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Collection Highlights

Terraform Up and Running Writing Infrastructure as Code

1st Edition Yevgeniy Brikman

Practical Modern JavaScript Dive into ES6 and the Future

of JavaScript Nicolás Bevacqua

Terraform Up Running Writing Infrastructure as Code 2 /

converted Edition Yevgeniy Brikman

gRPC Up and Running Building Cloud Native Applications

with Go and Java for Docker and Kubernetes Kasun Indrasiri
Ansible Up and Running 2nd Edition Lorin Hochstein

Laravel Up Running 2nd Edition Matt Stauffer

Deep Dive into Power Automate: Learn by Example 1st

Edition Mishra

Nature of the City Green Infrastructure from the Ground Up

1st Edition Tom Armou

Dive Into Algorithms: A Pythonic Adventure for the

Intrepid Beginner 1st Edition Bradford Tuckfield
Kubernetes: Up and Running
Dive into the Future of Infrastructure

Kelsey Hightower, Brendan Burns, and Joe Beda

Kubernetes: Up and Running
by Kelsey Hightower, Brendan Burns, and Joe Beda
Copyright © 2017 Kelsey Hightower, Brendan Burns, and Joe Beda. All rights
reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North,
Sebastopol, CA 95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional
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For more information, contact our corporate/institutional sales department: 800-
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Editor: Angela Rufino

Production Editor: Melanie Yarbrough

Copyeditor: Christina Edwards

Proofreader: Rachel Head

Indexer: Kevin Broccoli

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Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery

Illustrator: Rebecca Demarest

September 2017: First Edition

Revision History for the First Edition
2017-09-05: First Release

See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781491935675 for release

details.
The O’Reilly logo is a registered trademark of O’Reilly Media, Inc. Kubernetes:
Up and Running, the cover image, and related trade dress are trademarks of
O’Reilly Media, Inc.
While the publisher and the authors have used good faith efforts to ensure that
the information and instructions contained in this work are accurate, the
publisher and the authors disclaim all responsibility for errors or omissions,
including without limitation responsibility for damages resulting from the use of
or reliance on this work. Use of the information and instructions contained in
this work is at your own risk. If any code samples or other technology this work
contains or describes is subject to open source licenses or the intellectual
property rights of others, it is your responsibility to ensure that your use thereof
complies with such licenses and/or rights.
978-1-491-93567-5
[LSI]
For Klarissa and Kelis, who keep me sane. And for my Mom, who taught me a
strong work ethic and how to rise above all odds. — Kelsey Hightower
For my Dad, who helped me fall in love with computers by bringing home
punch cards and dot matrix banners. — Joe Beda
For Robin, Julia, Ethan, and everyone who bought cookies to pay for that
Commodore 64 in my third-grade class. — Brendan Burns
Preface
Kubernetes: A Dedication
Kubernetes would like to thank every sysadmin who has woken up at 3 a.m. to
restart a process. Every developer who pushed code to production only to find
that it didn’t run like it did on their laptop. Every systems architect who
mistakenly pointed a load test at the production service because of a leftover
hostname that they hadn’t updated. It was the pain, the weird hours, and the
weird errors that inspired the development of Kubernetes. In a single sentence:
Kubernetes intends to radically simplify the task of building, deploying, and
maintaining distributed systems. It has been inspired by decades of real-world
experience building reliable systems and it has been designed from the ground
up to make that experience, if not euphoric, at least pleasant. We hope you enjoy
the book!
Who Should Read This Book
Whether you are new to distributed systems or have been deploying cloud-native
systems for years, containers and Kubernetes can help you achieve new levels of
velocity, agility, reliability, and efficiency. This book describes the Kubernetes
cluster orchestrator and how its tools and APIs can be used to improve the
development, delivery, and maintenance of distributed applications. Though no
previous experience with Kubernetes is assumed, to make maximal use of the
book you should be comfortable building and deploying server-based
applications. Familiarity with concepts like load balancers and network storage
will be useful, though not required. Likewise, experience with Linux, Linux
containers, and Docker, though not essential, will help you make the most of this
book.
Why We Wrote This Book
We have been involved with Kubernetes since its very beginnings. It has been
truly remarkable to watch it transform from a curiosity largely used in
experiments to a crucial production-grade infrastructure that powers large-scale
production applications in varied fields, from machine learning to online
services. As this transition occurred, it became increasingly clear that a book that
captured both how to use the core concepts in Kubernetes and the motivations
behind the development of those concepts would be an important contribution to
the state of cloud-native application development. We hope that in reading this
book, you not only learn how to build reliable, scalable applications on top of
Kubernetes, but also that you receive insight into the core challenges of
distributed systems that led to its development.
A Word on Cloud-Native Applications Today
From the first programming languages, to object-oriented programming, to the
development of virtualization and cloud infrastructure, the history of computer
science is a history of the development of abstractions that hide complexity and
empower you to build ever more sophisticated applications. Despite this, the
development of reliable, scalable applications is still dramatically more
challenging than it ought to be. In recent years, containers and container
orchestration APIs like Kubernetes have become an important abstraction that
radically simplifies the development of reliable, scalable distributed systems.
Though containers and orchestrators are still in the process of entering the
mainstream, they are already enabling developers to build and deploy
applications with a speed, agility, and reliability that would have seemed like
science fiction only a few years ago.
Navigating This Book
This book is organized as follows. The first chapter outlines the high-level
benefits of Kubernetes without diving too deeply into the details. If you are new
to Kubernetes, this is a great place to start to understand why you should read the
rest of the book.
The following chapter provides a detailed introduction to containers and
containerized application development. If you’ve never really played around
with Docker before, this chapter will be a useful introduction. If you are already
a Docker expert, it will likely be mostly review.
Chapter 3 covers how to deploy Kubernetes. While most of this book focuses on
how to use Kubernetes, you need to get a cluster up and running before you start
using it. While running a cluster for production is out of the scope of this book,
this chapter presents a couple of easy ways to create a cluster so that you can
understand how to use Kubernetes.
Starting with Chapter 5, we dive into the details of deploying an application
using Kubernetes. We cover Pods (Chapter 5), labels and annotations
(Chapter 6), services (Chapter 7), and ReplicaSets (Chapter 8). These form the
core basics of what you need to deploy your service in Kubernetes.
After those chapters, we cover some more specialized objects in Kubernetes:
DaemonSets (Chapter 9), jobs (Chapter 10), and ConfigMaps and secrets
(Chapter 11). While these chapters are essential for many production
applications, if you are just learning Kubernetes they can be skipped and
returned to later, after you gain more experience and expertise.
We then cover deployments (Chapter 12), which tie together the lifecycle of a
complete application, and integrating storage into Kubernetes (Chapter 13).
Finally, we conclude with some examples of how to develop and deploy real-
world applications in Kubernetes.
Online Resources
You will want to install Docker. You likely will also want to familiarize yourself
with the Docker documentation if you have not already done so.
Likewise, you will want to install the kubectl command-line tool. You may also
want to join the Kubernetes slack channel, where you will find a large
community of users who are willing to talk and answer questions at nearly any
hour of the day.
Finally, as you grow more advanced, you may want to engage with the open
source Kubernetes repository on GitHub.
Conventions Used in This Book
The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Italic
Indicates new terms, URLs, email addresses, filenames, and file extensions.
Constant width
Used for program listings, as well as within paragraphs to refer to program
elements such as variable or function names, databases, data types,
environment variables, statements, and keywords.
Constant width bold
Shows commands or other text that should be typed literally by the user.
Constant width italic
Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values or by values
determined by context.

NOTE
This icon signifies a tip, suggestion, or general note.

