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Collection Highlights

Advances in Operations Research Education European Studies

1st Edition Jeroen Beliën

The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and Hospitality

Education 1st Edition Dianne Dredge

Knowledge Transformation and Innovation in Global Society:

Perspective in a Changing Asia 1st Edition Hoa Van Thi
Tran

The Palgrave International Handbook of Higher Education

Policy and Governance 1st Edition Jeroen Huisman
A Pedagogy of Humanist Moral Education: The Educational
Thought of Janusz Korczak 1st Edition Marc Silverman
(Auth.)

Higher Education in the Arab World Building a Culture of

Innovation and Entrepreneurship Adnan Badran

Tourism: The Business of Hospitality and Travel Roy A.

Cook

25 Years of Transformations of Higher Education Systems in

Post-Soviet Countries Jeroen Huisman

Tourism the business of hospitality and travel Sixth

Edition., Global Edition Pearson Education.
Innovation and Change in Professional Education 14

Jeroen A. Oskam
Daphne M. Dekker
Karoline Wiegerink Editors

Innovation in
Hospitality
Education
Anticipating the Educational Needs of a
Changing Profession
Innovation and Change in Professional
Education

Volume 14

Series editor

Wim H. Gijselaers, School of Business and Economics, Maastricht University,

The Netherlands

Associate editors

L.A. Wilkerson, Dell Medical School at the University of Texas at Austin, TX, USA
H.P.A. Boshuizen, Center for Learning Sciences and Technologies,
Open Universiteit Nederland, Heerlen, The Netherlands

Editorial Board

Eugene L. Anderson, Anderson Policy Consulting & APLU, Washington, DC, USA
Hans Gruber, Institute of Educational Science, University of Regensburg,
Regensburg, Germany
Rick Milter, Carey Business School, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
Eun Mi Park, JH Swami Institute for International Medical Education,
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
SCOPE OF THE SERIES

The primary aim of this book series is to provide a platform for exchanging
experiences and knowledge about educational innovation and change in professional
education and post-secondary education (engineering, law, medicine, management,
health sciences, etc.). The series provides an opportunity to publish reviews, issues
of general significance to theory development and research in professional education,
and critical analysis of professional practice to the enhancement of educational
innovation in the professions.
The series promotes publications that deal with pedagogical issues that arise in the
context of innovation and change of professional education. It publishes work from
leading practitioners in the field, and cutting edge researchers. Each volume is
dedicated to a specific theme in professional education, providing a convenient
resource of publications dedicated to further development of professional education.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6087

Jeroen A. Oskam • Daphne M. Dekker
Karoline Wiegerink
Editors

Innovation in Hospitality
Education
Anticipating the Educational Needs of a
Changing Profession
Editors
Jeroen A. Oskam Daphne M. Dekker
Research Centre Research Centre
Hotelschool The Hague Hotelschool The Hague
The Hague, The Netherlands The Hague, The Netherlands

Karoline Wiegerink
Research Centre
Hotelschool The Hague
The Hague, The Netherlands

Innovation and Change in Professional Education

ISBN 978-3-319-61378-9    ISBN 978-3-319-61379-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61379-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017949868

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To the memory of Ton Lodder, for his
inspiring vision of hospitality and hotel
innovation, and his enthusiastic dedication
to sharing his ideas with schools and with
students.
Contents

1 Introduction: Innovation in Hospitality Education.............................. 1

Jeroen A. Oskam

Part I Redefining the Hospitality Curriculum

2 Hospitality Education: A Third Paradigm............................................ 15
Jeffrey B. Catrett
3 Education for Hospitality Management................................................. 33
Conrad Lashley

Part II Design of the Hospitality Curriculum

4 Expertise: The Theory of Experimentation........................................... 51
Clare Hindley and Beverley Wilson-Wünsch
5 Genuinely Hospitable Behavior in Education....................................... 65
Daphne Maria Dekker
6 Future Curricula of International Hospitality
Management Education........................................................................... 77
Robert J. Coelen and Sjoerd Gehrels
7 Information Technology in Hospitality Education................................ 87
Giampaolo Viglia, Mirko Pelloia, and Dimitrios Buhalis

Part III Curriculum Innovations

8 Aligning Direction and Delivery of Education to the Needs
of the Future: A Guideline to Finding the Right Balance
Between a Managerial and Educational Approach.............................. 103
Jan Willem van Brouwershaven

vii
viii Contents

9 Developing the Intercultural Competence of Twenty-First-Century

Learners with Blogging During a Work Placement Abroad................ 123
Ankie Hoefnagels and Sylvia Schoenmakers
10 Addressing the Challenges Facing Hospitality Academic
Programs in the USA: Portfolios and Action Learning........................ 143
Ajai Ammachathram and David M. Anderson
11 Developing the Edge Hotel School.......................................................... 161
Peter Jones and Andrew Boer
12 Hospitality Business Simulations Today: New Generation
Simulations for New Generation Students
in a New Generation Marketplace.......................................................... 181
Peter Starks and William Carroll

Part IV Lifelong Learning

13 Investing in People: Training Is Not a Cost!.......................................... 197
Conrad Lashley
14 Value Creation Through Hospitality: A Case Study
on the Effect of Hospitality Trainings.................................................... 215
Karoline Wiegerink

