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Advances in Geographic Information Science

Ola Ahlqvist
Christoph Schlieder Editors

Geogames
and
Geoplay
Game-based Approaches to the Analysis
of Geo-Information
Advances in Geographic Information Science

Series editors
Shivanand Balram, Burnaby, Canada
Suzana Dragicevic, Burnaby, Canada
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7712
Ola Ahlqvist • Christoph Schlieder
Editors

Geogames and Geoplay

Game-based Approaches to the Analysis
of Geo-Information
Editors
Ola Ahlqvist Christoph Schlieder
Department of Geography Faculty of Information Systems
The Ohio State University and Applied Computer Sciences
Columbus, OH, USA University of Bamberg
Bamberg, Germany

ISSN 1867-2434     ISSN 1867-2442 (electronic)

Advances in Geographic Information Science
ISBN 978-3-319-22773-3    ISBN 978-3-319-22774-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22774-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958350

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2018

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Foreword

Many people around the world were taken by surprise in July 2016 by the release of
Pokémon Go, a virtual‐reality‐based mobile game. The mainstream press felt the
need to expose every possible angle to the story: privacy, safety, physical exercise,
add‐on complementary products, and of course business models.
But this mobile game did not appear from a vacuum. It was a re‐skinning
(rebranding) of a far less popular game called Ingress, which served for a couple of
years as the user‐generated data collector that fed the current version. The people
behind the game at the company Niantic had not only top pedigree (the CEO John
Hanke was a co‐founder of Keyhole, which became Google Earth) but also the
backing of the technology giant Google/Alphabet from which it spun‐off. And the
partnership with Pokémon’s creator, Nintendo, did not hurt either.
This is one of the relatively few success stories in the world of thousands of game
launches every year. The editors and authors of this book have been studying similar
games—geogames—and related game mechanics for years now. Successful geo-
games are born of successful planning, narrative design, technical implementation,
marketing, as well as other factors. These can and are being studied in much greater
depth at universities around the world.
When I contacted the editors to ask their opinion on the new Pokémon Go, they
took some time to study it deeply and came back with some interesting, detailed
criticism (and praise). Just as a best‐selling novel might not be the best‐written, this
hugely popular game had its flaws. Some—excessive personal data collection for
example—were picked up by others, and Niantic was forced to make immediate
fixes. But the point is that geogames—mobile games in which geographic location
of the players is a foundational characteristic—are easier than ever to create; how-
ever, creating a successful geogame remains as much an art as a science.
This book covers many of the key aspects of geogame and geoplay design,
implementation, and testing. Of special interest to me are two concepts: geogame
patterns and relocation from one context (city) to another. Identifying patterns
allows us to more easily abstract and to imagine how new game ideas can fit into an
overall structure and therefore borrow or inherit well‐tested ideas from nearby fields
or communities. Relocation of a geogame from city to city involves interesting

v
vi Foreword

g­ eographic information system (GIS) tasks such as identifying similar places by

their geometrical or descriptive characteristics.
It has been a pleasure to have worked with the editors and with some of the
authors over the last few years, in the ideation, testing, and creation of geogames.
This book also is the fruit of several workshops on geogames and geoplay, held
in locations such as California, Spain, Austria, and Finland, during which very use-
ful feedback was received from a wide range of participants, from programmers to
educational psychologists.
I hope that the reader of this book also provides feedback and actively partici-
pates in this nascent community of geogame and geoplay researchers and practitio-
ners. This community will surely grow and prosper in the coming decades and will
be able to point to this book as an early anchor or flag planted in the sand. Imagine,
create, explore, learn, enjoy.

Michael Gould
Esri, Inc.
Redlands, CA, USA
University Jaume I
Castellón, Spain
Contents

1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing

an Emerging Research Field ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 1
Ola Ahlqvist and Christoph Schlieder
2 Defining a Geogame Genre Using Core Concepts
of Games, Play, and Geographic Information and Thinking������������������ 19
Ola Ahlqvist, Swaroop Joshi, Rohan Benkar, Kiril Vatev, Rajiv
Ramnath, Andrew Heckler, and Neelam Soundarajan
3 OriGami: A Mobile Geogame for Spatial Literacy���������������������������������� 37
Thomas Bartoschek, Angela Schwering, Rui Li, Stefan Münzer,
and Vânia Carlos
4 Spatial Game for Negotiations and Consensus Building
in Urban Planning: YouPlaceIt!������������������������������������������������������������������ 63
Alenka Poplin and Kavita Vemuri
5 Addressing Uneven Participation Patterns in VGI
Through Gamification Mechanisms���������������������������������������������������������� 91
Vyron Antoniou and Christoph Schlieder
6 Teaching Geogame Design: Game Relocation
as a Spatial Analysis Task�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 111
Christoph Schlieder, Dominik Kremer, and Thomas Heinz
7 (Re-)Localization of Location-Based Games ������������������������������������������ 131
Simon Scheider and Peter Kiefer
8 The Design and Play of Geogames as Place-­Based Education�������������� 161
Jim Mathews and Christopher Holden
9 A Cost-effective Workflow for Depicting Landscapes
in Immersive Virtual Environments �������������������������������������������������������� 177
Nathaniel J. Henry

vii
viii Contents

10 Structural Gamification of a University GIS Course ���������������������������� 195

Michael N. DeMers
11 Geocaching on the Moon �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 209
Cheng Zhang

Ludography�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 233
Contributors

