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Bernd Ulmann

Analog Computing

2nd edition
Mathematics Subject Classification 2010
Primary: 34-04, 35-04; Secondary: 92C45, 92D25, 34C28, 37D45

Author
Prof. Dr. Bernd Ulmann
Schwalbacher Str. 31
65307 Bad Schwalbach
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-078761-0
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-078774-0
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-078787-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2022946448

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: Bernd Ulmann
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
To my beloved wife Rikka
Acknowledgments
This book would not have been possible without the support and help of many
people. First of all, I would like to thank my wife Rikka Mitsam, who not only
did a lot of proofreading and a terrific job in preparing many of the pen-and-ink
drawings, but also never complained about being neglected although I lived the
last months more or less in seclusion writing this book.
I am particularly grateful for the support and help of Jens Breitenbach,
who did a magnificent job at proofreading and provided many suggestions and
improvements enhancing the text significantly. He also spotted many LATEX-sins
of mine, thus improving the overall appearance of this book considerably.
In addition to that, I would like to thank Benjamin Barnickel, Arne
Charlet, Daniela Koch, Theresa Szczepanski, Dr. Reinhard Steffens and
Francis Massen for their invaluable help in proofreading.
Additionally, I would like to thank Tore Sinding Bekkedal, who took the
picture shown in figure 8.35, Tim Robinson, who built the incredible Meccano-
Differential Analyser shown in figure 2.22, Tibor Florestan Pluto, who took
the photo shown on the title page, Robert Limes, who took the picture shown in
figure 9.3, and Bruce Baker, who donated the pictures shown in figures 13.60,
13.62, and 13.63, for their permissions to use the aforementioned pictures.
Without the continuous encouragement of Dr. habil. Karl Schlagenhauf
and his invaluable suggestions this book might very well not exist at all.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Giloi, Prof.
Dr. Rudolf Lauber, Dr. Adolf Kley, Prof. Dr. Günter Meyer-Brötz and
Manfred Klittich for sharing their memories of the early days of analog com-
puting at Telefunken, etc. Furthermore, Jeroen Brinkmann introduced me to
the “Hammer Computer” and Bert Brouwer offered many the insights into
solving partial differential equations in conjunction with heat transfer problems.
This book was typeset with LATEX. Most schematics were drawn using EA-
GLE and Arno Jacob’s wonderful analog computing symbol library, other vector
graphics were created with xfig.
Registered names, trademarks, designations, etc., used in this book, even when
not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110787740-202
Preface to the 2nd edition
This second edition of “Analog Computing” would not exist if it wasn’t for Dr.
Damiano Sacco, acquisition editor at DeGruyter, who asked me to prepare a
new edition of “Analog Computing”, which has established itself as a standard
textbook since it was first published in 2013.
A lot has happened since then in the world of analog computing. First of all
many “new” historic sources, papers, and photographs have become available since
2013. Accordingly, the bibliography of this 2nd edition has been expanded by more
then 200 additional sources. Second, and even more importantly, interest in analog
computing has grown enormously. This computing paradigm is about to change
the world of computing in the near future with a plethora of interesting and com-
mercially important applications ranging from low power computing as required
for medical implants to high performance computing, artificial intelligence, and
many, many more. It seems even plausible that analog computers might be able
to do things typically ascribed to quantum computers while being much simpler
to implement, run, and program.
Bringing back analog computers in much more advanced forms than their
historic ancestors will change the world of computing drastically and forever. They
will not replace the ubiquitous stored-program digital computers but they will
complement them, thus making it possible to solve problems that are currently
out of reach for standalone digital computers.
The author is especially indebted to Dr. Chris Giles for many valuable dis-
cussions and his meticulous proofreading of this 2nd edition and to Nicole Matje
for her valuable corrections and suggestions. The author would also like to thank
Achim Dassow for information about the QK-329 beam-deflection tube and ad-
ditional information on early multiplication devices. Rainer Glaschick provided
much background information on early differential analysers and on the hyperbolic
field tube. Oliver Bach also proofread the book and took special care of the bib-
liography making sure that it is consistent and correct. Prof. Dr. Dirk Killat
contributed figure 12.9. The new cover picture was taken by Tibor Florestan
Pluto and shows the author with a GTE-22 analog computer from the late 1960s.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110787740-203
Contents
Acknowledgments VII

Preface to the 2nd edition IX

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Outline 1
1.2 The notion of analog computing 2
1.3 Direct and indirect analogies 4

2 Mechanical analog computers 9

2.1 Astrolabes 9
2.2 The Antikythera mechanism 9
2.3 Slide rules 11
2.4 Planimeters 13
2.5 Mechanical computing elements 17
2.5.1 Function generation 18
2.5.2 Differential gears 20
2.5.3 Integrators 21
2.5.4 Multipliers 24
2.6 Harmonic synthesizers and analysers 25
2.7 Mechanical fire control systems 29
2.8 Differential analysers 32

3 The first electronic analog computers 41

3.1 Helmut Hoelzer 41
3.1.1 The “Mischgerät” 42
3.1.2 Hoelzer’s analog computer 48
3.2 George A. Philbrick’s Polyphemus 57
3.3 Electronic fire control systems 61
3.4 MIT 67
3.5 The Caltech Computer 68

4 Basic computing elements 73

4.1 Operational amplifiers 73
4.1.1 Early operational amplifiers 77
4.1.2 Drift stabilisation 80
4.2 Summers 85
4.3 Integrators 89
4.4 Coefficient potentiometers 92
XII Contents