WARNING
This icon indicates a warning or caution.
Using Code Examples
Supplemental material (code examples, exercises, etc.) is available for download
at https://github.com/kubernetes-up-and-running/examples.
This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, if example code is
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We appreciate, but do not require, attribution. An attribution usually includes the
title, author, publisher, and ISBN. For example: “Kubernetes: Up and Running
by Kelsey Hightower, Brendan Burns, and Joe Beda (O’Reilly). Copyright 2017
Kelsey Hightower, Brendan Burns, and Joe Beda, 978-1-491-93567-5.”
If you feel your use of code examples falls outside fair use or the permission
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Chapter 1. Introduction

Kubernetes is an open source orchestrator for deploying containerized

applications. Kubernetes was originally developed by Google, inspired by a
decade of experience deploying scalable, reliable systems in containers via
application-oriented APIs.1
But Kubernetes is much more than simply exporting technology developed at
Google. Kubernetes has grown to be the product of a rich and growing open
source community. This means that Kubernetes is a product that is suited not just
to the needs of internet-scale companies but to cloud-native developers of all
scales, from a cluster of Raspberry Pi computers to a warehouse full of the latest
machines. Kubernetes provides the software necessary to successfully build and
deploy reliable, scalable distributed systems.
You may be wondering what we mean when we say “reliable, scalable
distributed systems.” More and more services are delivered over the network via
APIs. These APIs are often delivered by a distributed system, the various pieces
that implement the API running on different machines, connected via the
network and coordinating their actions via network communication. Because we
rely on these APIs increasingly for all aspects of our daily lives (e.g., finding
directions to the nearest hospital), these systems must be highly reliable. They
cannot fail, even if a part of the system crashes or otherwise fails. Likewise, they
must maintain availability even during software rollouts or other maintenance
events. Finally, because more and more of the world is coming online and using
such services, they must be highly scalable so that they can grow their capacity
to keep up with ever-increasing usage without radical redesign of the distributed
system that implements the services.
Depending on when and why you have come to hold this book in your hands,
you may have varying degrees of experience with containers, distributed
systems, and Kubernetes. Regardless of what your experience is, we believe this
book will enable you to make the most of your use of Kubernetes.
There are many reasons why people come to use containers and container APIs
like Kubernetes, but we believe they effectively all can be traced back to one of
these benefits:
Velocity

Scaling (of both software and teams)

Abstracting your infrastructure

Efficiency

In the following sections we describe how Kubernetes can help provide each of
these benefits.
Velocity
Velocity is the key component in nearly all software development today. The
changing nature of software from boxed software shipped on CDs to web-based
services that change every few hours means that the difference between you and
your competitors is often the speed with which you can develop and deploy new
components and features.
It is important to note, however, that this velocity is not defined in terms of
simply raw speed. While your users are always looking for iterative
improvement, they are more interested in a highly reliable service. Once upon a
time, it was OK for a service to be down for maintenance at midnight every
night. But today, our users expect constant uptime, even if the software they are
running is changing constantly.
Consequently, velocity is measured not in terms of the raw number of features
you can ship per hour or day, but rather in terms of the number of things you can
ship while maintaining a highly available service.
In this way, containers and Kubernetes can provide the tools that you need to
move quickly, while staying available. The core concepts that enable this are
immutability, declarative configuration, and online self-healing systems. These
ideas all interrelate to radically improve the speed with which you can reliably
deploy software.
The Value of Immutability
Containers and Kubernetes encourage developers to build distributed systems
that adhere to the principles of immutable infrastructure. With immutable
infrastructure, once an artifact is created in the system it does not change via
user modifications.
Traditionally, computers and software systems have been treated as mutable
infrastructure. With mutable infrastructure, changes are applied as incremental
updates to an existing system. A system upgrade via the apt-get update tool is
a good example of an update to a mutable system. Running apt sequentially
downloads any updated binaries, copies them on top of older binaries, and makes
incremental updates to configuration files. With a mutable system, the current
state of the infrastructure is not represented as a single artifact, but rather an
accumulation of incremental updates and changes. On many systems these
incremental updates come from not just system upgrades but operator
modifications as well.
In contrast, in an immutable system, rather than a series of incremental updates
and changes, an entirely new, complete image is built, where the update simply
replaces the entire image with the newer image in a single operation. There are
no incremental changes. As you can imagine, this is a significant shift from the
more traditional world of configuration management.
To make this more concrete in the world of containers, consider two different
ways to upgrade your software:
1. You can log into a container, run a command to download your new
software, kill the old server, and start the new one.