Ola Ahlqvist Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, Columbus,

OH, USA
Vyron Antoniou Hellenic Army General Staff/Geographic Directorate, Athens,
Greece
Emelie Bailey The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Thomas Bartoschek Institute for Geoinformatics, University of Muenster,
Muenster, Germany
Rohan Benkar The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Vânia Carlos University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Michael N. DeMers New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA
Andrew Heckler Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Thomas Heinz University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
Nathaniel J. Henry Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Christopher Holden University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Swaroop Joshi Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Peter Kiefer Institute of Cartography and Geoinformation, ETH Zurich, Zurich,
Switzerland
Dominik Kremer University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
Rui Li University at Albany-SUNY, Albany, NY, USA
Stefan Münzer University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
Jim Mathews Field Day Lab, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
Alenka Poplin Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA

ix
x Contributors

Rajiv Ramnath Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Simon Scheider Institute of Cartography and Geoinformation, ETH Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland
Department of Human Geography and Spatial Planning, University Utrecht,
Utrecht, Netherlands
Christoph Schlieder University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
Angela Schwering Institute for Geoinformatics, University of Muenster, Muenster,
Germany
Neelam Soundarajan Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Kiril Vatev Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Kavita Vemuri International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad,
India
Cheng Zhang NASA Scientific Visualization Studio at Goddard Space Flight
Center, Greenbelt, MD, USA
The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Chapter 1
Introducing Geogames and Geoplay:
Characterizing an Emerging Research Field

Ola Ahlqvist and Christoph Schlieder

1.1 Introduction

Games and play are part of human life, and place, space, and geography take central
roles in determining the rules and interactions of games. Consider how integral
maps are to the board game RISK, how video game players navigate through a real-
istic ‘world’ in pursuit of a goal, the millions of Pokemon Go players navigating the
real world to find new Pokemon. Even the very abstract maps of Monopoly and
Chess are inherently geographical, utilizing basic spatial rules for game play.
This is a book about games that use real-world information and geographic infor-
mation technologies. As such it is the first of its kind, which may sound surprising
considering the ubiquity of geographic information (GI) technologies and location-­
based applications in modern life. We use navigation apps to find our way from A to
B, we check in at places with social apps, and digital photographs typically contain
the location of each picture as part of the data file. However, this widespread access
to mobile information, communication, and geospatial technologies only very
recently inspired any significant development of gaming activities that are con-
nected to the real world. Terms for these games began appearing around 2004–2005:
pervasive games, ubiquitous games, augmented-, alternate-, and mixed-reality
games, mobile games, and adaptronic games.
We seek to provide a wide umbrella for this first book, and with the title Geogames
and Geoplay we consider all games and play that uses real geocontent and is

O. Ahlqvist (*)
Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, 1049B Derby Hall, 154 N Oval Mall,
Columbus, OH 43210, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Schlieder
Faculty of Information Systems and Applied Computer Sciences, University of Bamberg,
Kapuzinerstraße 16, 96047 Bamberg, Germany

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2018 1

O. Ahlqvist, C. Schlieder (eds.), Geogames and Geoplay, Advances in
Geographic Information Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22774-0_1
2 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

mediated by GI technology. In the following subsections we will elaborate further

on this definition, and the chapter concludes with an introduction to the rest of this
book. The authors of the book chapters are representative of a diverse community of
researchers and designers, a community, we must add, which has not agreed on a
standard terminology for describing geographic gameplay so far. We have refrained
from asking the authors to commit to a list of technical terms created by the editors
because we could foresee that they would return to their preferred terminology in
their very next publication. We have taken care, however, that each chapter defines
its core concepts. A prominent case is the term “geogame” itself, which some chap-
ters use in a narrower sense than we do here.

1.2 GIS/Spatial Principles and Game Patterns

A key motivation for this book was the conception that geocontent, i.e. real-world
spatial information, brings something unique to games and play. Many of the terms
mentioned above (mobile, location-based, etc.) have become associated with par-
ticular technologies, which means that they would be subject to change with con-
stantly changing technology. We therefore seek a more stable and generic way to
characterize and define the realm of “Geogames and Geoplay”.
This calls for an examination of what elements define the geographic dimension
and the gaming dimension of geogames. In the following sections we will interro-
gate some of the existing literature on the core concepts for geographic information
and game design. After this, we will provide two different perspectives on how the
two realms of Geo and Games map onto each other.

1.2.1 Core Geographic Concepts

In an effort intended to support “…a broader use of spatial information in science

and society”, Kuhn (2012) sought to provide an understanding of what spatial infor-
mation is and how it can be used across disciplines and populations in science and
society. He identified ten core concepts of spatial information to guide experts,
scientists and practitioners across a wide range of disciplines. The ten concepts are:
Location, Neighbourhood, Field, Object, Network, Event, Granularity, Accuracy,
Meaning, and Value. Although Kuhn and Ballatore (2015) later narrowed this list of
core concepts down to seven, eliminating Neighborhood, Meaning, and Value,
because we are interested in identifying a comprehensive collection of core con-
cepts, we will consider the original ten in our following discussion.
Another theory of core geographic concepts related to spatial thinking was
developed around the same time, but independently of Kuhn, by Janelle and
Goodchild (2011). Their concepts were a synthesis of several previous works and
identified the following nine as a foundation for spatial reasoning: Location,
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 3

