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Collection Highlights

Resilience to Climate Change Candice Howarth

Adapting to Climate Change in Agriculture-Theories and

Practices: Approaches for Adapting to Climate Change in
Agriculture in India 1st Edition Syed Sheraz Mahdi

Adaptation to Climate Change in Agriculture Research and

Practices Toshichika Iizumi

Sustainable Agriculture in the Era of Climate Change Rajib

Roychowdhury
Including Health in Global Frameworks for Development
Wealth and Climate Change Workshop Summary 1st Edition
Suzanne Landi Et Al.

Adaptive Agricultural Practices: Building Resilience in a

Changing Climate Pradeep Kumar Dubey

Climate Smart Agriculture in South Asia Technologies

Policies and Institutions Barun Deb Pal

Agriculture and Ecosystem Resilience in Sub Saharan Africa

Livelihood Pathways Under Changing Climate Yazidhi
Bamutaze

Climate Change Adaptation in Latin America: Managing

Vulnerability, Fostering Resilience 1st Edition Walter
Leal Filho
Natural Resource Management and Policy
Series Editors: David Zilberman · Renan Goetz · Alberto Garrido

Leslie Lipper
Nancy McCarthy
David Zilberman
Solomon Asfaw
Giacomo Branca Editors

Climate Smart
Agriculture
Building Resilience to Climate Change
Natural Resource Management and Policy

Volume 52

Series Editors
David Zilberman, California, CA, USA
Renan Goetz, Girona, Spain
Alberto Garrido, Madrid, Spain
There is a growing awareness to the role that natural resources, such as water, land,
forests and environmental amenities, play in our lives. There are many competing
uses for natural resources, and society is challenged to manage them for improving
social well-being. Furthermore, there may be dire consequences to natural resources
mismanagement. Renewable resources, such as water, land and the environment are
linked, and decisions made with regard to one may affect the others. Policy and
management of natural resources now require interdisciplinary approaches including
natural and social sciences to correctly address our society preferences.
This series provides a collection of works containing most recent findings on
economics, management and policy of renewable biological resources, such as
water, land, crop protection, sustainable agriculture, technology, and environmental
health. It incorporates modern thinking and techniques of economics and
management. Books in this series will incorporate knowledge and models of natural
phenomena with economics and managerial decision frameworks to assess
alternative options for managing natural resources and environment.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6360

Leslie Lipper • Nancy McCarthy
David Zilberman • Solomon Asfaw
Giacomo Branca
Editors

Climate Smart Agriculture

Building Resilience to Climate Change
Editors
Leslie Lipper Nancy McCarthy
ISPC-CGIAR Lead Analytics Inc.
Roma, Italy Washington, DC, USA

David Zilberman Solomon Asfaw

Department of Agriculture and Resource FAO of the UN
Economics Roma, Italy
University of California Berkeley
Berkeley, CA, USA

Giacomo Branca
Department of Economics
University of Tuscia
Viterbo, Italy

ISSN 0929-127X     ISSN 2511-8560 (electronic)

Natural Resource Management and Policy
ISBN 978-3-319-61193-8    ISBN 978-3-319-61194-5 (eBook)
ISBN 978-92-5-109966-7 (FAO)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61194-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017953417

© FAO 2018
Open Access This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
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Foreword

Eradicating poverty, ending hunger, and taking urgent action to combat climate
change and its impacts are three objectives the global community has committed to
achieving by 2030 by adopting the sustainable development goals. Agriculture, and
the way we manage it in the years leading up to 2030, will be a key determinant of
whether or not these objectives are met. Agriculture has been, and can be further,
used as an important instrument in eradicating hunger, poverty, and all forms of
malnutrition. Climate change however is expected to act as an effective barrier to
agricultural growth in many regions, especially in developing country contexts
heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
Climate change impacts agriculture through a number of pathways. According to
the 2013 IPCC report, all four dimensions of food security are potentially affected
by climate change through their effects on agricultural production and the incomes
of rural households, food prices and markets, and in many other parts of the food
system (e.g., storage, food quality, and safety) (IPCC WGII AR5 Ch 7). Reducing
the vulnerability of agricultural systems to climate change – including the increased
incidence of extreme weather events – and strengthening its adaptive capacity are
therefore important priorities to protect and improve the livelihoods of the poor and
allow agriculture to fully play its role in ensuring food security. Reducing emissions
that contribute to global warming is crucial to securing global wellbeing, and the
agricultural sector has considerable potential for emissions reductions while at the
same time playing its important role in poverty reduction and food security. In short,
agriculture lies at the nexus of resolving urgent global priorities.
FAO is actively working to support countries in grappling with the challenge of
managing agriculture to reduce hunger and poverty in an increasingly climate-
constrained world. FAO launched the concept of climate smart agriculture (CSA) in
2009 to draw attention to linkages between achieving food security and combating
climate change through agricultural development, and the opportunities for attain-
ing large synergies in doing so. In practice, the CSA approach involves integrating
the need for adaptation and the potential for mitigation into the planning and imple-
mentation of agricultural policies, planning, and investments. The point of depar-
ture for the CSA approach is the emphasis on food security and poverty reduction

v
vi Foreword

as the priority in developing countries through enhanced capacity of their agri-food