15 Conclusion: The Future of Hospitality Education................................ 231

Jeroen A. Oskam
About the Authors

Dr. Ajai Ammachathram is a hospitality leader and educator who has been associ-
ated with food and beverage management for over 18 years. He is a certified hospi-
tality educator (CHE) from the American Hotel and Lodging Association Educational
Institute and holds a doctoral degree in leadership (higher education) from Eastern
Michigan University. He holds three degrees in hospitality management from the
University of Madras, India (bachelor’s), Southern New Hampshire University,
New Hampshire (bachelor’s), and Eastern Michigan University, Michigan
(master’s).
He brings a wealth of industry management experience from various sectors of
the hospitality industry, more specifically from:
• Food and beverage management serving airline passengers
• Students in college dining services
• Restaurant guests at The Ritz-Carlton
• Day-to-day customers in various retail industries
• Healthcare patients for a 600-bed hospital in Southwestern Ontario
He is an assistant professor at Hospitality, Restaurant, and Tourism Management
at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. He strongly believes in a collaborative/
hands-on approach to education and adores being a “guide on the side” in the class-
room rather than a “sage on the stage.” He considers his passion and love for the
hospitality industry as his key asset which he always brings to the classroom based
on his extensive qualifications and years of experience.
Dr. David M. Anderson has worked in the education field for over 30 years, in a
variety of capacities, including as a mathematics and computer science teacher, a
researcher for the Bureau of Accreditation and School Improvement Studies, an
executive associate for Research and Assessment with the National Board For
Professional Teaching Standards, an associate director for the National Science
Foundation’s Statewide Systemic Initiative in South Dakota, a lead administrator at
a professional development school (PDS) in Maryland, and a faculty member in the
states of Maryland and Michigan in the USA. He is currently the coordinator of the

ix
x About the Authors

PhD program in Educational Leadership at Eastern Michigan University. He has

published over 50 articles and book chapters, completed over 100 scholarly presen-
tations, and authored over 20 funded grant proposals. He is a past president of the
Michigan Association of Professors of Educational Administration and has been
awarded the EMU College of Education Innovative Scholarship Award, the EMU
College of Education Special Service Award, the EMU and the Maryland Association
of Higher Education Award for Outstanding Research, the EMU Alumni Association
Teaching Excellence Award, and the University of Michigan Award for Outstanding
Dissertation in School Administration.
Andrew Boer, MBA is the principal of the Edge Hotel School, which offers inten-
sive, 2-year degree courses validated by the University of Essex in which under-
graduate students both read for their degrees and help to operate and manage a fully
commercial four-star country house hotel. The Edge Hotel School thus offers a
challenging mix of academic and practical experience for aspiring young students/
professionals underpinned by its unique “industry-engaged” educational philoso-
phy and by its learning and teaching strategies.
Prior to his appointment at the Edge Hotel School, Andrew was employed at the
Bournemouth University in the role of associate dean of Hospitality and Tourism
and also developed and ran up to 11 hospitality partnership courses in locations as
diverse as Switzerland, Greece, Israel, and Australia. His research interests are in
the fields of small business management and strategy in the hospitality industry and
he has, over the recent past, developed a pragmatic expertise for successfully man-
aging less conventional forms of higher education!
Professor Dimitrios Buhalis is head of the Department of Tourism and Hospitality,
director of the eTourism Lab, and deputy director of the International Centre for
Tourism and Hospitality Research, at the Bournemouth University in England. He
is a strategic management and marketing expert with specialization in information
communication technology applications in the tourism, travel, hospitality, and lei-
sure industries. His research area is cutting across a number of disciplines and is
looking into adoption of innovations for creating value for both consumers and
organizations. Current research focus includes smart tourism, SoCoMo marketing
(social media, context, and mobile marketing), augmented reality, experience man-
agement and personalization, reputation and social media strategies, and accessible
and special diet (allergens) tourism.
Dr. William Carrol is the CEO of Marketing Economics, a consulting firm special-
izing in travel industry pricing, distribution, new media marketing, and revenue
management and strategic planning. His clients are hotel management companies,
individual properties, and travel intermediaries.
Bill Carroll retired in 2015 as a clinical professor of marketing at the Cornell
University School of Hotel Administration. He taught courses in economics, new
media marketing, pricing, marketing distribution, and yield management. Carroll
has been recognized numerous times as teacher of the year at the school and offers
several successful online courses through eCornell.
About the Authors xi

He works closely with PhoCusWright, Inc., a travel industry research, consult-

ing, and publishing company. In collaboration with PhoCusWright, Carroll writes
often on the evolution of hotel distribution and its impact on major chains and inter-
mediaries. He also serves on the board of several travel industry start-ups and online
educational companies.
Jeffrey B. Catrett, MMH is an academic director at the Institut Paul Bocuse in
Lyon, France, having previously served as vice-president of academics at the Ecole
hôtelière de Lausanne, academic dean at Les Roches International School of Hotel
Management in Bluche, Switzerland, and dean of the School of Hospitality
Management at Kendall College in Chicago. He has lectured to undergraduate
upperclassmen and graduate students in a variety of subjects including information
technology and strategic management. He turned his attention to academics after a
10-year career in hotel operations with such companies as Omni International and
Swissôtel. His professional experience in hospitality and hospitality education
spans 35 years in four continents. He holds a BA from the Middlebury College and
an MMH from the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration and has pub-
lished in major hospitality journals including the Cornell Hotel & Restaurant
Administration Quarterly and the Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research.
Dr. Robert J. Coelen is a professor of Internationalisation of Higher Education at
the Stenden University of Applied Sciences. Prior to this appointment, he spent
about 20 years as a university executive in Australia and the Netherlands concerned
with internationalization at the James Cook University, University of Queensland,
Leiden University, and Stenden University of Applied Sciences. He was interim
executive dean at the Stenden University Qatar. He was a member of the EAIE
Executive Board and Editorial Committee. He is a member of the editorial board of
the Journal of Studies in International Education and regularly reviews papers for
the Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. He was the founding presi-
dent of EuroScholars, an initiative of 12 continental LERU universities. He was the
chairman of the Leiden University Global Ranking Symposia. He is visiting profes-
sor at the Tongji University in Shanghai. He is a research associate of the
Internationalisation Research Unit at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in
South Africa. He is the founding director of the Centre for Internationalisation of
Education, a collaborative project of his university and the University of Groningen.
His particular focus is on the establishment of learning lines in internationalization
that extend from primary education through to higher education to ensure our grad-
uates are maximally prepared for the globalized work and living environment.
Dr. Daphne Maria Dekker holds the chair in Hospitality, Personality, and Behavior
at Hotelschool The Hague in the Netherlands. She earned a MSc in Organizational
and Social Psychology from the Utrecht University and a PhD in Human Resource
Management from the Eindhoven University of Technology. Her research and
teaching interest cover a wide range of topics related to research, hospitality, and
psychology, such as guest experience, culture, consumer behavior, and professional
development. Her work is published in leading journals such as Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology.
xii About the Authors

