II.

General Briquette Production Process

A. Raw Material Preparation (Groundnut Shells)
1. Sourcing and Initial Treatment
Groundnut shells, as the primary feedstock for these projects, should be procured from
readily available local processing facilities or agricultural mills. For example, previous
studies have successfully sourced groundnut shells from processing sites in Dawanu,
Kano, Nigeria, and from a mill in Kpakungu, Minna, Nigeria.
Following collection, a crucial initial step involves the meticulous manual sorting of the
raw groundnut shells. This process aims to eliminate any foreign materials, including
stones, metal fragments, or other contaminants. The presence of such extraneous
matter poses a significant risk, as it can lead to severe damage to the milling and
briquetting machinery, potentially causing blockages or operational failures. The
importance of this seemingly straightforward sorting operation extends beyond mere
cleanliness; it represents a fundamental quality control measure that directly influences
both equipment longevity and the intrinsic integrity of the briquettes. Failure to remove
foreign materials can result in costly machine breakdowns and, more critically for
research, introduce uncontrolled variables that compromise the homogeneity and safety
of the final product. Such inconsistencies can lead to unreliable experimental outcomes
and potential hazards during briquette production and subsequent testing. Therefore,
meticulous adherence to this preparatory step is essential for ensuring the reliability and
reproducibility of experimental data.
2. Size Reduction (Crushing and Milling)
To ensure suitability for compression, raw groundnut shells must undergo size reduction
to achieve a uniform particle size. This is typically accomplished using a hammer mill or
a wood crusher machine, which effectively breaks down the raw material into smaller
fragments. For laboratory-scale operations, initial size reduction can be performed using
a mortar and pestle, followed by more precise mechanical milling to achieve the desired
particle fineness. Particle size reduction is not merely a physical transformation; it is a
critical enabler for effective densification and optimal binder interaction. Smaller, more
uniform particles offer a greater surface area for the binder to adhere to and allow for
tighter packing within the briquette mold. This enhanced packing efficiency directly
translates to briquettes with higher density and superior mechanical strength. The ability
to minimize voids through precise particle sizing is fundamental to achieving the desired
densification, thereby improving the overall quality and performance of the briquettes.
3. Sieving and Particle Size Selection
After the milling process, the ground material must be sieved to obtain a consistent and
controlled particle size range. Common sieve sizes employed in groundnut shell
briquetting research include particles that pass through 850μm sieves but are retained
on 600μm sieves. Other studies have utilized specific sizes such as 0.8mm (fine),
2.4mm (medium), and 4.0mm (coarse), or a 1 mm sieve. A broader range of ASTM
standard sieve sizes, from 75μm to 1.18mm, has also been employed to achieve
precise particle size distribution. The chosen particle size directly influences the
briquette's density, durability, and strength. The selection of particle size is a deliberate
experimental variable that allows for the investigation of fundamental material science
principles in briquetting. By precisely controlling particle size, researchers can
systematically explore how the surface area-to-volume ratio, inter-particle forces, and
packing efficiency influence the overall mechanical and thermal properties of the
briquettes. This approach provides a deeper understanding of the underlying
densification mechanisms and enables targeted optimization of briquette characteristics.
4. Moisture Content Determination and Adjustment
Achieving an optimal moisture content in the raw material is paramount for effective
briquetting, with typical ranges falling between 8-9%. Excessive moisture content,
particularly above 15%, can lead to significant quality issues such as the formation of
cracks within the briquettes, undesirable sticking to the press die, and overall poor
briquette quality. Conversely, insufficient moisture content can also result in problems,
including smoking during processing or inefficient discharge of the briquettes from the
machine.
To achieve the desired moisture level, groundnut shells should be either sun-dried or
oven-dried until a stable and optimal moisture content is attained prior to processing.
The moisture content can be accurately determined by drying samples in a hot air oven
(e.g., at 70°C for 48 hours, or 105°C until a constant weight is achieved) and then
calculating the percentage weight loss. Moisture content functions as a plasticizer and
lubricant during the briquetting process, facilitating the deformation and flow of particles
under applied pressure. However, exceeding the optimal moisture range can lead to the
generation of steam during compaction. This steam creates internal stresses and can
cause cracks within the briquette structure, thereby compromising its integrity. This
highlights a delicate balance where moisture is necessary to aid compaction but must
be carefully controlled to prevent structural defects, ensuring the production of high-
quality briquettes.
B. Principles of Briquetting (Compaction)
Briquetting fundamentally involves the application of high pressure to loose biomass
material, serving two primary purposes: to significantly reduce its volume and to
agglomerate it into a cohesive solid form. This process is designed to overcome the
natural elasticity or "springiness" inherent in organic materials, often by inducing the
destruction of cellular walls through a combination of intense pressure and, in some
cases, elevated temperatures.
Types of Briquetting Machines:
* Piston Presses: These machines apply pressure discontinuously through the action of
a piston on material contained within a cylinder. As raw material is fed, it is pressed
against already compacted material, generating heat through pressure and friction.