sectors and institutional and technological innovations. This capacity cannot be
attained without adaptation to changing conditions. At the same time, reducing the
emissions associated with conventional agricultural growth models is one of the
largest and most cost-effective means of reducing GHG emissions, and thus the
CSA approach integrates the potential for obtaining mitigation co-benefits from
agricultural growth strategies.
The CSA concept has gained considerable traction at the international and
national levels; however, there is still a fair amount of confusion regarding the con-
cept and its theoretical underpinning. In addition, the empirical evidence base to
support country implementation strategies is lacking. In particular, there is a need
for defining and operationalizing the concept of resilience and adaptive capacity in
the context of agricultural growth for food security. For these reasons, the Economic
and Social Development Department of FAO has supported the development of this
book, which represents a significant step forward in shedding light to the issues
raised above. This volume brings together research, analysis, and opinions of lead-
ing agricultural and resource economists and policy experts to develop the concep-
tual, empirical, and policy basis for a better understanding of CSA and enhanced
potential for achieving it on the ground.
The first section of this book provides conceptual frameworks as well as method-
ological approaches for operationalizing CSA at the country level. Its main focus is
comparing and contrasting the conceptual approaches to risk management and resil-
ience used in the agricultural development context with that used in the context of
climate change and proposing a consistent approach. It also provides an overview of
the development of the CSA concept, the controversies it has sparked, and how they
relate to the broader debate of sustainable development.
The second section consists of 19 case study chapters focusing on issues of vul-
nerability measurement and assessment, as well as ways of improving the adaptive
capacity at farm and system level and what could be some of the policy responses to
achieve them. These empirical studies showcase a wide range of options (policy
instruments) that contribute to building resilience to climate risk. They include pol-
icy instruments aimed at changing agricultural practices but also policy instruments
in other sectors. Examples include social protection, micro-finance, input subsidies,
micro-insurance, and agricultural knowledge and information systems. The case
studies cover a wide geographic range and scale, from Asia to Africa and the USA
and from households to markets and institutions and the national and global econ-
omy. They draw upon the CSA project work of FAO, as well as that of other agen-
cies applying the CSA approach. The breadth of the case studies provides a basis for
lessons learned in which contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of
policy options to improve the resilience of livelihoods of the rural poor to climate
change. They indicate that we do have considerable tools available to measure,
reduce, and effectively react to climate change–related vulnerability in the agricul-
tural sector, and that it is essential to utilize these instruments in seeking to improve
the agriculture sector’s capacity to support hunger, poverty eradication, and sustain-
able development.
Foreword vii

The third and final section of this book presents the results of a consultation with
a panel of leading thinkers and practitioners on agricultural and climate change
policy. This section is comprised of the responses of these experts to a set of ques-
tions based on the main findings, conclusions, insights, and questions that emerged
from the set of case studies and conceptual papers. Their varied responses to the
issues provide considerable insights into the different approaches and policy priori-
ties for CSA across varying contexts, as well as practical ideas on how to operation-
alize them.
The FAO is committed to providing support to agricultural and climate change
policy-makers and the agricultural producers they serve in their ongoing efforts to
end hunger and poverty and effectively combat climate change effects now and in
the future. This book offers tools and insights for a range of stakeholders to help
meet these challenges in the many forms they are manifested.

Rome, Italy Kostas Stamoulis

Acknowledgments

This book is the outcome of a cooperation between Economic and Policy Innovation
of Climate-Smart Agriculture (EPIC) team of FAO, Department of Agricultural and
Resource Economics of University of California (Berkeley) and the Department of
Economics and Business (DEIM) of Tuscia University (Viterbo, Italy). We express
sincere gratitude to Professors Alessandro Mechelli and Alessandro Sorrentino
(Departmental Faculty) for their continuous support. This publication would not
have been possible without the administrative and organizational help of Laura Gori,
Cristina Mastrogregori, and Giuseppe Rapiti (Departmental Staff). We would also
like to thank the Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) which
hosted the Book Authors’ Workshop “Climate Smart Agriculture: Building Resilience
to Climate Change” held in Palazzo Clerici, Milan (Italy) on August 6, 2015.
We would also like to sincerely thank FAO-HQ staff particularly Jessica
Mathewson, Liliana Maldonado, Paola DiSanto, and Alessandro Spairani for their
administrative and organizational support throughout the whole publication pro-
cess. We finally would like to acknowledge the financial support of FAO.

ix
Contents

Part I Overview and Conceptual Framework

Introduction and Overview���������������������������������������������������������������������������    3
Solomon Asfaw and Giacomo Branca
 Short History of the Evolution of the Climate Smart
A
Agriculture Approach and Its Links to Climate Change
and Sustainable Agriculture Debates�����������������������������������������������������������   13
Leslie Lipper and David Zilberman
 conomics of Climate Smart Agriculture: An Overview���������������������������   31
E
Nancy McCarthy, Leslie Lipper, and David Zilberman
I nnovation in Response to Climate Change�������������������������������������������������   49
David Zilberman, Leslie Lipper, Nancy McCarthy, and Ben Gordon

Part II Case Studies: Vulnerability Measurements and Assessment

 se of Satellite Information on Wetness and Temperature
U
for Crop Yield Prediction and River Resource Planning���������������������������   77
Alan Basist, Ariel Dinar, Brian Blankespoor, David Bachiochi, and
Harold Houba
 arly Warning Techniques for Local Climate Resilience:
E
Smallholder Rice in Lao PDR����������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
Drew Behnke, Sam Heft-Neal, and David Roland-Holst
 armers’ Perceptions of and Adaptations to Climate Change
F
in Southeast Asia: The Case Study from Thailand and Vietnam�������������� 137
Hermann Waibel, Thi Hoa Pahlisch, and Marc Völker
 .S. Maize Yield Growth and Countervailing Climate
U
Change Impacts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Ariel Ortiz-Bobea

xi
xii Contents

 nderstanding Tradeoffs in the Context of Farm-Scale Impacts:

U
An Application of Decision-Support Tools for Assessing
Climate Smart Agriculture���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 173
Susan M. Capalbo, Clark Seavert, John M. Antle, Jenna Way,
and Laurie Houston