Distance, Neighborhood and Region, Networks, Overlays, Scale, Spatial

Heterogeneity, Spatial Dependence, Objects and Fields. It should be noted that
these two proposals are slightly different in their objectives. While Kuhn’s focus is
on spatial information and its properties, Janelle and Goodchild focus on spatial
thinking in the social sciences. So, by examining the two proposals side by side
(Table 1.1) we find significant overlaps, but also some unique contributions that
forms a tentative synthesis of the two perspectives.
Kuhn does not identify distance per se as a key concept, but rather suggests that
“nearness” is “...a natural companion concept to location” and part of his
“Neighbourhood” concept. Other than those small nuances, the first halves of the
two frameworks, as listed above, largely agree (see Table 1.1).
Differences are most clear upon reaching Kuhn’s (2012) concept of Event (time),
and the non-spatial information concepts of Accuracy, Meaning and Value. Janelle
and Goodchild include the analytical concepts of Overlays, Spatial Heterogeneity
and Spatial Dependence. It seems clear from Janelle and Goodchild’s presentation
that time is considered an integral component of their Fields/Objects concept where
they explicitly talk about space-time. The remaining differences are clearly related
to the different perspectives taken by each proposition. Accuracy, Meaning and
Value are all specific and central to geographic information, whereas Overlays,
Spatial heterogeneity and Spatial dependence are all foundational ideas to spatial
thinking.
Thus, we will consider the unified list (right column in Table 1.1) as a prelimi-
nary comprehensive list of core concepts for geographic information and thinking.
With this conceptual framework in place for the “Geo” realm, we now turn our
attention to the “Game” realm.

1.2.2 Core Game and Play Concepts

In game design there is no direct equivalent to the core geographic concepts.

Game designers have looked, however, for methods and typologies assisting them
in reducing the complexity of their task. As in other design disciplines, most nota-
bly in architecture and software engineering, a compositional approach has
proven successful. This approach describes a design as consisting of interrelated
conceptual building blocks, so-called patterns. When Björk, Lundgren, and
Holopainen (2003) introduced patterns into game research, they did so by explic-
itly referring to the already well-established software design patterns of Gamma
et al. (1995). Using that perspective, a game pattern describes a generic solution
to a specific class of design problems. The high-score list pattern, for instance,
solves the problem of instigating competition among players without implement-
ing a full-blown multi-­player game flow. Like in software engineering, patterns
are associated with trade-­offs and design implications, which are included in the
pattern description.
4 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

Table 1.1 Alignment and differences between core geographic concepts proposed for spatial
information (Kuhn 2012; Kuhn and Ballatore 2015) and for spatial thinking (Janelle and Goodchild
2011)
Kuhn (2012), Kuhn and Janelle and Goodchild Proposed unified core
Ballatore (2015) (2011) geographic concepts
Location—answers where? Location—formal and Location—formal and informal
but should be understood as informal methods of ways of specifying where?
a relation between figures specifying “where”
located with respect to a (locations and divisions of
chosen ground the world)
Distance—relationships Distance—relationships between
between places by places/objects by measures of
measures of proximity (space-time) proximity
Neighbourhood—answers Neighborhood and Neighborhood—identifies
what is near? commonly Region—drawing places/regions in terms of
thought of as regions inferences from spatial distance and spatial context
context (situations and
neighborhood of places)
Field—describe continuous Fieldsa—phenomena that Field—continuous phenomena
phenomena that have an are continuous in that have a thematic attribute
attribute everywhere in a space-time everywhere in space-time
space of interest
Object—describe Objectsa—phenomena that Object—individuals that have
individuals or elements that are discrete in space-time an identity as well as spatial,
have an identity as well as temporal, and thematic
spatial, temporal, and properties
thematic properties
Network—connectivity as Networks—linear networks Network—relationships
captured by binary with connections and flows (connections and flows) between
relationships between nodes objects (nodes)
(objects)
Granularity—amount of Scale—level of detail in a Granularity/Scale—extent and
detail in spatial information geographic dataset amount of detail in spatial
information
Event—an individual Event—an individual portion of
portion of a process, a process, bounded in time
bounded in time
Overlays—inferring spatial Overlays—inferring spatial
associations by comparing associations by comparing
mapped variables by mapped variables by locations
locations
Spatial heterogeneity—the Spatial heterogeneity—
implications of spatial implications of spatial variability
variability
Spatial dependence— Spatial dependence—
understanding relationships understanding relationships
across space across space
(continued)
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 5

Table 1.1 (continued)

Kuhn (2012), Kuhn and Janelle and Goodchild Proposed unified core
Ballatore (2015) (2011) geographic concepts
Accuracy—difference Accuracy—difference between
between spatial information spatial information and some
and some reference reference considered ‘true’
considered ‘true’
Meaning—how to interpret Meaning—how to interpret
terms in spatial information terms in spatial information
Value—the roles played by Value—the roles played by
spatial information in society spatial information in society
a
Objects and Fields are presented together as one concept by Janelle and Goodchild

Two inventories of game patterns are of special interest to the study of geogames
and geoplay. Davidsson et al. (2004) compiled a collection of 74 patterns. It is less
comprehensive than the list identified by Björk and Holopainen (2004), but in our
context, it has two advantages: First, the patterns are specific to games played on
mobile devices, while the more extensive list refers to all kinds of games from pre-­
computer children’s puzzles to survival horror video games. Second, and more
important, the identification of the pattern inventory relies on a systematic method
in which expert game designers analyze a set of well-known model games. More
recently, Sintoris (2015) has identified another inventory of 41 game patterns using
a comparable method and focusing on location-based games only (all studied games
use some kind of positioning technology and let the players interact with the geo-
graphic environment). Detailed pattern descriptions are available on the project’s
Wiki (Sintoris 2015).
In the context of geogames that are not location-based, it is useful to also look at
inventories of general, not just spatial, game patterns. Building on earlier works on
game patterns, Holopainen (2011) developed a component framework to help navi-
gate and define general design patterns that have been identified. He identified 18
components as the “basic building blocks” of games and grouped them into four
categories: (1) Holistic—These components help in defining how gaming differs
from other activities and describing how players can join and end a specific game.
The holistic components are: Game Instance, Game Session, Play Session,
Set-up and set-down sessions, and Extra-Game Activities that are related to but
not directly affecting game play itself. (2) Bounding—These components define
purposes for playing the game and permissible game play activities. The bounding
components are: Rules, Modes of Play, Goals and Sub-goals. (3) Temporal—
These components record the game play by identifying and separating a larger
game play activity into temporally separated activities. The temporal components
are: Actions, Events, Closures, End Conditions, Evaluation Functions. (4)
Structural—These components describe the basic parts of the game, such as objects
representing real-world or imaginary objects, people or creatures, or abstract phe-
nomena like values or attributes. The structural components are: Game Facilitator,
6 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