2. You can build a new container image, push it to a container registry, kill
the existing container, and start a new one.

At first blush, these two approaches might seem largely indistinguishable. So

what is it about the act of building a new container that improves reliability?
The key differentiation is the artifact that you create, and the record of how you
created it. These records make it easy to understand exactly the differences in
some new version and, if something goes wrong, determine what has changed
and how to fix it.
Additionally, building a new image rather than modifying an existing one means
the old image is still around, and can quickly be used for a rollback if an error
occurs. In contrast, once you copy your new binary over an existing binary, such
rollback is nearly impossible.
Immutable container images are at the core of everything that you will build in
Kubernetes. It is possible to imperatively change running containers, but this is
an antipattern to be used only in extreme cases where there are no other options
(e.g., if it is the only way to temporarily repair a mission-critical production
system). And even then, the changes must also be recorded through a declarative
configuration update at some later time, after the fire is out.
Declarative Configuration
Immutability extends beyond containers running in your cluster to the way you
describe your application to Kubernetes. Everything in Kubernetes is a
declarative configuration object that represents the desired state of the system. It
is Kubernetes’s job to ensure that the actual state of the world matches this
desired state.
Much like mutable versus immutable infrastructure, declarative configuration is
an alternative to imperative configuration, where the state of the world is defined
by the execution of a series of instructions rather than a declaration of the
desired state of the world. While imperative commands define actions,
declarative configurations define state.
To understand these two approaches, consider the task of producing three
replicas of a piece of software. With an imperative approach, the configuration
would say: “run A, run B, and run C.” The corresponding declarative
configuration would be “replicas equals three.”
Because it describes the state of the world, declarative configuration does not
have to be executed to be understood. Its impact is concretely declared. Since the
effects of declarative configuration can be understood before they are executed,
declarative configuration is far less error-prone. Further, the traditional tools of
software development, such as source control, code review, and unit testing, can
be used in declarative configuration in ways that are impossible for imperative
instructions.
The combination of declarative state stored in a version control system and
Kubernetes’s ability to make reality match this declarative state makes rollback
of a change trivially easy. It is simply restating the previous declarative state of
the system. With imperative systems this is usually impossible, since while the
imperative instructions describe how to get you from point A to point B, they
rarely include the reverse instructions that can get you back.
Self-Healing Systems
Kubernetes is an online, self-healing system. When it receives a desired state
configuration, it does not simply take actions to make the current state match the
desired state a single time. It continuously takes actions to ensure that the current
state matches the desired state. This means that not only will Kubernetes
initialize your system, but it will guard it against any failures or perturbations
that might destabilize your system and affect reliability.
A more traditional operator repair involves a manual series of mitigation steps,
or human intervention performed in response to some sort of alert. Imperative
repair like this is more expensive (since it generally requires an on-call operator
to be available to enact the repair). It is also generally slower, since a human
must often wake up and log in to respond. Furthermore, it is less reliable since
the imperative series of repair operations suffer from all of the problems of
imperative management described in the previous section. Self-healing systems
like Kubernetes both reduce the burden on operators and improve the overall
reliability of the system by performing reliable repairs more quickly.
As a concrete example of this self-healing behavior, if you assert a desired state
of three replicas to Kubernetes, it does not just create three replicas — it
continuously ensures that there are exactly three replicas. If you manually create
a fourth replica Kubernetes will destroy one to bring the number back to three. If
you manually destroy a replica, Kubernetes will create one to again return you to
the desired state.
Online self-healing systems improve developer velocity because the time and
energy you might otherwise have spent on operations and maintenance can
instead be spent on developing and testing new features.
Scaling Your Service and Your Teams
As your product grows, its inevitable that you will need to scale both your
software and the teams that develop it. Fortunately, Kubernetes can help with
both of these goals. Kubernetes achieves scalability by favoring decoupled
architectures.
Decoupling
In a decoupled architecture each component is separated from other components
by defined APIs and service load balancers. APIs and load balancers isolate each