Part III Case Studies: Policy Response to Improving Adaptation

and Adaptive Capacity
 an Insurance Help Manage Climate Risk and Food Insecurity?
C
Evidence from the Pastoral Regions of East Africa������������������������������������ 201
Michael R. Carter, Sarah A. Janzen, and Quentin Stoeffler
 an Cash Transfer Programmes Promote Household Resilience?
C
Cross-Country Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa����������������������������������� 227
Solomon Asfaw and Benjamin Davis
I nput Subsidy Programs and Climate Smart Agriculture:
Current Realities and Future Potential�������������������������������������������������������� 251
Tom S. Jayne, Nicholas J. Sitko, Nicole M. Mason, and David Skole

Part IV Case Studies: System Level Response

to Improving Adaptation and Adaptive Capacity
 obust Decision Making for a Climate-Resilient Development
R
of the Agricultural Sector in Nigeria������������������������������������������������������������ 277
Valentina Mereu, Monia Santini, Raffaello Cervigni,
Benedicte Augeard, Francesco Bosello, E. Scoccimarro,
Donatella Spano, and Riccardo Valentini
 sing AgMIP Regional Integrated Assessment Methods
U
to Evaluate Vulnerability, Resilience and Adaptive Capacity
for Climate Smart Agricultural Systems����������������������������������������������������� 307
John M. Antle, Sabine Homann-KeeTui, Katrien Descheemaeker,
Patricia Masikati, and Roberto O. Valdivia
 limate Smart Food Supply Chains in Developing Countries
C
in an Era of Rapid Dual Change in Agrifood Systems
and the Climate���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 335
Thomas Reardon and David Zilberman
 he Adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture:
T
The Role of Information and Insurance Under Climate Change�������������� 353
Jamie Mullins, Joshua Graff Zivin, Andrea Cattaneo, Adriana
Paolantonio, and Romina Cavatassi
Contents xiii

 Qualitative Evaluation of CSA Options in Mixed

A
Crop-Livestock Systems in Developing Countries�������������������������������������� 385
Philip K. Thornton, Todd Rosenstock, Wiebke Förch, Christine Lamanna,
Patrick Bell, Ben Henderson, and Mario Herrero
I dentifying Strategies to Enhance the Resilience
of Smallholder Farming Systems: Evidence from Zambia������������������������ 425
Oscar Cacho, Adriana Paolantonio, Giacomo Branca,
Romina Cavatassi, Aslihan Arslan, and Leslie Lipper

Part V Case Studies: Farm Level Response to Improving Adaptation

and Adaptive Capacity
 limate Risk Management through Sustainable Land
C
and Water Management in Sub-Saharan Africa����������������������������������������� 445
Ephraim Nkonya, Jawoo Koo, Edward Kato, and Timothy Johnson
I mproving the Resilience of Central Asian Agriculture
to Weather Variability and Climate Change����������������������������������������������� 477
Alisher Mirzabaev
 anaging Environmental Risk in Presence of Climate Change:
M
The Role of Adaptation in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia�������������������������������� 497
Salvatore Di Falco and Marcella Veronesi
 iversification as Part of a CSA Strategy: The Cases
D
of Zambia and Malawi���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 527
Aslihan Arslan, Solomon Asfaw, Romina Cavatassi, Leslie Lipper, Nancy
McCarthy, Misael Kokwe, and George Phiri
 conomic Analysis of Improved Smallholder Paddy
E
and Maize Production in Northern Viet Nam
and Implications for Climate-Smart Agriculture��������������������������������������� 563
Giacomo Branca, Aslihan Arslan, Adriana Paolantonio,
Romina Cavatassi, Nancy McCarthy, N. VanLinh, and Leslie Lipper

Part VI Policy Synthesis and Conclusion

 evising Effective Strategies and Policies for CSA:
D
Insights from a Panel of Global Policy Experts������������������������������������������ 599
Patrick Caron, Mahendra Dev, Willis Oluoch-Kosura, Cao Duc Phat,
Uma Lele, Pedro Sanchez, and Lindiwe Majele Sibanda
 onclusion and Policy Implications to “Climate Smart Agriculture:
C
Building Resilience to Climate Change”������������������������������������������������������ 621
David Zilberman

Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 627
Contributors

John M. Antle College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University,

Corvallis, OR, USA
Aslihan Arslan International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD), Rome,
Italy
Solomon Asfaw FAO of the UN, Rome, Italy
Benedicte Augeard The French National Agency for Water and Aquatic
Environments, Vincennes, France
Alan Basist EyesOnEarth, Asheville, NC, USA
Drew Behnke Department of Economics, University of California Santa Barbara,
Santa Barbara, CA, USA
Patrick Bell Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Brian Blankespoor World Bank, Washington, DC, USA
Francesco Bosello Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change, Lecce, Italy
Giacomo Branca Department of Economics, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
Oscar Cacho University of New England Business School, Armidale, Australia
Susan M. Capalbo College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR, USA
Michael R. Carter Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics,
University of California Davis, USA, NBER and the Giannini Foundation, Davis,
CA, USA
Andrea Cattaneo FAO of the UN, Rome, Italy
Romina Cavatassi International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD),
Rome, Italy

xv
xvi Contributors

Raffaello Cervigni Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice, Africa

Region, The World Bank, Washington, DC, USA
Benjamin Davis Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations,
Rome, Italy
Katrien Descheemaeker Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
Salvatore Di Falco Department of Economics, University of Geneva, Geneva,
Switzerland
Ariel Dinar School of Public Policy, University of California Riverside, Riverside,
CA, USA
Wiebke Förch Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)
GmbH, Gaboron, Germany
Ben Gordon Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics, University of
California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Joshua Graff Zivin School of Global Policy and Strategy, University of California
San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
Sam Heft-Neal Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University
of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Ben Henderson Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), Australia
Mario Herrero Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), Australia
Sabine Homann-KeeTui International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics, Zimbabwe
Harold Houba Free University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Laurie Houston College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR, USA
Sarah A. Janzen Department of Economics, Montana State University, Bozeman,
MT, USA
Tom S. Jayne Department of Agricultural, Food and Resource Economics,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Timothy Johnson Environment and Production Technology, IFPRI, Washington,
DC, USA
Edward Kato Environment and Production Technology, IFPRI, Washington, DC,
USA
Misael Kokwe FAO of the UN, Lusaka, Zambia
Contributors xvii

