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Genetic and Evolutionary Computation

Wolfgang Banzhaf
Leonardo Trujillo
Stephan Winkler
Bill Worzel Editors

Genetic
Programming
Theory and
Practice XVIII
Genetic and Evolutionary Computation

Series Editors
Wolfgang Banzhaf , Department Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Kalyanmoy Deb , Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/7373
Wolfgang Banzhaf · Leonardo Trujillo ·
Stephan Winkler · Bill Worzel
Editors

Genetic Programming
Theory and Practice XVIII
Editors
Wolfgang Banzhaf Leonardo Trujillo
Department of Computer Science Tecnológico Nacional de México/IT de
and Engineering Tijuana
Michigan State University Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico
East Lansing, MI, USA
Bill Worzel
Stephan Winkler Evolution Enterprise
School of Informatics, Communications Ann Arbor, MI, USA
and Media
University of Applied Sciences Upper
Austria
Hagenberg, Austria

ISSN 1932-0167 ISSN 1932-0175 (electronic)

Genetic and Evolutionary Computation
ISBN 978-981-16-8112-7 ISBN 978-981-16-8113-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8113-4

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Foreword

This book highlights the extraordinary recent progress in genetic programming. I

wonder what John Holland would have made of it. Many people imagined computers
that could program themselves, but John took seriously the idea of using selection to
evolve working programs. The field of genetic programming has itself now evolved,
as dozens of programmers set a dizzying array of strategies competing to shape
effective efficient programs as quickly as possible. The results are astounding.
I thought I understood natural selection, but then I discovered Adaptation in
Natural and Artificial Systems in 1976 on the front table in the original Borders
bookstore in Ann Arbor. John Holland’s book made me realize that the principle of
selection is much more general, and that selection in silico can reveal a lot about
natural selection. Reading this current volume brings this full circle and at a much
higher level. It describes the strategies genetic programmers use to overcome the
obstacles that limit what natural selection can do. In particular, readers will discover
new strategies for optimizing levels of variation, defining goals, and structuring
selection in ways that transcend and illuminate the limits of natural selection.
Optimizing mutation rates is a core task for genetic programmers; they have a
free hand to set mutation rates and their timing (“rampant mutation”) to maximize
the speed of evolution and minimize getting stuck on suboptimal peaks. They can
measure diversity in new ways (“phylogenetic diversity”). Natural selection is limited
by comparison. Mutator genes that might otherwise benefit the species are selected
against, although some bacteria increase mutation rates temporarily when under
stress.
The process of defining goals is also very different. For genetic programs, that
means reaching a reliable and efficient solution to a defined problem as quickly as
possible. Each agent is evaluated by its contribution to the defined goal, and multiple
goals are possible. Natural selection has no goal; it just mindlessly increases the
prevalence of whatever variants result in individuals who reproduce more than other
individuals. So variants that decrease health, happiness, longevity, or cooperation
quickly become more common if they increase Darwinian fitness.
Strategies for selecting superior programs are at the core of genetic programming.
Lexicase selection is superior to tournament selection, especially in its ability to

v
vi Foreword

explore the full fitness space. The value of offspring can even be predicted by data
about the parents. Natural selection, by contrast, mindlessly increases and decreases
the prevalence of genetic variants in proportion to their effects on Darwinian fitness,
in competition with stochastic influences that can eliminate useful mutations or take
deleterious ones to fixation.
The problem of getting stuck at suboptimal peaks is faced by both genetic program-
ming and natural selection, but the options are much more diverse for programmers.
Natural selection cannot start fresh. Path dependence restricts it to small changes
that leave many traits suboptimal, such as the shared passageway for air and food,
and blood vessels that run between light and the retina.
I came to the workshop and this book looking for examples of how genetic
programs fail that might illuminate the evolutionary reasons why we are vulner-
able to disease. But from what I can tell, genetic programs are not vulnerable to
failures akin to cancer, heart attacks, diabetes, or autoimmune disease. The intrinsic
advantages of genetic programs described above offer only a partial explanation.
Instead, I think the vulnerabilities and the robustness of organic systems result from
billions of years of selection that have created organic complexity that defies simple
description. Our human minds were shaped to seek simplicity, however, so we tend
to view bodies as if they were designed, with discrete parts each with a specific
function. The prevalence of this tendency to “tacit creationism” is a major obstacle
to full biological understanding. Deep learning neural networks also can be similarly
impossible to comprehend, but there is hope that genetic algorithms will make them
less opaque.
I come away impressed by the vibrant community of scholars and scientists who
are using genetic programming to create programs very different from the products
of natural selection. They leave me astounded that natural selection has done so
well despite its limits. I hope someone who knows more than I do about genetic
programming and natural selection will compare and contrast them in much more
detail in order to illuminate them both.