Dr. Sjoerd Gehrels a UAS professor innovation in Hospitality at the Stenden Hotel
Management School, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands, started in Dutch higher educa-
tion in 1989, after 10 years in the hospitality industry. Sjoerd worked as apprentice,
sommelier, and operations manager in Michelin-starred restaurants. In Stenden, he
is program leader for the MA/MSc International Hospitality and Service
Management program, and was appointed in December 2014 as a university of
applied science professor within Stenden Hotel Management School’s Academy of
International Hospitality Research. Sjoerd holds an MSc (University of Surrey,
1999), MBA (Oxford Brookes University, 2004), and a doctorate from the University
of Stirling (2013). Currently, he is rounding off a postdoc at the University of
Algarve, Portugal. Furthermore, Sjoerd has been acknowledged as certified hospi-
tality educator by the American Hotel and Lodging Association for 20 consecutive
years (the only Dutch national holding the accreditation for so long). His doctorate
thesis looked at what made hospitality entrepreneurs successful. He is the Research
in Hospitality Management journal coeditor in chief, reviewer for several research
journals, and editorial board member for the European Journal of Tourism Research.
His professorship research focuses on innovation in hospitality. Sjoerd has trained
the management teams of several international hotels in personal leadership.
Professor Dr. Clare Hindley is a professor in the Language and Communication
Department at the IUBH School of Business and Management, Bad Honnef-Bonn.
She gained her PhD in the field of Sociolinguistics, focusing on language and social
networks. She also holds a BA in English and Classical Civilization and an MA in
Applied Linguistics. Her early work experience spanned teaching English, teacher
training, education management, and translation. Her career includes international
experience in Europe and South America in the world of business and teaching.
Prior to working at IUBH, Clare worked as a language consultant, a freelance
teacher trainer, and a tutor on language- and culture-related master’s programs. At
IUBH, she is responsible for research method modules and is one of the university
research coordinators. Her career has been diverse in location and focus, but lan-
guage, culture, and communication have remained the guiding lights. Her research
work is increasingly focused on the world of hospitality and tourism with particular
interest in education, culture, and sociology. Recent publications concentrate on
diverse areas of sustainability and culture with an interest in cross-disciplinary stud-
ies. Outside her professional life, Clare’s cross-disciplinary interests are reflected in
her love for opera, cycling, hens, and travel.
Dr. Ankie Hoefnagels works as an assistant professor at the Hotel Management
School Maastricht and as program manager of Global-MINDS at the Research
Centre for International Relation Management of Zuyd University of Applied
Sciences. Her academic roots lie in English and literary studies. She obtained a PhD
in Management Studies at the Nijmegen School of Management with a study on the
effects of employees’ intercultural competences in the service-profit chain of hotels.
Ankie has recently successfully developed two educational tools to support students
and staff’s international learning outcomes: the Global-MIND Monitor and the
Curious People Blog platform. Ankie’s publication record covers, among others, a
About the Authors xiii

textbook about intercultural communication in the hotel and tourism industry, a

wide range of conference papers, and an award winning publication in the Journal
of Service Management.
Professor Peter A. Jones, MBE is a director of the Edge Hotel School and was the
project director for the development of the school from concept through to comple-
tion. Following a successful army career, his academic career has included being the
head of school at Bournemouth University, principal and CEO of the Blue Mountains
International Hotel Management School, Australia, and head of the London School
of Hospitality, Tourism, and Leisure at the University of West London. He is a visit-
ing professor at both the University of West London and the University of Derby. He
holds the position of dean of the eHotelier Academy and is actively involved in a
number of educational and hotel school development projects throughout the world.
He is a member of the board of EUHOFA International, the association for hotel
school directors, as well as the Hospitality Professionals Association (HOSPA). He
is a fellow of the Institute of Hospitality and of the City and Guilds of London
Institute.
Professor Conrad Lashley is editor of Taylor and Francis’ Hospitality, Leisure,
and Tourism series of books. He is editor emeritus of the Hospitality & Society
journal as well as coeditor of Research in Hospitality Management. He is author, or
editor, of 21 books including In Search of Hospitality: Theoretical Perspectives and
Debates and Hospitality: a social lens. He has recently been commissioned by
Routledge to edit Hospitality Studies, a new volume in their handbook series. The
study of hospitality management and hospitableness has resulted in an array of aca-
demic outputs including well over 130 refereed journal papers and conference pre-
sentations. The dominant theme of much of this enquiry has been to show how the
study of hospitality, from wider social science perspectives, can better inform the
management of commercial hospitality provision and the development of future
industry managers.
Dr. Jeroen A. Oskam is the director of the Research Centre at Hotelschool The
Hague. The two research areas of this Centre are hospitable behavior and its busi-
ness consequences and future developments in the hospitality industry. Jeroen’s
own research pertains to the latter area, with recent scenario studies on topics as
Airbnb and OTAs.
Jeroen obtained his PhD in 1992 from the Universiteit van Amsterdam (Sociology
of Literature) and has worked at different hotel and tourism schools in the
Netherlands and in Spain. He is a visiting professor of Hospitality Management at
EADA Business School in Barcelona and associate editor of the Journal of Tourism
Futures.
Mirko Pelloia is revenue manager at B&B Hotels Italy. He graduated from
University of Eastern Piedmont and has over 4 years of experience in the hospitality
sector. After a short time spent in the General Affairs and Human Resources
Department, he started working on pricing and inventory management, and he is
now responsible for implementing and driving the revenue management strategy of
xiv About the Authors