Jawoo Koo Environment and Production Technology, IFPRI, Washington, DC,

USA
Christine Lamanna World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
Leslie Lipper ISPC-CGIAR, Rome, Italy
Patricia Masikati World Agroforestry Centre, Lusaka, Zambia
Nicole M. Mason Department of Agricultural, Food and Resource Economics,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Nancy McCarthy Lead Analytics Inc., Washington, DC, USA
Valentina Mereu Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change, Change, Italy
Alisher Mirzabaev University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Jamie Mullins Department of Resource Economics, University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
Ephraim Nkonya Environment and Production Technology, IFPRI, Washington,
DC, USA
Ariel Ortiz-Bobea Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Thi Hoa Pahlisch Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics, Leibniz
University Hannover, Germany
Adriana Paolantonio International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD),
Rome, Italy
George Phiri FAO of the UN, Lilongwe, Malawi
Thomas Reardon Department of Agricultural, Food and Resource Economics,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
David Roland-Holst Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics,
University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Todd Rosenstock World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya
Monia Santini Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change, Lecce, Italy
E. Scoccimarro Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change, Lecce, Italy
Clark Seavert College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University,
Corvallis, OR, USA
David Skole Department of Forestry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI,
USA
Nicholas J. Sitko Department of Agricultural, Food and Resource Economics,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
xviii Contributors

Donatella Spano Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change, Italy

Kostas Stamoulis FAO, Economic and Social Development Department, Rome,
Italy
Quentin Stoeffler Department of Economics, Istanbul Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey
Philip K. Thornton CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture
and Food Security (CCAFS), ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya
Roberto O. Valdivia Department of Applied Economics, Corvallis, OR, USA
Riccardo Valentini Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change, Lecce, Italy
N. VanLinh Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viet Nam,
Rome, Italy
Marcella Veronesi Department of Economics, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
Marc Völker Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University,
Salaya, Thailand
Hermann Waibel Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics, Leibniz
Universität Hannover, Hanover, Germany
Jenna Way College of Agricultural Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
OR, USA
David Zilberman Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics, University
of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
 Part I
Overview and Conceptual Framework
Introduction and Overview

Solomon Asfaw and Giacomo Branca

Abstract The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept is gaining considerable

traction at international and national levels to meet the challenges of addressing
agricultural planning under climate change. CSA is a concept that calls for integra-
tion of the need for adaptation and the possibility of mitigation in agricultural
growth strategies to support food security. Several countries around the world have
expressed intent to adopt CSA approach to managing their agricultural sectors.
However there is considerable confusion about what the CSA concept and approach
actually involve, and wide variation in how the term is used. It is critical to build a
more formal basis for the CSA concept and methodology and at the same time pro-
viding illustrations of how the concept can be applied across a range of conditions.
This book expand and formalize the conceptual foundations of CSA drawing upon
theory and concepts from agricultural development, institutional and resource eco-
nomics. The book is also devoted to a set of country level case studies illustrating
the economic basis of CSA in terms of reducing vulnerability, increasing adaptive
capacity and ex-post risk coping. It also addresses policy issues related to climate
change focusing on the implications of the empirical findings for devising effective
strategies and policies to support resilience and the implications for agriculture and
climate change policy at national, regional and international levels. The book pro-
vide development agencies and practitioners, policymakers, civil society, research
and academia as well as private sector with tested good practices and innovative
approaches of promoting CSA system at country level.

S. Asfaw (*)
FAO of the UN, Rome, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Branca
Department of Economics, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]

© FAO 2018 3
L. Lipper et al. (eds.), Climate Smart Agriculture, Natural Resource
Management and Policy 52, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61194-5_1
4 S. Asfaw and G. Branca

Climate change poses a major and growing threat to global food security. Population
growth and rising incomes in much of the developing world have pushed demand
for food and other agricultural products to unprecedented levels. FAO has estimated
that, in order to meet food demand in 2050, annual world production of crops and
livestock will need to be 60% higher than it was in 2006. In developing countries,
about 80% of the required increase will need to come from higher yields and
increased cropping intensity and only 20% from expansion of arable land1.
Meeting food demand for a growing population is already a formidable chal-
lenge for the agriculture sector, but it will be further exacerbated by climate change.
The expected effects of climate change – higher temperatures, extreme weather
events, water shortages, rising sea levels, the disruption of ecosystems and the loss
of biodiversity – will generate significant effects on the different dimensions and
determinants of food security by affecting the productivity of rainfed crops and for-
age, reducing water availability and changing the severity and distribution of crop
and livestock diseases. The fifth assessment report of the IPCC released in 2014
found that climate change effects are already being felt on agriculture and food
security, and the negative impacts are most likely in tropical zones where most of
the world’s poor agricultural dependent populations are located. Through its impacts
on agriculture, climate change will make it more difficult to meet the key Sustainable
Development Goal of ending hunger, achieving year-round food security, and ensur-
ing sustainable food production systems by 2030.
The magnitude and speed of climate change, and the effectiveness of adaptation
and mitigation efforts in agriculture, will be critical to the future of large segments
of the world’s population. Integrating the effects of climate change into agricultural
development planning is a major challenge. This requires technology and policy
measures to reduce vulnerability and increase the capacity of producers, particu-
larly smallholders, to effectively adapt. At the same time, given agriculture’s role as
a major source of greenhouse gas emissions and the high rate of emissions growth
experienced with recent conventional intensification strategies, there is a need to
look for low emissions growth opportunities and adequate policies. Policymakers
are thus challenged to ensure that agriculture contributes to addressing food secur-
ity, development and climate change.
In this frame, Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach that calls for
integration of the need for adaptation and the possibility of mitigation in agricultural
growth strategies to support food security. The concept was launched by FAO in
20102, gaining rapid and widespread interest and attention. CSA goes beyond agri-
cultural practices and technologies to include enabling policies and institutions as
well as identification of financing mechanisms. There are significant intellectual
and policy gaps to be filled in CSA literature. An economic decision-making frame-
work will also assist in identifying challenges for CSA application.