Ann Arbor, MI, USA Randolph M. Nesse

October 2021 http://nesse.us
Preface

The preparations for the eighteenth edition of the workshop on Genetic Programming
Theory and Practice (GPTP) began back in the autumn of 2019. Some months before,
the seventeenth edition of GPTP had been a great success: After 16 annual events in
Ann Arbor, at the University of Michigan, it had been the first edition of GPTP to be
held at Michigan State University in East Lansing. For the eighteenth edition, GPTP
2020, we planned to go back to Ann Arbor. So, similar to the years before, we started
to organize venue details, invited potential speakers and workshop participants, and
asked sponsors if they would be willing and able to support the event. By February
2020, everything was quite well on track, and some of us already had planned their
travel to GPTP 2020.
But then the COVID-19 pandemic struck the entire world. By March 2020 it was
clear that an in-person event in Michigan would not be possible in May 2020, and
with a very heavy heart, we had to cancel the event for 2020. It was the first time
since 2003 that no GPTP took place.
As time went on, in autumn 2020 we started discussions about organizing the 2021
GPTP workshop. In the beginning we were optimistic that a normal event could be
possible, but it quickly dawned on us that this would be highly improbable. It was clear
that universities would still be shut in the spring of 2021 and that traveling would not
be safe by then either. But should we cancel GPTP once again? We were all relatively
used to online meetings—but could a workshop such as GPTP “work” in an online
form? Considering that the real great moments and discussions at GPTP happen in
the discussion sessions and after the talks, when the ideas come up discussing the
day’s sessions at a drink in the evening, what should we do?
As the GPTP workshop has become one of the most important meeting points
for our community, where people meet and can share their thoughts freely and get
feedback for their ideas should we really cancel once again? Especially in the chal-
lenging times of a pandemic, we felt that it would even be more important to keep
the community connected and alive!
So, after several weeks of discussions, we decided to give it a try—GPTP 2021
would be an online event! Again, we contacted potential speakers, participants, and
sponsors, keeping in mind that for an online version of the workshop it would be very