piece of the system from the others. APIs provide a buffer between implementer
and consumer, and load balancers provide a buffer between running instances of
each service.
Decoupling components via load balancers makes it easy to scale the programs
that make up your service, because increasing the size (and therefore the
capacity) of the program can be done without adjusting or reconfiguring any of
the other layers of your service.
Decoupling servers via APIs makes it easier to scale the development teams
because each team can focus on a single, smaller microservice with a
comprehensible surface area. Crisp APIs between microservices limit the
amount of cross-team communication overhead required to build and deploy
software. This communication overhead is often the major restricting factor
when scaling teams.
Easy Scaling for Applications and Clusters
Concretely, when you need to scale your service, the immutable, declarative
nature of Kubernetes makes this scaling trivial to implement. Because your
containers are immutable, and the number of replicas is simply a number in a
declarative config, scaling your service upward is simply a matter of changing a
number in a configuration file, asserting this new declarative state to Kubernetes,
and letting it take care of the rest. Alternately, you can set up autoscaling and
simply let Kubernetes take care of it for you.
Of course, that sort of scaling assumes that there are resources available in your
cluster to consume. Sometimes you actually need to scale up the cluster itself.
Here again, Kubernetes makes this task easier. Because each machine in a cluster
is entirely identical to every other machine, and the applications themselves are
decoupled from the details of the machine by containers, adding additional
resources to the cluster is simply a matter of imaging a new machine and joining
it into the cluster. This can be accomplished via a few simple commands or via a
prebaked machine image.
One of the challenges of scaling machine resources is predicting their use. If you
are running on physical infrastructure, the time to obtain a new machine is
measured in days or weeks. On both physical and cloud infrastructure, predicting
future costs is difficult because it is hard to predict the growth and scaling needs
of specific applications.
Kubernetes can simplify forecasting future compute costs. To understand why
this is true, consider scaling up three teams, A, B, and C. Historically you have
seen that each team’s growth is highly variable and thus hard to predict. If you
are provisioning individual machines for each service, you have no choice but to
forecast based on the maximum expected growth for each service, since
machines dedicated to one team cannot be used for another team. If instead you
use Kubernetes to decouple the teams from the specific machines they are using,
you can forecast growth based on the aggregate growth of all three services.
Combining three variable growth rates into a single growth rate reduces
statistical noise and produces a more reliable forecast of expected growth.
Furthermore, decoupling the teams from specific machines means that teams can
share fractional parts of each other’s machines, reducing even further the
overheads associated with forecasting growth of computing resources.
Scaling Development Teams with Microservices
As noted in a variety of research, the ideal team size is the “two-pizza team,” or
roughly six to eight people, because this group size often results in good
knowledge sharing, fast decision making, and a common sense of purpose.
Larger teams tend to suffer from hierarchy, poor visibility, and infighting, which
hinder agility and success.
However, many projects require significantly more resources to be successful
and achieve their goals. Consequently, there is a tension between the ideal team
size for agility and the necessary team size for the product’s end goals.
The common solution to this tension has been the development of decoupled,
service-oriented teams that each build a single microservice. Each small team is
responsible for the design and delivery of a service that is consumed by other
small teams. The aggregation of all of these services ultimately provides the
implementation of the overall product’s surface area.
Kubernetes provides numerous abstractions and APIs that make it easier to build
these decoupled microservice architectures.
Pods, or groups of containers, can group together container images
developed by different teams into a single deployable unit.

Kubernetes services provide load balancing, naming, and discovery to

isolate one microservice from another.

Namespaces provide isolation and access control, so that each microservice

can control the degree to which other services interact with it.

Ingress objects provide an easy-to-use frontend that can combine multiple

microservices into a single externalized API surface area.

Finally, decoupling the application container image and machine means that
different microservices can colocate on the same machine without interfering
with each other, reducing the overhead and cost of microservice architectures.
The health-checking and rollout features of Kubernetes guarantee a consistent
approach to application rollout and reliability that ensures that a proliferation of
microservice teams does not also result in a proliferation of different approaches
to service production lifecycle and operations.
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