1
See http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_World_
in_2050.pdf.
2
See http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1881e/i1881e00.pdf.
Introduction and Overview 5

1 Overview of the Book

This book expands and formalizes the conceptual foundations of CSA drawing
upon theory and concepts from agricultural development, institutional and resource
economics. The book focuses particularly on the adaptation/resilience dimension of
CSA, since this is the least well developed in the economics literature. A mixture of
conceptual analyses, including theory, empirical and policy analysis, and case stud-
ies look at: (1) ex-ante reduction of vulnerability, (2) increasing adaptive capacity
through policy response, (3) increasing adaptive capacity through system level
response and (4) increasing adaptive capacity through farm level response.
The book provides a wide array of case studies to illustrate that these concepts
have strong real-world applicability. The case study approach will provide concrete
illustrations of the conceptual and theoretical framework, taking into account the
high level of diversity in agro-ecological and socioeconomic situations faced by
agricultural planners and policy-makers today. Some case studies assess issues of
measurement of vulnerability to climate change and damage caused by it. Others
address issues of improving adaptive capacity, and the ex-post impact of different
policy measures.
In the book, economists and policy-makers will find an interpretation and opera-
tionalizing of the concepts of resilience and adaptive capacity in the context of agri-
cultural growth for food security. The combination of methodological analysis of
CSA and an empirical analysis based on a set of case studies from Asia and Africa
is unique. We are not aware of other books that contain all of this integrated knowl-
edge in one place and provide a perspective on its lessons.
The book is structured as follows. Part I illustrates the conceptual framework,
giving an overview of CSA concept, approach, and its main components. This part
relates the main features of the CSA paradigm to core economic principles and
seeks to clarify how the concepts of resilience, adaptive capacity, innovation, tech-
nology adoption and institutions relate to each other and the economic principles of
CSA. Part II reports a set of case studies from leading agricultural development
economists aimed at illustrating the economic basis of CSA in terms of reducing
vulnerability and increasing adaptive capacity. It makes a clear distinction between
responses to building adaptive capacity at policy, system and farm levels. Last, part
III addresses policy issues related to climate change and provides a synthesis of the
key messages of the book. A detailed overview of each part is presented next.

1.1 Part I. Conceptual Chapters

Chapter 2 presents an overview of the evolution of CSA concept, introduces its

major components, and summarizes the key issues associated within the context of
climate change and agricultural policy debates. The main message of this chapter is
that CSA concept has been reshaped through inputs and interactions of multiple
6 S. Asfaw and G. Branca

stakeholders involved in developing and implementing it. The first section provides
an overview of international climate change policy followed by an introduction and
analysis of CSA and its history. This is then followed by a discussion of three broad
controversies related to CSA, namely the role of mitigation, the relationship of CSA
to sustainable agriculture, and how biotechnology is treated in the CSA approach.
CSA provides a tool to identify locally appropriate solutions to managing agricul-
ture for sustainable development and food security under climate change.
Chapter 3 tackles the economic considerations of CSA in addressing sustainable
agricultural growth for food security under climate change. It addresses the lack of
coherence of the CSA approach by building a conceptual framework to rooted in
agricultural development economic theories and concepts. The chapter begins by
highlighting the key features of climate change that require a shift in emphasis in
research, and for innovations in technologies, institutions, and government policies
and programs to consider heterogeneity of impacts and implications of decision-­
making under uncertainty. The chapter does this by posing a dynamic constrained
optimization problem wherein a social planner seeks to maximize expected dis-
counted welfare associated with agriculture of the population they serve, both now
and in the future. The objectives are the four pillars of food security, food availabil-
ity, accessibility, utilization, and stability, as well as reducing emissions growth. The
problem is also characterized by current constraints that bound the feasible out-
comes, including bio-physical, behavioral, political, institutional and distributional
constraints. The chapter stresses that the nature of the optimization, and thus
­adaptation strategies, are context specific and highlight that the solution to the social
planner’s problem for climate change must balance adaptation and responsiveness
to uncertain climate change with the needed growth and food security objectives of
the agricultural sector.
Chapter 4 provides more detailed guidance on the key role of innovation to
address the negative impact of climate change. Innovation in agriculture is clearly
an important response for effective and equitable adaptation and mitigation – and
the chapter highlights the need for managerial and institutional changes that pro-
mote innovation to address the heterogeneity and uncertainty of climate change
impacts. The chapter discusses the main features and the nature of innovation
needed to align these actions with a CSA strategy, suggesting several principles to
guide the introduction of innovation and develop capacity and policies to address
climate change.

1.2 Part II. Country Case Studies

1.2.1 Vulnerability Measurement and Assessment

Chapter 5 shows that near real-time satellite observations can be used to mitigate
impacts of extreme events and promote climate resilience. First, the early detection
of growing conditions and predicting the availability of food directly improves
Introduction and Overview 7