the chain, for a total of 20 hotels located in several major Italian cities. Passionate
about business strategy, data analysis, and IT, his tasks also include budgeting, train-
ing teams in revenue management, and exploring, implementing, and improving
reporting tools and integration between systems.
Sylvia Schoenmakers, MSc. works in the Research Center for Professional
Education of Zuyd University of Applied Sciences. She has over 30 years of experi-
ence in educational consultancy and research and was an early adaptor of e-learning.
She was involved in establishing competence-based curricula, learning networks,
and the introduction of virtual learning environments and community software.
On behalf of the Research Center, she investigated students’ learning outcomes
during work placement at the start of a curriculum, arrangements for workplace
learning, interdisciplinary education in learning communities, and the links between
education and research in curricula. Where teachers create space for innovation in
the education, Sylvia helps in finding the foundations and ways to improve
education.
Peter Starks, MBA is CEO of Redglobal learning technology, serving transna-
tional and regional hospitality companies, government tourism agencies, and uni-
versities in over 40 countries.
In government, he has previously served as regional director for the United
Nations Tourism Development Office. In industry, he has been a general manager of
five-star hotels and a regional director for Marriott Hotels in Europe and MENA. In
education, he serves on the advisory committee of multiple universities and facili-
tates upper-level courses and executive education programs.
Peter is an elected member of the International Society of Hospitality Consultants
and the Institute of Hospitality, UK. A graduate of Cornell University School of
Hotel Administration, Peter also holds an MBA and MA from Webster University,
Geneva, Switzerland.
Jan Willem van Brouwershaven, MSc. is a program director bachelor at the
Hotelschool The Hague.
He started as a lecturer in Information and Communication Management and
was one of the first members of the research center and responsible for implement-
ing several IT-related projects. After 6 years of teaching, he joined the management
team in 2005 and served in different functions. Golden thread is his involvement in
both the business end of the school and continuous improvement of the curriculum.
Finding the right balance between the interests of students, faculty, management,
and industry is his main focus.
He earned a MSc in Business Administration, specializing in marketing, at the
Erasmus University Rotterdam after which he worked for 8 years as consultant,
marketing and IT manager for a market research company, and IT solutions
provider. Both companies used cutting-edge technology to help their clients achieve
better results.
About the Authors xv

Dr. Giampaolo Viglia is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Management of

Bournemouth University, UK. His research interests lie in the areas of pricing, con-
sumer decision-making, and online reputation. Methodologically, he enjoys both
quantitative studies and conducting experiments. He teaches both at undergraduate
and graduate level units on revenue management, strategic marketing, marketing
analytics, and research methods. His teaching was commended as innovative by the
Higher Education Academy, UK. His work has been published in a number of inter-
national journals, such as Tourism Management, Journal of Interactive Marketing,
International Journal of Hospitality Management, International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, Psychology and Marketing, Journal of
Economic Psychology, The Service Industries Journal, and Tourism Economics.
Dr. Karoline Wiegerink holds the chair in City Hospitality and City Marketing at
Hotelschool The Hague. Dr. Wiegerink combines her Hotelschool The Hague
research activities with consultancy and training.
She is passionate about making the difference with hospitality and supporting
organizations and students to achieve hospitality excellence!
Special topics are creating customer value through hospitality experience in non-
traditional hospitality businesses and environments and value creation through live
communication and personal encounters.
In her professional career, she always has combined science and practical work.
She has been director at Erasmus Centre of Event Marketing (ECBM) and lecturer
at Erasmus University in Rotterdam. There she received her PhD degree in Business
Economics with a thesis about professional trade show visitors. At Nyenrode
Business University, she was responsible for the research program of the Chair
Event Marketing and Communication. From 2010, she is dedicated to chair the City
Hospitality and City Marketing focusing on creating and sustaining welcoming cit-
ies for inhabitants, visitors, and businesses. Endowed by the municipality of The
Hague, she cofounded and manages The Hague House of Hospitality—the
Collaborative Community—wherein city stakeholders work together to achieve
excellent city hospitality.
As a consultant, trainer, and interim manager, she has been cocreating in several
industries and the public sector. Her assignments are related to strategy and imple-
mentation of hospitality experience concepts, city hospitality, event marketing, and
other marketing- and hospitality-related subjects.
Special topic is Return on Hospitality showing off the value of hospitality experi-
ence, live communication, and personal encounters.
Dr. Beverley Wilson-Wünsch is a visiting scholar in the Department of Hospitality
Management at the University of Missouri and a full-time faculty member in the
Department of Hospitality Management at the International University of Applied
Sciences Bad Honnef-Bonn, Germany. Before that, she worked as a lecturer at the
Stenden University of Applied Sciences in the Netherlands. Beverley has extensive
experience working for different hospitality organizations such as Sheraton,
Wyndham, and Sandals Resorts in the USA, the Bahamas, Germany, and Jamaica at
management level. She pursued doctoral studies at the University of Maastricht
xvi About the Authors

researching the factors which contribute to the development of expertise in hospital-

ity management professions.
Beverley also holds a Master of Education (MEd) from the University of Nevada,
Las Vegas, a Master of Science (MSc) in Tourism and H Management Education
from the University of Surrey, England, a Bachelor of Science (BSc) Degree in
Hospitality Management from the Florida International University, and an Associate
Degree in Hospitality Management from the Bahamas Hotel Training College,
Nassau, Bahamas. She is also a certified hospitality educator (CHE) and is train-the-
trainer certified. As a scholar, she has amassed a number of publications in refereed
journals and has presented several of her research papers at conferences in different
parts of the world.
Chapter 1
Introduction: Innovation in Hospitality
Education

Jeroen A. Oskam

The debate on innovation in hospitality education is complex as hotel schools and

programmes face multiple changes in their environment:
In the first place, the industry itself and therefore the hospitality professions.
Globalization, digitization and the emergence of platform-based business models
have revolutionized the business. In the second place, the way hotel schools are
embedded in the educational systems. Increased complexity requires a higher level
of preparation, which contrasts with the vocational nature of traditional programmes.
Finally, hotel schools are affected as any other educational institute by evolving
insights on how we teach and learn.
These three evolving contexts and their impact are interpreted differently accord-
ing to their stage of evolution in different places, different parts of the industry, and
different educational systems and perhaps also according to personal taste and pref-
erences. This means that different visions on what hospitality education is should
coexist. Are we vocational or business schools, should technical skills be trained,
what is the importance of “people skills” in our curricula, which new subjects or
perspectives should be added and what should we keep?: this is the complexity of
the debate that leads to divergent models of hospitality education in different parts
of the world.