vii
viii Preface

important not to make the event too big. The feedback from people we approached
was very positive—almost all of them accepted their invitations.
And so, May 2021 came along, and GPTP 2021 was held as an online event
via Zoom—and it was great! The talks were interesting, the discussions were very
intense and, similar to the in-person events, many new ideas were presented and
created during the event.
Each day there was a keynote talk, followed by shorter presentations and discus-
sions as well as a special discussion sessions about the topic of the keynote. On Day
1, Elizabeth Barnes from the Department of Atmospheric Science at Colorado State
University gave a keynote about viewing anthropogenic change through an AI lens.
Climate change is a global problem and a threat to us all, and there is a lot of prob-
lems where computer scientists, and especially understandable AI models created
by genetic programming could help.
On Day 2, Randolph Nesse from the Center for Evolution and Medicine at Arizona
State University gave a keynote about evolutionary medicine, why evolved systems
fail, and the mystery of health. This talk was perfectly aligned with the tradition of
GPTP, as we always strive to combine computer science, evolutionary algorithms,
and interdisciplinary thinking.
Finally on Day 3, David Andre from Google-X talked about pitfalls and things
that might go wrong when deploying GP systems, especially in the field of finance—
his talk was entitled provocatively “GP considered Dangerous”. Again, this keynote
sparked many intense discussions as those are topics we all can relate to.
The collection you hold in hand contains the written final contributions submitted
by the 18th workshop’s participants. Each contribution was drafted, read, and
reviewed by other participants prior to the workshop.
We are very glad that we were able to carry on with the spirit of GPTP in 2021,
as a special place in the genetic programming community in an unusually intimate,
interdisciplinary, and constructive atmosphere. It brings together researchers and
practitioners who are eager to engage with one another in thoughtful and unhurried
discussions of the major challenges and opportunities in our field.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all of the participants for making GP Theory and Prac-
tice a successful workshop 2021. As is always the case, it produced a lot of inter-
esting and high-energy discussions, as well as speculative thoughts and new ideas for
further work. The keynote speakers delivered thought-provoking talks from diverse
perspectives.
We would also like to thank our financial supporters for making the existence
of GP Theory and Practice possible for now nearly two decades. For 2021, we are
grateful to the following sponsors:
• John Koza
Preface ix

• Gilda Cabral and Michael Korns

• Mark Kotanchek at Evolved Analytics
• Stuart Card
• Michael Affenzeller at the University of Applied Science Upper Austria
A number of people made key contributions to the organization of the work-
shop. Foremost among them is Constance James, who helped behind the scenes
before, during, and after the workshop. Special thanks to Michigan State University,
for providing Zoom online services, as well as to the Springer-Nature Publishing
Company, for producing this book. We are particularly grateful for contractual assis-
tance by Mio Sugino, Springer-Nature Tokyo, and Ronan Nugent, Springer-Nature
Heidelberg.
We would also like to express our gratitude to Carl Simon at the Center for the
Study of Complex Systems at the University of Michigan and to Erik Goodman
and Charles Ofria at the BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action at
Michigan State University for their continued support. Free online social space was
provided by wonder.me.

East Lansing, MI, USA Wolfgang Banzhaf

Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico Leonardo Trujillo
Hagenberg, Austria Stephan Winkler
Ann Arbor, MI, USA Bill Worzel
September 2021
Contents

1 Finding Simple Solutions to Multi-Task Visual Reinforcement

Learning Problems with Tangled Program Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Caleidgh Bayer, Ryan Amaral, Robert J. Smith, Alexandru Ianta,
and Malcolm I. Heywood
2 Grammar-Based Vectorial Genetic Programming
for Symbolic Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Philipp Fleck, Stephan Winkler, Michael Kommenda,
and Michael Affenzeller
3 Grammatical Evolution Mapping
for Semantically-Constrained Genetic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Alcides Fonseca, Paulo Santos, Guilherme Espada, and Sara Silva
4 What Can Phylogenetic Metrics Tell us About Useful Diversity
in Evolutionary Algorithms? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Jose Guadalupe Hernandez, Alexander Lalejini, and Emily Dolson
5 An Exploration of Exploration: Measuring the Ability
of Lexicase Selection to Find Obscure Pathways to Optimality . . . . . 83
Jose Guadalupe Hernandez, Alexander Lalejini, and Charles Ofria
6 Feature Discovery with Deep Learning Algebra Networks . . . . . . . . . 109
Michael F. Korns
7 Back to the Future—Revisiting OrdinalGP and Trustable
Models After a Decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Mark Kotanchek and Nathan Haut
8 Fitness First . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
W. B. Langdon
9 Designing Multiple ANNs with Evolutionary Development:
Activity Dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Julian Francis Miller

xi
xii Contents

10 Evolving and Analyzing Modularity with GLEAM (Genetic

Learning by Extraction and Absorption of Modules) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Anil Kumar Saini and Lee Spector
11 Evolution of the Semiconductor Industry, and the Start of X
Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Andrew N. Sloss

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Contributors

Michael Affenzeller Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory (HEAL),