Players, Interface, Game Elements, Game Time—In a similar effort, and also
informed by the early work on game design patterns, Järvinen (2008) identified
nine Key Game Elements as generic classes of things that make up an entire game
system and suggested they could be used for analyzing games. They are:
Components, Rule Set, Environment, Game Mechanics, Theme, Information,
Interface, Player(s), and Contexts. While Holopainen’s work primarily uses a
game design perspective, the elements identified by Järvinen is derived from a more
user oriented perspective. Maybe due to this difference the correspondence of these
two typologies are not as apparent as with the previous spatial concepts, but exam-
ining them side by side does allow us to assess possible alignments as well as
unique ideas, just as we did with the spatial concepts in Table 1.1.
As we can see in Table 1.2, these two separate efforts display some similarities
and overlaps, but also significant differences. Maybe the largest difference is
Holopainen’s (2011) temporal components of Game instance, Game session, Play
session, Set-up & set-down, Extra game activities, and Game time, which do not
have a direct equivalent in Järvinen’s (2008) game elements. Järvinen discusses
these in terms of ‘game states’ as temporal reference points, but never raises it to the
level of a separate game element. Rather, it is something that his compound
‘Information’ element would capture through query of the system. The benefits of
Holopainen’s more specific set of concepts is that we get a vocabulary for talking
about a simulation as a closed event with particular sub-components. Similarly,
Holopainen provides a more specific vocabulary for the rules, policies, goals and
events that emanate from play activities. These are all more or less subsumed by
Järvinen’s much broader term “Rule set”, but they identify a collection of unique
temporal concepts related to specific aspects of game events and procedures that are
ultimately governed by rules. Järvinen’s game elements Contexts and Theme do not
have a direct correspondence in Holopainen’s components. This is probably due to
Järvinen’s focus on semiotic, rhetorical and cultural aspects of games. As we will
see in the next section though, these elements seem to have direct alignments with
some of the core geographic concepts identified previously. For the remaining ele-
ments and components there seems to be a fairly obvious alignment of concepts
related to interface, player actions, and the game ‘world’.

1.3 Reconciling Core Geographic and Game Concepts

We are now ready to examine the geographic and game dimensions together, as
articulated in the core concepts identified in the previous section. We will first high-
light how spatial information processing relates to the game patterns from the inven-
tory of Davidsson et al. (2004) and the inventory of Sintoris (2015), we then provide
a complementary perspective on how the core concepts of games and play from
Table 1.2 can enrich the geographic core concepts in Table 1.1.
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 7

Table 1.2 Alignment and differences between proposed game components (Holopainen 2011)
and key game elements (Järvinen 2008)
Game components Key game elements
Holopainen (2011) Järvinen (2008)
Game Instance—a single completion of Information—information about events, agents,
game play as a unique configuration of a set objects, and the system state
of players, the place where it is played, and
external circumstances under which it is
played
Game Session—the activity undertaken in a
game instance by the game’s players
Play Session—several distinct periods of
game play activity inside a game session
Set-up and Set-down Sessions—game and
play activities that do not constitute game
play directly but are required and take place
nevertheless
Extra-Game Activities—any extra activities
related to the game but not directly related to
playing the game itself.
Game Time—the timeline of sequentially
ordered actions in a game session
Contexts—where, when and why the game
encounter takes place.
Rules—explicit or implicit policies that Rule set—procedures that governs game play,
dictate the flow of the game permissible actions, etc.
Modes of play—sections, phases or turns
where the interface, available actions, and
information for the players—and thus also
the activities—are very different.
Goals and sub-goals—the aim of players’
plans and actions in a game
Events—discrete points in game play where
the game state changes
Evaluation Functions—determines the
outcome of an event
Closures—the completion of a goal or a
sub-goal
End conditions—the game states when
closures occur and when the game instance
ends.
Actions—discrete or continuous player Game mechanics—actions that players can
actions that change the game state engage in as part of playing, e.g. placing,
shooting, maneuvering, trading.
Theme—the subject matter of a game, often
used to provide a metaphor for the game system
and rule set, e.g. a treasure hunt or a command
and conquer historic war scenario.
(continued)
8 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

Table 1.2 (continued)

Game components Key game elements
Holopainen (2011) Järvinen (2008)
Game Facilitator—oversees the workings Players—people who play
of a game, taking care of the game events,
rules and also resolves possible disputes.
Players—the entities that strive toward the
goals in a game by choosing and performing
actions.
Interface—the different types and forms of Interface—various means, devices and tools
representations by which players have access that allow players to access and interact with the
to a game other game elements, e.g. pen and paper,
computer screen, pointing device.
Game Elements—the physical and logical Components—the resources for play that are
attributes that help maintain and inform moved or modified in game transactions, e.g.
players about the current game state tokens, tiles, characters, vehicles.
Environment—the space for play, e.g. a
specific setup, game board, grid, maze, level,
world.