climate resilience and food security. Second, insurance (risk management) pro-
grams can use the indexes in triggers for a quick release of catastrophic bonds to
farmers to mitigate impacts of crop failure. Third, these tools provide information
useful for farmers in assessing yield potential from various crops under current and
changing climatic conditions. Fourth, an early warning system distributed across
the globe can help identify and expedite the exportation of food supplies from areas
where they are in excess into areas where a deficiency is likely to occur. The chapter
also discusses ways of integrating these products with various datasets, such as in
situ surface temperature, the greenness index, and soil moisture data, in order to
expand their complementary value and utility.
Chapter 6 presents key findings from advanced econometric models of long-term
impacts of climate change on rice production in Lao PDR. Results are consistent
with previous work in the region, where there is weak evidence that elevated mini-
mum night-time temperatures are highly damaging to rice yields. Conversely, it is
found that elevated maximum daytime temperatures increase yields. Overall, the
size of the impact and statistical significance is larger for increased maximum tem-
peratures, suggesting that elevated temperatures might have a net positive impact on
rice yields in Lao PDR. The chapter also discusses some major caveats to these
findings in particular the limitation with the quality data used for the analysis.
The perception of climate change and adaptation choices made by farmers are
important considerations in the design of adaptation strategies. Chapter 7 uses a
comprehensive dataset of farm households from Thailand and Vietnam to show that
farmers do perceive climate change, but describe it in quite distinct ways. Further,
adaptation measures are informed by perception and, at least in the case of Vietnam,
perceptions are shaped by the respondent’s characteristics, location variables and
recent climate related shocks.
Chapter 8 illustrates how to assess the yield growth rate requirements needed to
compensate yield losses due to climate change. The crop statistical model employed
allows for nonlinear effects of temperature on yields. In line with the literature, it
suggests that exposure to temperature exceeding 30 °C is detrimental to maize
yields in the US Midwest. The chapter reports that a historical rate in maize yield
growth in the US Midwest of 17.4%/decade exceeds the rate (6.56%/decade) needed
to compensate a plausible warming of 3 °C within the next 3 decades. However, the
net yield trend would be substantially diminished under this scenario due to the
countervailing effect of a warming climate. The chapter also discusses the possibili-
ties of extending the analysis with a cost-benefit analysis of alternative mean-­
increasing or variance-reducing technological change.
Chapter 9 shows that a fine-tuned integrative decision support tool can better
inform growers and landowners of how changes in climate will impact their opera-
tions and their environmental outcomes. The use of a decision support tools such as
AgBiz Logic can provide farmers better information on the relative impacts of adapt-
ing to a change as reflected in changes in future climate conditions, changes in
future policies, prices, and costs or changes in terms of lease arrangements. By
incorporating both climate change and environmental outcomes, these decision
tools can be used to evaluate climate smart options at the farm-scale. The authors
8 S. Asfaw and G. Branca

discuss the use of different tools such as AgBizClimate, AgBizProfit, AgBizFinance,

AgBizLeasee and AgBizEnvironment to measure the impacts of climate change to
wheat production, the role of adaptation strategies to an annual cropping system, the
feasibility of purchasing additional equipment to farm the annual cropping system
and also estimate the trade-offs of economic returns to environmental impacts.

1.2.2 Policy Response to Improving Adaptation and Adaptive Capacity

Chapter 10 uses empirical evidence from the Index-based Livestock Insurance

(IBLI) project in the pastoral regions in East Africa to answer if insurance can cost-
effectively mitigate the increasingly deleterious impacts of climate risk on poverty
and food insecurity. The theory reviewed in this chapter suggests an affirmative
answer if well-designed insurance contracts can be implemented and priced at a
reasonable level despite the uncertainties that attend climate change. At the same
time, much remains to be done if quality index insurance contracts are to be scaled
up and sustained. Demand has often been tepid and unstable. Outreach and adminis-
tration costs have been high. Pricing by a private insurance industry made nervous by
climate change has pushed costs up. Finally, the effective quality of the IBLI contact
has been scrutinized and found wanting. The chapter concludes that insurance is not
an easy, off-the-shelf solution to the problem of climate risk and food insecurity.
Creativity in the technical and institutional design of contracts is still required.
Chapter 11 synthesizes the key findings of From Protection to Production Project
(PtoP) of FAO to show the potential role of cash transfer programmes as a tool to
support risk management and build resilience in sub-Saharan Africa. Such programs
address household resilience by building human capital and improving food secur-
ity and potentially strengthening households’ ability to respond to and cope with
exogenous shocks. This may allow households to mitigate future fluctuations in
consumption. Many of the programmes studied increased investment in agricultural
inputs and assets, including farm implements and livestock, and improved food
security indicators, though results differed across countries. This too was met by
increases in consumption and dietary diversity. Although the impacts on risk man-
agement are less uniform, the cash transfer programmes seem to strengthen com-
munity ties, allow households to save and pay off debts, and decrease the need to
rely on adverse risk coping mechanisms. Finally, using the case study of Zambia the
authors demonstrates the potential for cash transfers to help poor households man-
age climate risk.
Chapter 12 shows that Input Subsidy Programs (ISPs) may provide a poten-
tially useful means to encourage system-wide and farm-level changes to achieve
CSA objectives in Africa. While many ISPs have not contributed significantly to
ex-ante risk management at the household level, recent innovations in ISPs may
enable them to be more climate smart. In particular, moves toward open voucher
systems that induce greater private sector participation hold potential to support
the development of profitable and more sustainable input distribution systems
providing more heat-, drought- and saline-tolerant seed types. Moreover, moving
Introduction and Overview 9

from a limited range of options to a system that provides farmers with a wide
range of input choices has the potential to promote greater livelihood diversifica-
tion and resilience. Programs that make farmer participation in ISPs conditional
on the adoption of certain climate smart practices also have some potential but
would require more robust monitoring and setting of targets. These two require-
ments currently limit the potential of ISPs to achieve widespread CSA benefits.
Moreover, using ISPs to contribute to CSA objectives would need to be evaluated
against the potential benefits of using comparable resources for investments in
irrigation, physical infrastructure, and public agricultural research and extension
programs, which may generate higher comprehensive social benefits.