1.1 The Need for Change

This book is meant as a contribution to the debate through a series of reflections on

curriculum innovation needs that hotel schools share with other higher education
institutes: new insights in teaching and learning methods, changes in information

J.A. Oskam (*)

Research Centre, Hotelschool The Hague, The Hague, The Netherlands
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

J.A. Oskam et al. (eds.), Innovation in Hospitality Education, Innovation and
Change in Professional Education 14, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61379-6_1
2 J.A. Oskam

technologies and habits as well as the development of our social and productive sys-
tems due to the introduction of new technologies. These reflections interpret these
needs in the light of specific characteristics, concerns and dilemmas that set hospital-
ity schools apart from other institutes of higher education, such as the traditional com-
bination of theoretical education and practical trainings in their curricula, emphasis on
social skills, reputations fed by career success of graduates but not so much by
­academic achievements and in most cases a remarkable history, identity and culture.
Although hospitality management professions are not among those that are
believed to disappear in the next decades, it is clear that hospitality operations are
growing in scale and professionality. UNWTO projections show that travel and
demand for accommodation will keep growing, but this growth has also contributed
to functions as marketing, distribution and revenue management requiring special-
ized expertise, inside or ever more outside the actual hotel company. Data science
and other technological expertise have reached an importance that was unthinkable
a few decades ago. But how should these high-tech skills be reconciled with the
authentic human contact and hospitableness, qualities in which the hospitality
industry and hotel schools traditionally have taken pride?
At the same time, the recent developments in hospitality education have been
determined by the evolution of higher education systems. With different accents
according to local specificities, in general the movement has been from industry-­
inspired curricula to programmes adjusted to generic higher education require-
ments, usually leading to the incorporation of business subjects and presumably
higher academic standards (Airey and Tribe 2000). Besides the accreditation of the
original curricula as bachelor’s programmes, master’s programmes have mostly
been designed as top-ups in the last two decades; they clearly satisfy a student
demand for further education but are not yet common as explicit job requirements
in traditional hotel companies. The same can of course be said about doctorate pro-
grammes offered at some universities.

1.2 Hospitality Management Programmes

Hospitality education has historically been more prominent in some countries than
in others. Tradition seems to be an important element in international “rankings”,
which unlike national rankings reflect industry perception rather than educational
standards (TNS Global 2014; Canter 2016). Their validity is therefore somewhat
questionable: school reputation, career success and alumni judgements may cause a
tautological bias towards the oldest and most well-known schools. If we consider
these listings as merely indicative of good reputation, the most prestigious schools
are the Swiss, especially Lausanne, and US universities, with Cornell in the first
place; Hotelschool The Hague (the Netherlands) and Oxford Brookes University
(UK) are usually in the top 10.
The nature of the programmes included in these comparative listings is diverse,
partly depending on the national context and legislation in which each school has
1 Introduction: Innovation in Hospitality Education 3

developed. In general the approaches can be categorized into industry-inspired schools

that have evolved and adjusted to higher education standards—the Swiss and Dutch
model—and universities and polytechnics that offer hospitality or hospitality business
programmes initially emulating the industry-inspired model, but subsequently incor-
porating additional elements and perspectives from their academic environment
(Airey and Tribe 2000). This situation is more common in the USA and the UK.
Equally noteworthy is the fact that some countries are absent from the top list-
ings, whilst the economic importance of their hotel sector would certainly justify
the presence of a strong hospitality education system. Countries as Spain, Italy and
France, for instance, have generally emphasized vocational education in hospitality,
with on the one hand university regulations preventing or at least limiting the cre-
ation of tertiary hospitality programmes and on the other university-level tourism
programmes seen as preparation for management positions in hospitality. However,
the introduction of “imported” programmes—such as the Les Roches school in
Marbella (Spain)—and the emergence of university programmes starting at
master’s level, e.g. ESSEC in Paris and EADA in Barcelona, seem to indicate a
demand for a more specific preparation of hospitality managers.

1.3 Hospitality Education Paradigms

The different origins of all these programmes become visible in the role and impor-
tance theoretical and practical elements receive in their curricula. Although many
schools have redesigned their practices or recontextualized them putting focus on
managerial experiences (Gruman et al. 2009), the fact that students participate in
operational activities is sometimes seen as undesirable in view of university stan-
dards and regulations, whilst a lack of preparation for practical work will generally
jeopardize industry relations and graduates’ options for career entrance. Especially
UK (post-1992) universities are seen as examples of “academization”.
The development of the educational system and institutions is one of the driving
forces behind this movement that prioritizes theoretical over practical education. A
growing maturity in academic research in the discipline and, on the downside, an
increased pressure of research metrics on faculty constitute a strong incentive for
more academic approaches. To evaluate whether this attention to research has been
a positive development, one of the criteria should be that it has become visible in
knowledge-based improvements or innovations in the industry or in professional
practice. On the other hand, if hospitality research were to become a sterile exercise,
the concerns about a divide between academia and work field would be justified.
However, this emphasis on theoretical approaches has not only been inspired by
purely academic considerations. Practical facilities are expensive, and budget
restraints have caused schools to eliminate the corresponding educational experi-
ences or to outsource these, e.g. in cooperation with a commercial business. These
measures have affected the competitiveness of “academicized” curricula as
4 J.A. Oskam

p­ rospective students value the existence of practical facilities in their study choices
(Jameson et al. 2016).
Despite their appeal, practical operations also imply a risk: there is a precarious
balance between productivity and learning effect. The justification of practical
trainings at hotel schools has long been intuitive—“if you don’t know the operations
you cannot manage them”—but studies by Gijselaers and Wilson-Wünsch (Arts
et al. 2006; Gijselaers 2006; Gijselaers et al. 2006; Wilson-Wünsch et al. 2015,
2016; Wilson-Wünsch 2016), among others, have clarified the actual cognitive
effects of these activities. However, both in internal practices and in external place-
ments, productivity, not rarely, gets the upper hand. This may lead to a loss of time
from an educational perspective or sometimes to ethical concerns in the case of
certain private hotel schools or placement companies where unpaid labour is
employed for for-profit productivity.