1.3.1  patial/Non-spatial Game Patterns and Core Geographic

S
Concepts

While the game pattern inventories (Davidsson et al. 2004; Sintoris 2015) described
in the previous section do not cover the entire field of geogames and geoplay, they
nevertheless provide us with an opportunity to assess the role of spatial concepts in
an important subfield of spatial game design. We evaluated the pattern descriptions
of the two inventories using the core spatial concepts (Table 1.1) occurring in them.
Verbatim occurrences (e.g. “proximity”) as well as paraphrases (e.g. “the distance
between the player and a certain physical location” for “proximity”) were noted,
and patterns, which explicitly referred to at least one core concept were categorized
as having a strong spatial component. The analysis of the pattern descriptions from
Davidsson et al. (2004), reveals that 23 (31%) of the 74 patterns have such a strong
spatial component. The “Strategic Locations” pattern is one example. Its descrip-
tion states: “Mobile games … often make use of strategic locations where players
receive special benefits”. A portal in the Ingress game, for instance, constitutes such
a strategic location that players must interact with in order to win the game. Most
patterns, however, are non-spatial like the “Highscore List” pattern. Interestingly,
the analysis of the inventory of Sintoris (2015) produces a similar result.
Again, a part of the patterns, 13 (32%) from 41, show a strong connection to
spatial information. Considering both inventories, we find that, roughly speaking,
one third of the game patterns are spatial. To a certain extent, this explains why a
designer may get along for some time without caring much about spatial informa-
tion processing. Location-based geogames are first and foremost games. Spatial
information processing is secondary and only involved to the extent needed to support
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 9

Table 1.3 Fundamental spatial game patterns

D = Davidsson et al.
Characteristics of the cluster (2004) Associated core
of game patterns S = Sintoris (2015) concepts
Locality entering (or leaving) a place Strategic locations Location object
enables specific game actions (D 28)
Spatial structure (S
6.4)
Co-locality (S 3.18)
Proximity approaching (or gaining Player-location Distance neighborhood
distance from) a player or proximity (D 8) field overlays
artifact triggers game events Artifact-location
proximity (D 9)
Player-player
proximity (D 10)
Artifact-artifact
proximity (D 13)
Proximity (S 6.2)

game design goals. However, with one-third of the patterns being related to spatial
concepts, these patterns bear considerable potential to improve a design. This is
where the geographic core concepts can demonstrate their utility. They allow us to
establish a correspondence between spatial game patterns and the core concepts,
which reveals in which respect both inventories are still incomplete. Note that the
two inventories (Davidsson et al. 2004; Sintoris 2015) do not identify exactly the
same set of spatial patterns. This is not too surprising as they were elicited from two
different sets of model games. Since we are interested in a common core of patterns,
we used the underlying concepts of spatial information processing to group the
game patterns from both inventories into clusters. The grouping is based on the pat-
tern descriptions found in the two inventories. We group together patterns, which
predominantly refer to the same core concept.
At the most basic level, two clusters of patterns emerge: locality and proximity
(Table 1.3). Locality patterns refer to places, that is, to geographic positions with a
game-specific meaning (e.g. a portal in the Ingress game). Most game designers
model such places as objects with spatial boundaries. The spatial position of the
player with respect to the places determines the available game actions. Locality
patterns require some positioning technology that determines automatically whether
the player enters a place and may perform the intended action. Proximity refers to
the concepts of distance and neighborhood, and the variation of proximity consti-
tutes a (local) field where the closeness to a location, to another player, to a virtual
or a real artifact triggers a game event. Such patterns are based on a gradual decision
function, which is why the inventory of Sintoris (2015) associates these patterns
with the hot-cold type of feedback given to players.
10 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

Table 1.4 Spatial activity game patterns

D = Davidsson et al.
Characteristics of the cluster of (2004) Associated core
game patterns S = Sintoris (2015) concepts
Navigation identifying and following a Physical navigation Network
route in geographic space (D 5) granularity
Path-finding (S 3.7)
Race Reaching a place before other Race (D 31) Event accuracy
players do Competition (S 1.3)
Collection Identify, locate and get hold of Collection (D 71) Event value
an object Collecting (S 3.17)

The locality and proximity patterns are fundamental in the sense that any
location-­based game engine has to support at least one such pattern. Other game
patterns refer to more complex core concepts like network, granularity, event, accu-
racy or value. It is possible to identify associated clusters of patterns describing
different spatial activities (Table 1.4). We found three such clusters in the two inven-
tories: navigation patterns, race patterns, and collection patterns. Interestingly, some
patterns frequently found in location-based games are missing. Two examples are
spatial exploration patterns such as hierarchical spatial search and spatial movement
patterns such as flock movement or encirclement. It would be extremely helpful for
the design of spatial game engines to have a complete list of spatial activity patterns.
Anyone attempting to do a complete review of spatial activity patterns should start
with a more comprehensive list of model games. We must leave this task to future
research.
Besides the fundamental spatial patterns (Table 1.3) and the spatial activity pat-
terns (Table 1.4) there is a third group of patterns, which we might call spatial inter-
action patterns. They are more complex in that they involve social conventions and
interactions. We will not list them in a table because the inventories mention only a
single one: the gaining ownership pattern (No. 29 in Sintoris 2015). The dearth of
spatial interaction patterns suggests that the inventories are quite incomplete.
Although our observations on the importance of the core concepts to game
design are restricted to location-based geogames, they may transfer to other geo-
games, for instance, geographic simulation games. Very likely, an analysis of a set
of model simulation games will also reveal the fundamental patterns of locality and
proximity. The spatial activity patterns (e.g. race) might be different and the social
interaction patterns (e.g. ownership) will most likely be more complex in simulation
games than in location-based geogames.
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 11