4.5 Function generators 97

4.5.1 Servo function generators 97
4.5.2 Curve followers 98
4.5.3 Photoformers 99
4.5.4 Varistor function generators 100
4.5.5 Diode function generators 100
4.5.6 Inverse functions 102
4.5.7 Functions of two variables 103
4.6 Multiplication 105
4.6.1 Servo multipliers 105
4.6.2 Crossed-fields electron-beam multiplier 106
4.6.3 Hyperbolic field multiplier 107
4.6.4 Other multiplication tubes 108
4.6.5 Time division multipliers 109
4.6.6 Logarithmic multipliers 110
4.6.7 Quarter square multipliers 111
4.6.8 Other multiplication schemes 114
4.7 Division and square root 114
4.8 Comparators 115
4.9 Limiters 116
4.10 Resolvers 117
4.11 Time delay 117
4.12 Random noise generators 120
4.13 Output devices 121

5 The anatomy of a classic analog computer 123

5.1 Analog patch panel 123
5.2 Function generators 124
5.3 Digital patch panel and controls 125
5.4 Readout 127
5.5 Control 129
5.6 Performing a computation 131

6 Some typical analog computers 133

6.1 Telefunken RA 1 133
6.2 GAP/R analog computers 136
6.3 EAI 231R 138
6.4 Early transistorised systems 141
6.5 Later analog computers 147
6.6 THE ANALOG THING 150
 Contents XIII

7 Programming 151
7.1 Basic approach 151
7.2 Kelvin’s feedback technique 153
7.3 Substitution method 155
7.4 Partial differential equations 157
7.4.1 Quotient of differences 158
7.4.2 Separation of variables 160
7.5 Scaling 162

8 Programming examples 165

8.1 Solving ÿ + ω 2 y = 0 165
8.2 Sweep generator 166
8.3 Mass-spring-damper system 168
8.4 Predator and prey 172
8.5 Simulation of an epidemic 174
8.6 Bouncing ball 176
8.7 Car suspension 181
8.8 Lorenz attractor 187
8.9 Mathieu’s equation 190
8.10 Projection of rotating bodies 194
8.11 Conformal mapping 196

9 Hybrid computers 201

9.1 Systems 201
9.2 Programming 205
9.3 Example 206

10 Digital differential analysers 209

10.1 Basic computing elements 210
10.1.1 Integrators 210
10.1.2 Servos 213
10.1.3 Summers 214
10.1.4 Additional elements 214
10.2 Programming examples 215
10.3 Problems 216
10.4 Systems 217
10.4.1 MADDIDA 217
10.4.2 Bendix D-12 220
10.4.3 CORSAIR 224
10.4.4 TRICE 225
XIV Contents

11 Stochastic computing 229

12 Simulation of analog computers 233

12.1 Basics 234
12.2 DDA programming system for the IBM 7074 234
12.3 CSMP 237
12.4 Modern approaches 240

13 Applications 243
13.1 Mathematics 243
13.1.1 Differential equations 243
13.1.2 Integral equations 244
13.1.3 Roots of polynomials 247
13.1.4 Orthogonal functions 247
13.1.5 Linear algebra 248
13.1.6 Eigenvalues and -vectors 249
13.1.7 Fourier synthesis and analysis 250
13.1.8 Random processes and Monte-Carlo simulations 251
13.1.9 Optimisation and operational research 252
13.1.10 Display of complex shapes 253
13.2 Physics 253
13.2.1 Orbit calculations 255
13.2.2 Particle trajectories and plasma physics 255
13.2.3 Optics 258
13.2.4 Heat-transfer 258
13.2.5 Fallout prediction 262
13.2.6 Semiconductor research 262
13.2.7 Ferromagnetic films 264
13.3 Chemistry 264
13.3.1 Reaction kinetics 264
13.3.2 Quantum chemistry 265
13.4 Mechanics and engineering 266
13.4.1 Vibrations 267
13.4.2 Shock absorbers 268
13.4.3 Earthquake simulation 268
13.4.4 Rotating systems and gears 269
13.4.5 Compressors 270
13.4.6 Crank mechanisms and linkages 271
13.4.7 Non-destructive testing 272
13.4.8 Ductile deformation 272
13.4.9 Pneumatic and hydraulic systems 273
13.4.10 Control of machine tools 276
 Contents XV

13.4.11 Servo systems 277

13.5 Colour matching 278
13.6 Nuclear technology 278
13.6.1 Research 279
13.6.2 Reactor/neutron kinetics 280
13.6.3 Training 281
13.6.4 Control 282
13.6.5 Enrichment 283
13.7 Biology and medicine 284
13.7.1 Ecosystems 284
13.7.2 Metabolism research 285
13.7.3 Cardiovascular systems 285
13.7.4 Closed loop control studies 286
13.7.5 Neurophysiology 286
13.7.6 Epidemiology 288
13.7.7 Aerospace medicine 289
13.7.8 Locomotor systems 289
13.7.9 Dosimetry 290
13.8 Geology and marine science 290
13.8.1 Oil and gas reservoirs 290
13.8.2 Seismology 291
13.8.3 Ray tracing 292
13.9 Economics 292
13.10 Power engineering 295
13.10.1 Generators 295
13.10.2 Transformers 296
13.10.3 Power inverters and rectifiers 296
13.10.4 Transmission lines 297
13.10.5 Frequency control 297
13.10.6 Power grid simulation 298
13.10.7 Power station simulation 300
13.10.8 Dispatch computers 301
13.11 Electronics and telecommunications 301
13.11.1 Circuit simulation 301
13.11.2 Frequency response 303
13.11.3 Filter design 304
13.11.4 Modulators and demodulators 304
13.11.5 Antenna and radar systems 305
13.12 Automation 305
13.12.1 Data processing 306
13.12.2 Correlation analysis 306
13.12.3 Closed loop control and servo systems 307
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