* Screw Presses: Utilizing a rotating screw rod, these presses force raw materials into a
forming sleeve. Pressure and heat are built up through friction and the rotational speed
of the screw. Briquettes produced by screw presses are often considered superior in
terms of their storability and combustibility.
* Roller Presses: These machines densify material by passing it between two counter-
rotating rolls, which press the material into pre-designed dies or pockets.
For undergraduate projects, a motorized briquetting machine capable of applying
sufficient pressure (e.g., 30 MPa) is generally suitable. For smaller-scale experimental
batches, manual presses can also be effectively employed.
Compaction Pressure and Dwell Time:
Compaction pressure is a critical parameter that directly influences the final properties
of the briquette. Studies on groundnut shells have utilized pressures ranging from 2.0 to
4.5 MPa or up to 30 MPa. Generally, higher applied pressures lead to briquettes with
greater density and enhanced mechanical strength. In addition to pressure, the "dwell
time"—the duration for which the material remains under compaction—is also an
important factor. Reported dwell times in research include 5 minutes and 120 seconds.
The selection of the briquetting machine type and its operating parameters (such as
pressure and dwell time) involves a strategic compromise between production scale and
efficiency, and the specific quality attributes desired in the briquette. High-pressure
machines, for instance, can sometimes operate without the need for external binders,
relying on the inherent lignin content of the biomass. Conversely, lower-pressure
methods necessitate the incorporation of binders, which fundamentally alters the
material interaction and the resultant product properties. This implies that the choice of
equipment is not merely a logistical decision but a fundamental design choice that pre-
determines the feasibility of utilizing certain binder types and ultimately dictates the
achievable characteristics of the briquettes.
C. Post-Compaction Drying and Curing
Following the compaction process, briquettes are typically warm and may retain excess
moisture, necessitating a cooling and drying phase. Drying can be achieved naturally
through sun-drying over several days (e.g., 3 to 21 days) until a stable moisture content
is attained. Alternatively, oven-drying at controlled temperatures (e.g., 60°C for 24 hours
or 105°C) offers a more controlled environment, particularly beneficial for commercial
production or rigorous experimental conditions.
Proper cooling and drying are vital for the long-term integrity of the briquettes,
potentially extending their shelf life by up to 40%. The curing process, which often
involves this drying phase, allows the binders to fully set and strengthen the briquettes
over time. Post-compaction drying and curing are not simply about removing water; they
are crucial steps for solidifying the binder's adhesive bonds and stabilizing the
briquette's overall structure. Inadequate drying can lead to moisture-related
degradation, compromising the briquette's integrity. Conversely, proper curing facilitates
the full development of mechanical strength, directly impacting the briquette's long-term
utility and its ability to maintain structural integrity under various conditions.
III. Specific Material and Methods for Briquettes with Different Binders
This section details the specific materials and methodologies for producing groundnut
shell briquettes with various binders, building upon the general preparation steps
outlined previously.
B. Groundnut Shell Briquettes with Gum Arabic Binder
1. Materials
* Groundnut Shells: Prepared following the guidelines in Section II.A.
* Gum Arabic: Also known as acacia gum, this natural gum serves as an effective
binder.
* Distilled Water: Required for preparing the gum arabic solution.
2. Binder Preparation
Gum arabic must be prepared as a gelatinous solution to activate its binding properties.
A common method involves immersing 1 kg of gum arabic in 1.5 L of water for 24 hours
to allow it to fully dissolve and form a smooth, homogenous, and clog-free gelatinous
solution. Milling the dried gum arabic into fine granules prior to mixing with water can
significantly aid in its dissolution. The water-solubility and gelatinous nature of gum
arabic make it an effective binder without requiring high-temperature curing, which
offers significant advantages in terms of energy efficiency and operational simplicity for
small-scale production. This characteristic distinguishes it from binders that necessitate
heat-induced chemical transformations, suggesting that gum arabic's binding
mechanism relies predominantly on physical entanglement and hydrogen bonding as it
dries.
3. Mixing and Formulation
The prepared groundnut shell particles must be thoroughly mixed with the gum arabic
solution to achieve a uniform blend.
Binder Ratios: Studies have utilized gum arabic at concentrations of 20% or 25% as a
dry mass share of the total mixture. Students are encouraged to explore a range of
binder concentrations to determine optimal performance. To achieve a homogeneous
mixture, a quantity of water equivalent to 40% of the total dry mass (binder plus
biomass) can be added.
4. Compaction
Briquetting can be performed manually using a hammer and a cylindrical mold or with a
manually operated compaction apparatus. The specific pressure applied and the dwell
time should be carefully recorded and maintained consistently across all experimental
runs.
5. Drying/Curing
Drying should be conducted either under direct sunlight or in a dry air electric oven until
a constant weight is achieved. Gum arabic binders generally do not require thermal
treatment during the curing process.