1.3.2 I ntersection of Core Geographic Concepts with Games

and Play

There are also some direct correspondence or similarity between the game compo-
nents/elements (Holopainen 2011; Järvinen 2008) and core geographic concepts. In
an effort to identify those overlaps and to possibly enrich the core geographic con-
cepts with some of the unique aspects that games embody, we have tried to align the
core geographic concepts from Table 1.1 with the two described typologies for
game analysis from Table 1.2. Our proposed alignment can be found in Table 1.5
below, where we list the previously proposed collection of unified core geographic
concepts in the left column and the game components and elements in the middle
and right column. In addition, we tentatively suggest Rules, Agents, Interface, and
Simulation as new concepts to be added to the set of core geographic concepts in
order for them to capture the particulars of not only geogames but geographic simu-
lations in general. These additional concepts will also be discussed below.
Some of Järvinen’s elements have close correspondence with the core geographic
concepts: Components and Environment—roughly corresponding to the discrete
objects and continuous fields (or tessellations) of spatial information; Theme—
roughly corresponding to that of thematic maps, determining the subject matter and
its meaning.
A few other elements closely correspond to other well-known geographic con-
cepts, yet these are not listed among the ‘core’ concepts: Ruleset—roughly corre-
sponding to rules in spatial simulation and modelling; Interface—corresponds with
the devices used to interact with the GIS, usually a computer or mobile device;
Players—roughly corresponds to GIS users with the important caveat that it does
not include game designers, hence not including for example GIS programmers,
database managers, data producers etc. Although, in a spatial simulation context,
players would more likely be equated with agents as in Agent Based Modelling, and
Holopainen’s (2011) game components related to game and play sessions closely
correspond to the act of running a Simulation of a geographic system model. The
fact that these are not directly associated with any of the Kuhn and Ballatore/Janelle
and Goodchild core concepts suggests that the area of geogames offers an opportu-
nity for identifying important gaps in the set of core geographic concepts. We pro-
pose variants of these existing concepts from the game design literature as four new
additions, Rules, Agents, Interface and Simulation, to enrich the key concepts of
geographic information and thinking.
A cross-cutting element in Järvinen’s (2008) collection is Information, indi-
cated by (I) in Table 1.4. This element pertains to all information about objects,
events, agents, and the game system that is needed for the game to work. As such, it
roughly corresponds to everything in a Geographic Information System that per-
tains to a particular (thematic) project, including its actors, available information,
and constraints. Information is a key ingredient of the core geographic concepts and
could therefore potentially help to further specify and organize Järvinen’s
Information element. Together with the suggestions in the previous section, this
12 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

Table 1.5 Alignment and differences between core geographic concepts and proposals for key
game components (Holopainen 2011) and game elements (Järvinen 2008)
Proposed unified and extended core Game components Key game elements
geographic concepts Holopainen (2011) Järvinen (2008)
Location—formal and informal ways of (I)
specifying where?
Distance—relationships between places/ (I)
objects by measures of (space-time)
proximity
Neighborhood—identifies what is near? (I)
in terms distance
Field—continuous phenomena that have a Game elements Environment (I)
thematic attribute everywhere in space-time
Object—describe individuals that have an Game elements Components (I)
identity as well as spatial, temporal, and
thematic properties
Network—relationships (connections and Game elements Environment (I)
flows) between objects (nodes)
Granularity/Scale—amount of detail in (I)
spatial information
Event—an individual portion of a process, Actions (Events) Game mechanics (I)
bounded in time
Overlays—Inferring spatial associations by (I)
comparing mapped variables by locations
Spatial heterogeneity—implications of (I)
spatial variability
Spatial dependence—Understanding (I)
relationships across space
Accuracy—difference between spatial (I)
information and some reference considered
‘true’
Meaning—how to interpret terms in spatial Theme
information
Value—the roles played by spatial Contexts
information in society
New—Rules—Procedures that dictate and Rules Rule set
governs game play (simulation), permissible Modes of play Goals
actions, etc. and sub-goals
(Events)
Evaluation functions
Closures
End conditions
New—Agents—Entities that act toward the Game facilitator Players (I) (Components)
goals or just following rules in a game. Players (Environment)
New—Interface—the different types and Interface Interface
forms of representations by which players
have access to a game
(continued)
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 13

Table 1.5 (continued)

Proposed unified and extended core Game components Key game elements
geographic concepts Holopainen (2011) Järvinen (2008)
New—Simulation—dynamic enactment of Game instance (I)
interrelated objects, agents, and rules in a Game session Play
geographic system model session
Set-up and set-down
Extra game
activities Game time

points at the potential for an enrichment of game design vocabularies using core
geographic concepts.
The correspondence with the remaining two game elements to GIScience con-
cepts is less clear. One is Järvinen’s central concept of Game Mechanics that refers
to the means by which players interact with game elements to influence game states
in order to complete a goal. The 44 game mechanics that Järvinen (2008) identifies
are divided into six categories, largely following the previous seven key elements:
Component, Environment, Theme, Interface, Physical, and Player mechanics. The
reason for this is that the nature of game mechanics is analogous with verbs such as
“Arranging”, “Trading”, and “Moving”, and the other elements mainly relate to the
subject matter of the game, e.g. the components, environment and players that are
involved in doing something. An example parallel to game mechanics in the context
of GIS would be a spatial decision making or planning scenario, where one or more
stakeholders seek to achieve some identified goal, e.g. optimal location of a new
development, by using GIS information, analysis and modelling. An important dif-
ference is the richness of detailed mechanics identified for games because of their
focus on player actions and interactions with any and all game components and the
environment. We find Game Mechanics to most closely align with Kuhn’s (2012)
Event and the proposed ‘new’ concept of simulation. Much like the discussion of
spatial activity patterns (Table 1.3) revealed, this is an area where much research
remains to be done.
The second of Järvinen’s (Ibid.) game elements that is difficult to match up with
existing GIS concepts is Contexts, which refers to the time and place a game is
played. This may sound like a repeat of the components and environment of the
game, but it relates more broadly to a range of factors and relations to audience,
cultures, traditions, public opinions, and motivations surrounding the game play. As
such, game context seeks to consider social and psychological aspects of game play,
and this seems most closely associated with the GIScience literature on cognitive
(Nyerges et al. 1995) and societal (Nyerges et al. 2011) aspects of GIS practice. We
find this to be most closely corresponding to Kuhn’s (2012) Value concept, and this
is another area of increasing importance where there is a lack of research.
Overall, Table 1.4 has helped us identifying the intersection of games and play
with the geographic dimension. It illustrates that the core geographic concepts of
location and analysis of space-time distance, neighborhood, overlap, heterogeneity,
and dependence provide a specific and well-established vocabulary for defining
14 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