1.4 Hotel School Culture

But it is not just the fine dining that sets the hotel schools apart from generic busi-
ness schools. In the recent integration of Cornell’s School of Hotel Administration
into a broader business school, alumni and students focused their protest not so
much on tangible differences in, e.g. facilities, but on a fear for a “loss of identity”.
Especially the traditional—meaning older—hotel schools pride themselves on a
distinct culture, which is considered to be decisive in the preparation for the hospi-
tality profession.
The latter assumption must be taken with caution, as traditional culture may
become an obstacle for professional evolution. But the identity involves more than
just “good manners”. Prestigious hotel schools deliver managers to the hotel indus-
try, and hotel managers recruit their talents from prestigious hotel schools. As stated
before, there is a self-reinforcing understanding of which are the good hotel schools;
hotel school identity has therefore become an important element in the process of
professional socialization. Put simply, the hotel school culture provides graduates
with behavioural standards, dress codes and professional networks that are required
for a successful entrance in the professional field.

1.5  trategic Choices: The Development of New Hotel

S
Schools

In other words, the two paradigms for hospitality management education must be
judged by their potential to understand and advance hospitality and the hospitality
profession. But industry reactions do not constitute an unbiased criterion to assess
this potential, as precisely the need for progress and innovation may justify
1 Introduction: Innovation in Hospitality Education 5

temporary misalignments. As a general rule, knowledge institutes should feed into

the hospitality profession, rather than the industry determining hospitality curricula.
An example is the acceptance of tertiary degrees, as Ruud Reuland, former dean of
Hotelschool The Hague and Lausanne, reminds us: until the 1970s and 1980s, bach-
elor’s degrees were considered excessive by the hotel industry, whilst these are now
fully accepted as a preparation for management positions. A similar development
may currently be under way for master’s degrees and may become reality for
­doctorates as well (Reuland 2016).
Whereas both different visions have emerged at traditional hotel schools and in
traditional hotel school countries as a result of their historical evolution, in other
parts of the world, they may well represent a choice between two different options.
The global growth of tourism and of the hospitality industry has sped up the devel-
opment of existing schools and has led to the creation of new programmes, particu-
larly in Asia. A pressing demand for hospitality professionals at all levels poses a
specific challenge in this part of the world. Does this pressure privilege one of the
two models as the preferred choice? The example of Hong Kong Polytechnic
University, which has rapidly gained prestige and has risen in global rankings,
shows that the size of the labour market—which comprises not only management
positions in the booming hotel and tourism industry but also lecturing positions at
the numerous Chinese universities that recently introduced this subject (Chon
2016)—generates high demand for academically prepared professionals. At the
same time, the resulting gap between university level education and vocational
schools becomes a concern in countries with labour shortages (Reuland 2016). For
the evolution of hospitality education in the next decades—as for the future of hos-
pitality itself—developments in this part of the world will probably be decisive.

1.6 The Scope of Hospitality Education

Obviously, the most important manifestation of the paradigm differences is in the

design of hospitality curricula. We have discussed the debate on the appropriateness of
practical trainings in higher education programmes. Their presence or absence, orienta-
tion, duration and respective weight differ according to the vision on learning goals and
didactic philosophy, as well as their order: whereas in Macao senior students increas-
ingly focus on the “know-why”, i.e. the theoretical aspects of the hospitality business
(Vong 2016), in Spain university regulations limit placements to the second half of
bachelor’s programmes as they are understood as “putting into practice” theoretical
knowledge that was acquired in the first part of the programme (Oskam 2007). These
approaches, which could be described as inductive vs. deductive, have been coined by
Gijselaers as a Z-model—specific learning instances feeding into a general theoretical
understanding—replacing a more traditional H-model, in which a general theoretical
basis must precede specific learning cases (Gijselaers 2006).
The insertion of hospitality programmes in an academic environment has con-
tributed to the maturity of the discipline, in the sense that schools and universities
6 J.A. Oskam

have become sources of knowledge, whereas initially discipline knowledge would

be generated elsewhere: in business environments, governmental studies, think
tanks, etc. (Airey and Tribe 2000). But this maturity has also turned the vocational
roots of these programmes into a constraint: “They have tied curriculum develop-
ment too closely to the needs of the industry and have prevented the subject from
expanding into a consideration of the wider issues which are raised by and underlie
hospitality” (p. 277). This expansion will have to move curricula, according to calls
in the last two decades, beyond preparing effective hospitality managers for the
business.
Such effectiveness could be referred to as pertaining to “vocational action”,
whilst the managerial or “know-why” focus we see in contemporary curricula can
be described as “vocational reflection” (Tribe 2002). In terms of cognitive ­processes,
the critical reflection and ability to improve require a shift from “declarative” to
“dynamic” knowledge or from “competence” to “managerial expertise” (Gijselaers
et al. 2006). But a critical perspective also questions the limitation of curricula to a
commercial context and proposes “hospitality studies” as an alternative to “hospi-
tality management studies”.
In this view, the discipline entails “the consideration of hospitality in the wider
social, anthropological and philosophical contexts” (Lashley 2000, p. 3), rather than
being an area of business studies; hence the need for study programmes designed
for study and reflection or “liberal” hospitality curricula (Airey and Tribe 2000).
Morrison and O’Mahony illustrate how a “liberalized” hospitality course reviews
the concept not just as a commercial activity, but also from cultural, historical and
sociological perspectives (2003).
Instead of deriving the hospitality curriculum from industry needs, these
approaches add two perspectives from which programme content is defined: the
perspective of the learner and the perspective of social responsibility. The first calls
for broader educational content in support of personal development of the student;
the programme should seek the preparation of “well-rounded” individuals. It would
be too simple to see this goal as contrary to industry needs, however. The shift from
service standards to experiential customer centricity has also made this well round-
edness relevant for an adequate interaction with guests and staff (Lodder 2002).
Psychological insight and cultural sensitivity become valued assets for front-line
employees. These considerations have led to the corresponding subjects being
included in educational programmes or at least in extracurricular activities. Several
authors in this book propose a structural place of these subjects and topics in
­hospitality curricula, precisely because of their connections to the professional
competencies of hospitality graduates.
Discussions on labour relations in the hospitality industry and on the ecological
and social footprint of travel and tourism have underscored the necessity of the
social responsibility perspective. International initiatives in academia, such as the
Critical Hospitality and Tourism Studies workgroups and the Tourism Education
Futures Initiative (Prebežac et al. 2016), have put the “triple bottom line” on the
agenda as an essential perspective to be integrated throughout hospitality and
­tourism curricula. Again, this perspective is not misaligned with that of the industry
1 Introduction: Innovation in Hospitality Education 7