1.2.3  ystem Level Response to Improving Adaptation and Adaptive

S
Capacity

The expansion of irrigation is often considered as a complementary strategy to

enhance the resilience of agriculture to climate. However, irrigation entails large
capital expenditures and an adequate sizing of any given irrigation scheme cannot
neglect the expected changes in climate trends and variability. Chapter 13 explores
these issues using historical climate records as a basis for determining what invest-
ment is adequate in water storage or in area equipped for irrigation is likely to result
in “regrets,” because the investment will be undersized/oversized, if the climate
turns out to be drier/wetter than expected. An investment strategy that minimizes the
risk of misjudgements across multiple climate outcomes reduces regrets and allows
for greater flexibility of the system: cropping patterns, water use, or other parame-
ters can be adapted for wet or dry years to increase the return on irrigation
investment.
Chapter 14 shows how the use of the new simulation-based technology impact
assessment methods, developed by the Agricultural Model Inter-comparison and
Improvement project (AgMIP), can evaluate the potential for currently available
or prospective agricultural systems to achieve the goals of CSA. The approach
combines available data (observational and farm performance indicators), with
bio-­physical and economic models and future climate and socio-economic sce-
narios. A case study of crop-livestock systems in Zimbabwe illustrates the poten-
tial for these methods to test the usefulness of specific modifications to raise
incomes, reduce vulnerability to climate change and to enhance resilience. It is
important to note that the framework presented can also incorporate greenhouse
gas emissions as part of a technology assessment. The authors point out the need
to incorporate livestock herd dynamics and interaction of crop and livestock sys-
tems into the methodology.
Chapter 15 tackles four major issues with respect to food supply chain in the
context of climate change. First, the importance of analysing climate short-term
shocks and long-term change on the full food supply chain (inputs, farms, pro-
cessing, and distribution). Second, the authors show the importance of viewing a
given supply chain as an interdependent set of segments and sub-segments.
10 S. Asfaw and G. Branca

Climate shocks upstream in the supply chain can disrupt a wide complex of mid-
stream and downstream activities. Third, supply chain analysis is greatly bene-
fited by using “hot spots” of vulnerability to understand climate impacts, both
before and after the farm gate. Fourth, climate shocks, and strategies to mitigate
them, can be viewed from as (i) strategic supply chain design choices by actors
along the supply chain, of sourcing and marketing systems, geography, institu-
tions, and organization; and (ii) threshold investments by actors (firms and farms)
along all supply chains.
Chapter 16 uses a conceptual model and empirically-based simulations to inves-
tigate the effectiveness of extension-driven informational programs, rain-indexed
crop insurance, and the interaction of the two programs in driving adaptation and
providing a safety net for farmers. Based on options between diversification strate-
gies and land management practices, different potential welfare outcomes for agri-
cultural households are investigated. The findings show that CSA techniques,
including advanced information, about changing conditions in Malawi can mitigate
expected losses. The value of this information is greater for farmers with less-­
binding subsistence constraints and under scenarios for which the effects of climate
change are larger. Rain-indexed insurance appears to drive farmers to increase their
usage of cash crops and higher yield/higher variability hybrid crop options. Such
information is even more important in addressing larger expected losses among
farmers with greater flexibility.
The mixed crop-livestock systems of the developing world will become increas-
ingly important for meeting food security challenges of the coming decades. Chapter
17 addresses the gap in understanding of the synergies and trade-offs between food
security, adaptation, and mitigation objectives based on a systematic review proto-
col coupled with a survey of experts. The chapter also discusses constraints to the
uptake of different interventions and the potential for their adoption, and highlights
some of the technical and policy implications of current knowledge and knowledge
gaps.
The effectiveness of a policy depends on specific climate, demographic, environ-
mental, economic and institutional factors. Chapter 18 introduces temporal aspects
of household vulnerability to a conceptual model building on available econometric
results. The method is based on a factorial design with two vulnerability levels and
two production methods. Farms are classified into groups based on cluster analysis
of survey data from Zambia. The chapter shows that small, vulnerable farms are
more likely to face labor and cash constraints, which may prevent them from adopt-
ing technologies that have the potential to sustainably improve food security and
enhance their adaptive capacity, i.e. be climate-smart. Widespread adoption, how-
ever, will require policies that address the barriers identified here to provide: (i)
improved techniques that are less labor intensive, (ii) improved availability of fertil-
izers, and (iii) credit to cover the up-front costs of investing in soil health that takes
several years to bear fruit.
Introduction and Overview 11

1.2.4  arm Level Response to Improving Adaptation and Adaptive

F
Capacity

Chapter 19 uses Mali and Nigeria as case study countries to show that sustainable
land and water management (SLWM) could more than offset the effect of climate
change on yield under the current management practices. Despite the benefits,
adoption rates of SLWM remain low. The authors discuss policies and strategies for
increasing their adoption including improvement of market access, enhancing the
capacity of agricultural extension service providers to provide advisory services on
SLWM, and building an effective carbon market that involves both domestic and
international buyers.
Chapter 20 identifies the key barriers, opportunities and impacts for a wider
adoption of climate smart technologies by differentiated groups of agricultural pro-
ducers, with a focus on the poor in Central Asia. It is found that access to markets
and extension, and higher commercialization of household agricultural output, may
serve as major factors facilitating the adoption of CSA technologies. The adoption
of CSA technologies has a positive impact on the farming profits of both poorer and
richer households, although these positive impacts may likely to be higher for the
richer households. Even still, adoption rates among the poorer households are lower
than among the richer households.
Chapter 21 shows the implications of farm households’ past decision to adapt to
climate change on current downside risk exposure in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia.
Using moment-based specification to capture the third moment of a stochastic pro-
duction function as measure of downside yield uncertainty, it finds that past adapta-
tion to climate change (i) reduces current downside risk exposure, and so the risk of
crop failure; (ii) would have been more beneficial to the non-adopters if they had
adopted, in terms of reduction in downside risk exposure; and (iii) is a successful
risk management strategy for adopters.
Chapter 22 uses case studies from Zambia and Malawi to discuss the drivers of
diversification and its impacts on selected welfare outcomes with a specific atten-
tion to climatic variables and institutions. Geo-referenced farm-household-level
data merged with data on historical rainfall and temperature as well as with admin-
istrative data on relevant institutions are used to demonstrate that diversification is
an adaptation response, as long term trends in climatic shocks have a significant
effect on livelihood diversification, albeit with different implications. Access to
extension agents positively and significantly correlates with diversification in both
countries. The results also demonstrate that the risk-return trade-offs are not as pro-
nounced as might be expected.
Chapter 23 presents a case study on potential impacts and implications for adop-
tion of CSA solutions in the Northern Mountainous Region (NMR) of Viet Nam.
The authors use primary data collected through ad hoc household and community
surveys in the study area, on the costs and benefits of agricultural practices, as well
as on socio-economic information relevant for households’ adoption decisions. A
profitability estimate and technology adoption analysis indicate that the potential of
some sustainable farming practices to increase productivity and incomes and pro-
12 S. Asfaw and G. Branca