Geogames and Geoplay as a particular form of games and play that emphasize spa-
tial relationships and patterns. Additionally, the game research vocabularies we
have introduced here provide a rich source to draw from as we seek to develop a
vocabulary to further describe Geogames, Geoplay, and geographic simulation
activities. As we pointed out before, the notion of Rule Sets, and Players have close
correspondence with spatial simulation concepts.
A significant body of GIScience research have pointed at the importance of inter-
face modalities and it seems likely that this has a particularly important place in
defining Geogames and Geoplay. In games it is quite common that the interface
defines some of the game mechanics and ultimately the game itself (e.g. tennis,
pinball, card games). To a certain degree, much recent development of mobile,
location-­aware devices have paved the way for many new Geogame ideas. Finally,
Holopainen’s (2011) temporal components of Game session, Play Session, Set-up
and set-down, and Extra game activities have direct relevance to the idea of a spatial
simulation. The benefits of Holopainen’s more specific set of concepts is that we get
a vocabulary for talking about a simulation as a closed event with particular
sub-components.
The simulation aspect of Geogames and Geoplay is probably one of its most
distinctive features. Järvinen (2008) argues that games should be seen as systems,
including the dynamic interaction of objects, agents and events. This forms a foun-
dation for using Geogames as instantiations of real-world systems, abstracted to
some thematic focus, and able to provide insights into that system’s behavior under
the particular context of the game play.
We hope that this overview, even if it only constitutes a first effort, provides a
more unified vocabulary that cuts across the realms of Geo and Games. As such it
may provide a helpful foundation for reading this book and potentially for further
research in this exciting area.

1.4 Structure of the Book and Research Questions

The purpose of this book is to provide a first overview of this highly interdisciplin-
ary field with contributions from researchers, GIS professionals and game design-
ers. Over the past 5 years we have seen a significant increase in the number of
initiatives and efforts to build, disseminate and interrogate geogames and geoplay.
There is an emerging research community sharing developments and insights in
geogames and geoplay: A number of dedicated workshops have been held at inter-
national conferences, and funding agencies are now responsive to the emerging
opportunities for discovery and societal impacts offered by this field. Slowly, this
pioneering work is also beginning to provide the contours of a more comprehensive
research agenda.
The chapters in this book are fairly representative of ongoing work as it cuts
across several application areas, types of geogame and geoplay activities, and vary-
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 15

ing types of research approaches and traditions. The scope ranges from f­ undamentals
about games and play, geographic information technologies, game design and cul-
ture, to current examples and forward looking analysis. Unlike other publications in
this area (e.g. Nijholt 2017), where many of the represented perspectives come
from planning, architecture, game studies, computer graphics, the perspectives pro-
vided in this book come primarily from the geospatial sciences. It therefore serves
as an introduction for both geospatial scientists who seek orientation in the spatial
gaming field, as well as for the aforementioned disciplines to gain an understanding
of how those working in the spatial sciences may approach spatial games.
Throughout the chapters, the authors refer to a number of different games. To facili-
tate citation and access to information on these games, we have compiled a joint
ludography. In addition to games, the ludography also lists platforms and frame-
works used for creating games. Games and platforms that have an entry in the
ludography are identified by bold face. Classical console games are included even
if they do not involve geographic gameplay. Traditional board and card games,
however, are omitted. The ludography provides pointers to the chapters and, where
possible, references to publications or links to websites.
In Chap. 2, Ola Ahlqvist, Swaroop Joshi and colleagues identify and describe the
defining characteristics of a recently developed Geogame concept, a Geographic
Information System-Multiplayer Online Game framework (GIS-MOG). This turns
digital world maps, similar to Google and Bing Maps, into a game board where any
place in the world can be experienced first-hand through board game-like simula-
tions. The authors seek to define what it is about this technology that makes it a
unique genre of geogames and learning technologies in general. Using the core
concepts discussed in this introductory chapter, they provide a detailed description
of how these concepts are incorporated in their geogame technology giving exam-
ples from their own game.
Chapter 3 by Thomas Bartoschek, Angela Schwering, and colleagues addresses
the challenges of designing an educational game, OriGami, with the goal of
improving the spatial orientation skills of young players in the age group of 8–12
year olds. The game can be played on mobile devices in outdoor environments,
however, the chapter concentrates on the desktop mode. Their basic idea consists of
letting the players solve route-following tasks based on verbal descriptions that
mobilize different cognitive skills. An instruction such as “Turn right” may force the
player to realign his or her cognitive map with the cartographic representation
shown on the screen. The authors take an approach that is special in that it concen-
trates on a single skill, route following, and carefully analyses the task require-
ments. Even those who do not go through the details of the empirical study, will
realize that the authors address a fundamental issue for the design of any educa-
tional game: Is there anything to learn? It is well-known that there are individual
differences in spatial abilities and a game task has to be designed in a way that play-
ers can improve, in other words, that expertise matters.
In Chap. 4 Alenka Poplin and Kavita Vemuri presents an application scenario
that is situated in collaborative planning and consensus building, negotiation mod-
els, communication in physical vs. digital environment, and Public Participation
16 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