(Fullagar and Wilson 2012): studies of how sustainable development was intro-
duced into hospitality programmes identify industry positions and requirements as
more pressing than reasons as critical thinking (Deale et al. 2009; Boley 2011;
Millar and Park 2013). Apparently, the same maturity of the discipline that has led
to the emergence of liberal curricula and critical hospitality studies becomes visible
in trends in certain parts of the industry where the focus has shifted from effective-
ness and short-term profitability to the sustainability of the business.
Globalization and the relativity of cultural hegemony have increased the awareness
for subjects as intercultural communication and intercultural management. This sub-
ject has rapidly developed from a categorization of differences in cultural behaviour
to a more cautious approach to cross-cultural sensitivity. This evolution reflects the
equilibrium of a temporarily multipolar world and may have to be revised in a future
with greater Asian dominance in the business world, as Reuland suggests: future hos-
pitality students will not only have to learn to successfully interpret and interact with
guests from countries as India and China but also to adapt to corporate cultures influ-
enced by managers and business owners from Asian countries (Reuland 2016).
A final development our curricula as well as our lifelong learning programmes
will have to address is the impact of technological innovations on our industry. The
level of knowledge and skills required goes beyond the inclusion of new topics and
subjects in our curricula: rather than hospitality graduates, the hospitality industry
will seek specialized expertise to address these needs. Most probably, our schools
and our students will be expected to develop an understanding of the business impli-
cations of innovations and of their connection to the more traditional aspects of
hotel operations. Our curricula will have to study these connections between what
we call “high tech” and “high touch”, even though it is not certain that in the future
guest satisfaction, empathy and customer centricity or mass customization will still
rely on human interfaces.
We have discussed the existence and the divergence between different hospitality
education paradigms. This collection of essays and studies does not advocate one of
these positions and has sought to incorporate different viewpoints in order to further
the debate. Both perspectives produce excesses in which educational objectives
become subordinate to other considerations, be it to the productivity of food and
beverage outlets or to research metrics and publication records. The main challenge
for hospitality schools and curricula will not be the prevalence of a current para-
digm, but balancing quality standards and organizational culture with the flexibility
that will be required to continuously adjust curricula to developments in the profes-
sion and in its environment.

1.7 Part I: Redefining the Hospitality Curriculum

The first section of this book looks at the fundamental design of hospitality curri-
cula. If contemporary programme layout is the result of paradigmatic shifts that
have both questioned the vocational origins of many schools and programmes and
8 J.A. Oskam

also the academic context into which they have been embedded, how should future
innovations balance, or maybe rather prioritize, these curriculum elements and per-
spectives? How can hospitality curricula remain relevant for the professional careers
of graduates, but avoid at the same time becoming limited to operational and mana-
gerial requirements of the industry? In other words, how should schools position
themselves as knowledge-generating institutes that contribute to innovations and
improvements in the hospitality profession?
In the first chapter, Jeffrey Catrett analyses the backgrounds of what he charac-
terizes as the “European” versus the “Anglo-Saxon” paradigms in their historical
contexts. After weighing the pros and cons of both approaches, Catrett proposes a
new paradigm in which hospitality education evolves from its vocation- and science-­
based approaches to one that builds on the arts division of knowledge and educa-
tion. This third educational paradigm is strongly connected to the latest developments
in the industry, which require the ability, in our graduates, “to create a complex new
environment and experience and then shortly thereafter tear it all down and build it
over again to achieve a new surprise”.
Conrad Lashley, who of course was among the initiators of the critical hospitality
studies movement, reviews the role of hospitality education in preparing managers,
on the one hand, and the potential of the discipline derived from the anthropologi-
cal, psychological and historical study of hospitableness in other than commercial
contexts. Lashley discusses the motivations driving people to become hospitable,
and even though the possibility of commercial hospitality businesses to be genu-
inely hospitable has been questioned, Lashley argues that a more in-depth under-
standing of hospitable motives, attitudes and behaviour will also benefit professional
hospitality operations.

1.8 Part II: Design of the Hospitality Curriculum

This evolution of our understanding of the role of our graduates in their professional
activities and changes in the external environment call for new knowledge and
skills. The second section of the book looks at the scope of the hospitality curricu-
lum: which subjects, topics, competencies and learning goals should be included?
In other words, what are the implications of innovative approaches such as those
proposed by Catrett and Lashley in the composition of hospitality curricula?
Hindley and Wilson-Wünsch study the concepts of “expert” and “expertise”, as
often used intuitively in discussions on the profession and also in hotel school pro-
motion. The authors argue that expertise entails the ability to “react, communicate
and experiment” professionally and that therefore creativity, flexibility and problem-­
solving skills should complement theoretical knowledge in hospitality programmes.
They use the analogy with mastering arts and crafts to show how hospitality stu-
dents and professionals should “grow into knowledge”: that of the mediaeval cathe-
dral builder and that of the orchestra director. The conclusion is that our curricula,
besides offering theoretical “templates”, should be “open for discovery”.
1 Introduction: Innovation in Hospitality Education 9

Dekker builds on the concept of “hospitableness” that Lashley puts at the centre
of hospitality studies. Her question is whether this hospitableness is an innate
­quality or a skill that can be taught in classroom or lab settings. She distinguishes
“genuinely hospitable behaviour” leading to “delightful” interactions from acquired
skills that enable staff to perform professional operations technically correctly. The
first type of hospitableness is linked to certain personality traits and therefore not
given equally to all people. This of course has strong implications for hospitality
businesses as well as hotel schools.
The internationalization of higher education, in general, and of hospitality educa-
tion in particular has become generally accepted as necessary and desirable, but as
Coelen and Gehrels argue, its effectiveness is questionable if its purpose is reduced to
student and staff mobility. The authors propose a model in which education and indus-
try interact internationally in order to keep both worlds connected and to advance
professional practice. At the same time, the dynamics of international programmes
and the confluence of heterogeneous experiences also affect student-­faculty relations,
especially in research. This chapter argues that networked academia-­industry partner-
ships and a student-centred approach that activates the experience of diverse back-
grounds will serve the intellectual needs of both schools and of the work field.
In addition to globalization, the development and introduction of new technolo-
gies constitute the other main external driver for change that urges schools and
universities to incorporate new contents. Viglia, Pelloia and Buhalis describe the
impact new technologies have had recently on the hospitality industry, to under-
stand how this impact can be reflected in hotel school curricula, for it is evident that
familiarity with these developments will be among the skills company recruiters
will look for in hospitality graduates. Strong connections with the industry—both
hotel companies and data-driven providers—as well as working in multidisciplinary
teams are answers to the challenges derived from the speed with which new innova-
tions are introduced.