vide adaptation benefits under the specific climate patterns being experienced in
NMR of Viet Nam, particularly in “critical growing periods” of crops. However,
such practices often have higher capital and labour requirements, which are likely
to prevent or impede adoption. The findings suggest the importance of local climate
and socio-economic contexts in determining which practices will actually be
climate-­smart. Results highlight the importance of using climate information for
targeting the promotion of improved practices, and building adaptive capacity
amongst farmers.

1.3 Part III. Policy Synthesis and Conclusion

Chapter 24 focuses on the implications of the empirical findings for devising effec-
tive strategies and policies to support resilience and the implications for agriculture
and climate change policy at national, regional and international levels. This section
is built upon the analysis provided in the case studies as well as short “think” pieces
on specific aspects of the policy relevance issues from policy makers as well as lead-
ing experts in agricultural development and climate change. Lastly, Chapter 25 is a
synthesis to identify and reconcile the common themes across all the chapters and
draws some major economic conclusions and policy recommendations.

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A Short History of the Evolution
of the Climate Smart Agriculture Approach
and Its Links to Climate Change
and Sustainable Agriculture Debates

Leslie Lipper and David Zilberman

Abstract Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to guide the ­management

of agriculture in the era of climate change. The concept was first launched in 2009,
and since then has been reshaped through inputs and interactions of multiple stake-
holders involved in developing and implementing the concept. CSA aims to provide
globally applicable principles on managing agriculture for food security under cli-
mate change that could provide a basis for policy support and recommendations by
multilateral organizations, such as UN’s FAO. The major features of the CSA
approach were developed in response to limitations in the international climate pol-
icy arena in the understanding of agriculture’s role in food security and its potential
for capturing synergies between adaptation and mitigation. Recent controversies
which have arisen over CSA are rooted in longstanding debates in both the climate
and sustainable agricultural development policy spheres. These include the role of
developing countries, and specifically their agricultural sectors, in reducing global
GHG emissions, as well as the choice of technologies which may best promote
sustainable forms of agriculture. Since the term ʻCSA’ was widely adopted before
the development of a formal conceptual frame and tools to implement the approach,
there has been considerable variation in meanings applied to the term, which also
contributed to controversies. As the body of work on the concept, methods, tools
and applications of the CSA approach expands, it is becoming clearer what it can
offer. Ultimately, CSA’s utility will be judeged by its effectiveness in integrating
climate change response into sustainable agricultural development strategies on the
ground.

L. Lipper (*)
ISPC-CGIAR, Rome, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Zilberman
Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics, University of California Berkeley,
Berkeley, CA, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© FAO 2018 13
L. Lipper et al. (eds.), Climate Smart Agriculture, Natural Resource
Management and Policy 52, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61194-5_2
14 L. Lipper and D. Zilberman

1 Introduction

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to guide the management of

­agriculture in the era of climate change. The concept was first launched in 2009, and
since then has been reshaped through inputs and interactions of multiple stakehold-
ers involved in developing and implementing the concept. CSA aims to provide
globally applicable principles on managing agriculture for food security under cli-
mate change that could provide a basis for policy support and recommendations by
multilateral organizations, such as UN’s FAO. The major features of the CSA
approach were developed in response to debates and controversies in climate change
and agricultural policy for sustainable development.
The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of the evolution of CSA, intro-
duce its major components, and summarize the key debates associated with it within
the context of climate change and agricultural policy debates The first section pro-
vides an overview of international climate change policy followed by an introduc-
tion and analysis of CSA and its history. This is then followed by a discussion of
three broad controversies related to CSA, namely the role of mitigation, the rela-
tionship of CSA to sustainable agriculture, and way biotechnology is treated in the
CSA approach.

1.1 The Evolution of Climate Change Policy

To put CSA and its controversies in context, it is necessary to understand the evo-
lution of global climate change policies over recent years. We use the framing of
Gupta (2010), who traces the history of international climate change policy, from
1979 to 2010. He distinguishes between five phases of evolution. He refers to the
pre-1990 phase as the period of framing the problem, beginning with the World
Climate Conference in 1979 and including the establishment of the International
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. The main focus of global climate change
policy during this period was the need for global action to stabilize greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, to be supported and guided by a globally cooperative frame-
work for undertaking scientific research in the form of the IPCC, and with the
understanding that developed and developing countries would bear different
responsibilities to mitigate climate change. Because of the high uncertainty associ-
ated with climate change, a precautionary approach to climate change policy was
adopted. This implies the need to take preventive action even before full certainty
about human-­induced climate change was obtained, and secondly, to emphasize
no-regrets actions that would be valuable even in the absence of climate change.
The publication of the Bruntland Commission Report on Sustainable Development
in 1987 (WCED 1987) also led to the realization of the links between climate
change and sustainable development and the benefits of considering them in an
integrated fashion.
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