Geographic Information Systems (PPGIS). The chapter describes their work to

develop a digital spatial game that can enable negotiations about planned urban
projects in a large low-income area of Mumbai, India. Their prototype, called
YouPlaceIt!, was implemented as a web browser-based game with some basic GIS
functionality and a satellite imagery base map for orientation. Their goal is to study
the implementation of online place-based negotiations and consensus building and
the chapter reports some early findings from initial testing with experienced plan-
ning professionals. A key observation in this example scenario is the importance of
local/regional languages, especially in cultures like India where many distinct
regional languages exist. Planning scenarios in urban areas can present especially
complex negotiation processes where many native languages could be involved in
one negotiation topic/process.
Chapter 5 by Byron Antoniou and Christoph Schlieder describes spatial alloca-
tion games as a subclass of location-based games suitable for addressing public
participation issues. They study the spatial behavior of contributors to
OpenStreetMap and links it to gamification mechanisms which provide a solution
to issues that arise with patterns of participation. More specifically, three issues are
identified: (1) high productive contributors show little commitment to return and
update geographic features they created, (2) the gap between the accumulated per-
centage of created features and the accumulated percentage of updated features is
widening, (3) there is a significant contrast between areas of high and low mapping
activity. Based on an analysis of the geogames Geographing, Foursquare, Ingress,
and Neocartographer, six common design patterns for the allocation and dealloca-
tion of places are identified. They show how the participation issues map onto the
game design patterns, and results from an agent-based spatial simulation provides
insights into the interaction of the spatial design pattern.
Chapter 6 presents a second chapter from the same research group. Christoph
Schlieder, Dominik Kremer, and Thomas Heinz identify an important part of the
geogame design process, namely game relocation, and provide the methodological
and technical means for addressing this part of the process in the classroom. While
teachers have used geogames in a variety of learning contexts in secondary educa-
tion, they generally avoid letting the students themselves design the game because
of the alleged complexity of the task. In game relocation, the designer adapts a suc-
cessful geogame to a new geographic environment. The approach taken by Schlieder
and colleagues features three components. First, they show how to decompose the
game relocation process into a sequence of spatial analysis tasks accessible to stu-
dents. Second, they present a method, ‘place storming’, which permits students to
search the geographic environment for potential places of game actions. Last, they
describe a software tool developed to support students solving the spatial analysis
tasks involved in game relocation.
Chapter 7 by Simon Scheider and Peter Kiefer also focuses on game relocation
as a core problem in the field of Geogames. While game designers have intuitions
helping them to distinguish better from poorer relocations, no concise general qual-
ity criteria have been formulated so far. The chapter provides quantitative criteria
1 Introducing Geogames and Geoplay: Characterizing an Emerging Research Field 17

for relocation of a generic game model and illustrates them with examples. Although
the approach uses formal notation, the basic idea can be stated informally. There are
essentially two ways in which a relocation can fail and quantitative criteria should
capture both of them. First, the environmental embedding can prevent actions,
which the game mechanics would permit to take place. Physical barriers preventing
access to a place is a typical example. The second type of failure occurs when the
interpretation of game actions in terms of physical actions in the environment leads
to inconsistent game states. If ownership of a place is obtained just by moving to
that place, cases of multiple ownership of a place may occur. In other words, reloca-
tion ties narratives to their physical implementation and these ties may be more or
less supportive to the rules of the game.
A more critical analysis of the relocation issue is provided by Jim Mathews and
Christopher Holden in Chap. 8, where they give an extensive review of existing
games that elaborate on the affordances of combining geogaming with place-based
education. Their main critique of many geogames to date is that they are often sim-
ply “dropped onto” places, without much concern for the local context. Instead they
argue for the adoption of place-based education practices in order to design games
with an emphasis on learning experiences that are situated within a local commu-
nity. They also argue for small, locally based development of such games as opposed
to large scale game-based curriculum design.
Chapter 9 by Nathaniel Henry is motivated by the relatively large cost to gather
very detailed and naturalistic 3-dimensional data from real environments for use
in 3D game engines. Henry introduces a workflow that combines low-cost data
collection from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), 3D reconstruction methods,
and techniques for importing geographic data into a game engine. This approach
offers a citizen-centric, low-cost and time-efficient method for Indie geogame
designers to capture real terrain for use in a 3D virtual environment where users
can navigate from a first-person perspective and view ground objects as they might
appear in real life.
While Chap. 10 by Michael Demers does not deal with a geogame per-se, it dis-
cusses some important elements of games and learning in a highly geospatial set-
ting. First, following the widely used Quality Matters rubric, it argues for the
importance of identifying and aligning course objectives with assessment, instruc-
tional material, activities, and technology among other things. Second, under the
Quest-Based Learning approach, it describes different forms of gamification and
some of the typical game mechanics that are used to gamify a learning activity. At
the center is a description of his own development and implementation of a GIS
course that follows a quest-based format.
Geographic data and the way they are used in game play characterize geogames.
In Chap. 11, the final chapter of the book, Cheng Zhang shows that such data is not
necessarily limited (as the prefix geo- suggests) to terrestrial environments. A spa-
tial treasure hunt may take place on the moon if terrain models and other scientific
data are available. The basic idea explored by Zhang is quite simple: find a suitable
mapping between places on the moon and terrestrial places, which permit to explore
lunar caches by walking and searching caches on Earth.
18 O. Ahlqvist and C. Schlieder

We recognize that the realm of geogames and geoplay is located in the intersec-
tion of two rapidly evolving fields: gaming and GI technology. Any work in this area
runs the risk of quickly becoming outdated, unless the focus is on underlying
­principles and theories rather than the technology itself. We think that the contribu-
tions in this book emphasizes the former and therefore will provide a lasting refer-
ence for future work.

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