1.9 Part III: Curriculum Innovations

Although the previous section was strongly based on content innovations in which the
authors are involved or which they had been introduced, this section groups a number
of diverse experiences and best practices in the implementation or delivery of educa-
tional innovations. The first of these contributions, by Van Brouwershaven, approaches
educational innovations from an organizational perspective. The author considers the
background of the current need to innovate hospitality education and proposes a
model for organizational alignment required to introduce the changes successfully.
Given the fact that curriculum innovation will not be an isolated and one-time only
exercise but rather the manifestation of an ongoing adaptiveness, Van Brouwershaven
argues that hotel schools and universities must seek a flexibility allowing for the man-
agerial facilitation of the innovations required now and in the future.
10 J.A. Oskam

We have mentioned the areas of intercultural communication and intercultural

management as disciplines whose relevance is generally acknowledged in ­hospitality
education. They have matured from an anecdotal observation of cultural differences
and questionable interpretations of divergent behaviours to more critical approaches
that study cultures as developing constructs. Hoefnagels and Schoenmakers explain
how the international aspects of students’ placements can be employed not only to
make students aware of the influence of their own culture and that of their environ-
ment but also to stimulate community learning and to build a knowledge base on the
topic by using a blog. This chapter builds on the experience at Maastricht Hotel
Management School, where students are invited to reflect on their international
placement experiences and to discuss these with fellow students and faculty on a
dedicated blog entitled “Curious People”.
Ammachathram and Anderson’s study of the situation of issues hospitality
­programmes face in the USA strongly relies on the student perspective. As we have
seen, in the USA—as in the UK—a more generic business orientation seems at odds
with the specificity that determines a programme’s appeal for students and also
constitutes a less adequate preparation for job requirements in the hospitality indus-
try. This chapter proposes a practical orientation not primarily aimed at the acquisi-
tion of technical skills but mainly at industry leadership. The authors argue that
action research should be a core part of practitioner development and propose two
innovations as “leverage points” that must generate systemic reform: in the first
place, programmatic portfolios in which students reflect on their professional devel-
opment, including soft skills as well as technical competencies, and, in the second
place, the replacement of internships by leadership-oriented and action research-­
based apprenticeships.
Jones and Boer focus on hospitality programmes in the UK, where their conclu-
sion is that internal and external pressures, rather than fostering innovation, have
pushed schools in the opposite direction: the trend is towards a homogenization of
hospitality education, limiting opportunities for differentiation and innovation. This
trend is, as the authors argue, not only to the detriment of the industry but also to
that of students who prefer to learn in a nonclassroom environment and who also see
their career chances affected by the disconnection between education and industry
practice. Their case study describes The Edge, a “work-oriented learning” initiative
supported by a dedicated foundation and by the University of Essex. This innova-
tion has been successful, according to the authors, both in terms of graduates’
employment opportunities and of the reputation of the school in the industry.
The chapter about the educational use of business simulations combines the
practitioner’s and the educator’s point of view. Starks and Carrol describe the use of
simulations in hospitality, with the main advantage of raising student motivation
and involvement. An additional advantage is that the student-to-student learning
effect reduces the need for scarce and expensive faculty time. The productive expe-
rience with the use of simulations at Cornell University is used as a reference.
1 Introduction: Innovation in Hospitality Education 11

1.10 Part IV: Lifelong Learning

The final section of this book looks at the necessity and the effects of training pro-
fessionals. If the hospitality profession would revolve mainly around technical
skills, going back to school would have only been useful and effective in specific
circumstances, such as the introduction of new techniques: otherwise, if schools
promote learning in practice, why would practitioners have to learn in classroom
settings? But if we consider that the interaction with guests and customer centricity
are at the core of hospitality professions, on-going education could be more
­justified—at least if it produces the desired effect.
Lashley distinguishes trainings pertaining to three different types of service
encounter: uniformity-dependent service—which especially requires technical pro-
ficiency and efficiency— and relationship- and choice-dependent services, which
deal with understanding individual customer needs and with (apparent) spontaneity.
Lashley lists a number of gains for companies with well-trained employees and
concludes that training is, in any hospitality business, an investment that is crucial
for competitiveness and profitability.
Along similar lines, Wiegerink examines the payback of hospitality trainings at
a regional airport. In this case study, staff behaviour after hospitality trainings led to
an increased perception of friendliness and a higher Net Promoter Score (NPS)
among clients, but did not negatively affect speed and efficiency.
As a general conclusion, the contributions to this book reflect the visions and
concerns of faculty and professionals who believe that the hotel profession has
evolved in such a way that a vocational approach to skills and techniques is no
longer sufficient, perhaps in general but certainly for management positions, but
also that an explanation of either hospitality or the hospitality business in the
abstract would be equally unsatisfactory, from the point of view of both the labour
market and the students’ learning process. Hotel schools should, as the authors
argue, address an increased complexity in the work environment derived from a
global scale of operations, from technological change as well as from an evolution
in consumer expectations. The incorporation of the corresponding perspectives
will alter the relation between education and work field: from an accurate reflec-
tion of industry practice, the role of schools becomes one of critically evaluating
those practices and generating innovations. This book is at the same time a conse-
quence of, and a contribution to, that change.

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 Part I
Redefining the Hospitality Curriculum
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