University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria;
Institute for Formal Models and Verification, Johannes Kepler University, Linz,
Austria
Ryan Amaral Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS,
Canada
Caleidgh Bayer Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS,
Canada
Emily Dolson BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action and Depart-
ment of Computer Science and Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and Behavior
Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Guilherme Espada LASIGE, Departamento de Informática da Faculdade de Ciên-
cias da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Philipp Fleck Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory (HEAL), Univer-
sity of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria;
Institute for Formal Models and Verification, Johannes Kepler University, Linz,
Austria
Alcides Fonseca LASIGE, Departamento de Informática da Faculdade de Ciências
da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Nathan Haut Michigan State University, Lansing, MI, USA
Jose Guadalupe Hernandez BEACON Center for the Study of Evolution in Action
and Department of Computer Science and Ecology, Evolutionary Biology, and
Behavior Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Malcolm I. Heywood Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
NS, Canada

xiii
xiv Contributors

Alexandru Ianta Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS,

Canada
Michael Kommenda Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory (HEAL),
University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria;
Josef Ressel Center for Symbolic Regression, University of Applied Sciences Upper
Austria, Hagenberg, Austria
Michael F. Korns Korns Associates, San Juan, PR, USA
Mark Kotanchek Evolved Analytics LLC, Rancho Santa Fe, CA, USA
Alexander Lalejini Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA;
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
W. B. Langdon Department of Computer Science, University College London,
London, UK
Julian Francis Miller University of York, York, UK
Charles Ofria Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Anil Kumar Saini University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
Paulo Santos LASIGE, Departamento de Informática da Faculdade de Ciências da
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Sara Silva LASIGE, Departamento de Informática da Faculdade de Ciências da
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Andrew N. Sloss Arm Ltd., Washington, USA
Robert J. Smith Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS,
Canada
Lee Spector Amherst College, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst,
MA, USA
Stephan Winkler Heuristic and Evolutionary Algorithms Laboratory (HEAL),
University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg, Austria;
Institute for Formal Models and Verification, Johannes Kepler University, Linz,
Austria
Chapter 1
Finding Simple Solutions to Multi-Task
Visual Reinforcement Learning Problems
with Tangled Program Graphs

Caleidgh Bayer, Ryan Amaral, Robert J. Smith, Alexandru Ianta,

and Malcolm I. Heywood

Abstract Tangled Program Graphs (TPG) represents a genetic programming frame-

work in which emergent modularity incrementally composes programs into teams
of programs into graphs of teams of programs. To date, the framework has been
demonstrated on reinforcement learning tasks with stochastic partially observable
state spaces or time series prediction. However, evolving solutions to reinforcement
tasks often requires agents to demonstrate/ juggle multiple properties simultaneously.
Hence, we are interesting in maintaining a population of diverse agents. Specifically,
agent performance on a reinforcement learning task controls how much of the task
they are exposed to. Premature convergence might therefore preclude solving aspects
of a task that the agent only later encounters. Moreover, ‘pointless complexity’ may
also result in which graphs largely consist of hitchhikers. In this research we bench-
mark the utilization of rampant mutation (multiple mutations applied simultane-
ously for offspring creation) and action programs (multiple actions per state). Sev-
eral parameterizations are also introduced that potentially penalize the introduction
of hitchhikers. Benchmarking over five VizDoom tasks demonstrates that rampant
mutation reduces the likelihood of encountering pathologically bad offspring while
action programs appears to improve performance in four out of five tasks. Finally,
use of TPG parameterizations that actively limit the complexity of solutions appears
to result in very efficient low dimensional solutions that generalize best across all
combinations of 3, 4 and 5 VizDoom tasks.

C. Bayer · R. Amaral · R. J. Smith · A. Ianta · M. I. Heywood (B)

Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Bayer
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Amaral
e-mail: [email protected]
R. J. Smith
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Ianta
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 1
W. Banzhaf et al. (eds.), Genetic Programming Theory and Practice XVIII,
Genetic and Evolutionary Computation,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8113-4_1
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