically from Mendel, the
father of genetics, who took the first steps in defining “contrasting charac-
ters, genotypes in F1 and F2 ... and setting different laws”. The genotypes
of F2 are dependent on the type of its parents genotype and it follows
certain rules. Also, inheritance issue based on genetic information is ex-
amined carefully via a new hyperalgebraic approach. Several examples are
provided from different biology points of view, and we show that the theory
of hyperstructures exactly fits the inheritance issue. Moreover, we provide a
physical example of hyperstructures associated with the elementary particle
physics, the leptons. We consider this important group of the elementary
particles and show that this set along with the interactions between its
members can be described by the algebraic hyperstructures.

Bijan Davvaz
Department of Mathematics, Yazd University,
Yazd, Iran

Thomas Vougiouklis
School of Science of Education, Democritus University of Thrace,
Alexandroupolis, Greece
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Contents

Preface v

1. Fundamentals of algebraic structures 1

1.1 Semigroups and groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4 Vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2. Algebraic hyperstructures 43
2.1 Semihypergroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Hypergroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3 Hyperrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Hypermodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3. Hv -groups 69
3.1 Hv -groups and some examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Enumeration of Hv -groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Fundamental relation on Hv -groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.4 Reversible Hv -groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5 A sequence of finite Hv -groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.6 Fuzzy Hv -groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.7 Hv -semigroups and noise problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

4. Hv -rings 115
4.1 Hv -rings and some examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2 Fundamental relations on Hv -rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

ix
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x A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures: Hv -Structures

4.3 Uniting elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

4.4 Multiplicative Hv -rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.5 Hv -fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.6 Hv -rings endowed with P -hyperoperations . . . . . . . . . 144
4.7 ∂-hyperoperations and Hv -rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.8 (H, R)-Hv -rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.9 The Hv -ring of fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.10 Hv -group rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.11 Hv -near rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.12 Fuzzy Hv -ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

5. Hv -modules 193
5.1 Hv -modules and fundamental relations . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.2 Hv -module of fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.3 Direct system and direct limit of Hv -modules . . . . . . . 199
5.4 M[-] and -[M] Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.5 Five short lemma and snake lemma in Hv -modules . . . . 210
5.6 Shanuel’s lemma in Hv -modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.7 Product and direct sum in Hv -modules . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.8 Fuzzy and intuitionistic fuzzy Hv -submodules . . . . . . . 225

6. Hyperalgebra and Lie-Santilli theory 237

6.1 Hv -vector space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.2 e-hyperstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.3 The Lie-Santilli’s admissibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.4 Hv -matrix representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

7. Outline of applications and modeling 271

7.1 Chemical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.1.1 Chain reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.1.2 Dismutation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.1.3 Redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
7.1.4 Galvanic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.1.5 Electrolytic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.1.6 Galvanic/Electrolytic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
7.2 Biological examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.2.1 Inheritance examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
October 30, 2018 15:28 ws-book9x6 BC: 11229 - A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures ... Davvaz-Vougiouklis page xi

Contents xi

7.2.2 Examples of different types of non-Mendelian

inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
7.2.3 Hyperstructures in second generation genotype . . 303
7.2.4 The hypothetical cross of n different traits, case of
simple dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
7.2.5 The hypothetical cross of n different traits, case of
incomplete dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.2.6 The hypothetical cross of m + n different traits,
case of simple and incomplete dominance combined
together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.3 Physical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.3.1 Leptons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
7.3.2 The algebraic hyperstructure of Leptons . . . . . 314

Bibliography 321
Index 329
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Chapter 1

Fundamentals of algebraic structures

1.1 Semigroups and groups

Let S be a non-empty set and ζ : S × S → S a binary operation that maps

each ordered pair (x, y) of S to an element ζ(x, y) of S. The pair (S, ζ) (or
just S, if there is no fear of confusion) is called a groupoid.

Definition 1.1. A semigroup is a pair (S, ·) in which S is a non-empty set

and · is a binary associative operation on S, i.e., the equation
(x · y) · z = x · (y · z)
holds for all x, y, z ∈ S.

For an element x ∈ S we let xn be the product of x with itself n times. So,

x1 = x, x2 = x · x and xn+1 = x · xn for n ≥ 1.
A semigroup S is finite if it has only a finitely many elements. A semi-
group S is commutative, if it satisfies
x·y =y·x
for all x, y ∈ S. If there exists e in S such that for all x ∈ S,
e·x=x·e=x
we say that S is a semigroup with identity or (more usual) a monoid. The
element e of S is called identity.

Proposition 1.1. A semigroup can have at most one identity.

Proof. If e and e0 are both identities, then e = e · e0 = e0 . 

The description of the binary operation in a semigroup (S, ·) can be
carried out in various ways. The most natural is simply to list all results of

1
October 30, 2018 15:28 ws-book9x6 BC: 11229 - A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures ... Davvaz-Vougiouklis page 2

2 A Walk Through Weak Hyperstructures: Hv -Structures

the operation for arbitrary pairs of elements. This method of describing the
operation can be presented as a multiplication table, also called a Cayley
table.

Example 1.1.

(1) Let S = {a, b, c} be a set of three elements and define the following
table.
· a b c
a a b c
b b a c
c c b c

Then, S is a finite semigroup.

(2) Let N = {0, 1, . . .} be the set of all non-negative integers and
N∗ = {1, 2, . . .} the set of all positive integers. Then, (N, ·) is a
semigroup for the usual multiplication of integers. Also, (N, +) is
a semigroup, when + is the ordinary addition of integers. Define
(N, ?) by n ? m = max{n, m}. Then, (N, ?) is a semigroup, since

n ? (m ? k) = max{n, max{m, k}} = max{n, m, k}

= max{max{n, m}, k} = (n ? m) ? k.

(3) The set Mn (R) of n × n square matrices over real numbers, with
matrix multiplication, is a semigroup.
(4) The direct product S × T of two semigroups (S, ·) and (T, ◦) is
defined by

(s1 , t1 ) ? (s2 , t2 ) = (s1 · s2 , t1 ◦ t2 ) (s1 , s2 ∈ S, t1 , t2 ∈ T ).

It is easy to show that the so defined product is associative and

hence the direct product is, indeed, a semigroup. The direct prod-
uct is a convenient way of combining two semigroup operations.
The new semigroup S × T inherits properties of both S and T .
(5) The bicyclic semigroup B = N × N with binary operation

(a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (a − b + max{b, c}, d − c + max{b, c}).

This is a monoid with identity (0, 0).

Proposition 1.2. Let (S, ·) be a finite semigroup. Then, there exists a ∈ S

such that a2 = a.
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