Received: 22 November 2018 Revised: 9 March 2019 Accepted: 9 March 2019

DOI: 10.1111/cch.12661

REVIEW ARTICLE

The role of parental self‐efficacy in parent and child well‐being:

A systematic review of associated outcomes

Ariana M. Albanese1 | Gabrielle R. Russo1 | Pamela A. Geller1,2

1
Department of Psychology, Drexel
University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Abstract
2
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Background: For decades, parental self‐efficacy (PSE), or parents' belief in their
Drexel University College of Medicine
ability to influence their child in a healthy and success‐promoting manner, has been
Correspondence understood as a key factor in promoting healthy functioning for parents and their
Ariana Albanese, Department of Psychology,
Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street,
children. In that time, an extensive collection of research examining the specific
Stratton Hall 118, Drexel University, impact of PSE on parents and their children has developed. However, to the authors'
Philadelphia 19104, PA.
Email: [email protected]
knowledge, no comprehensive and systematic review of the outcomes linked to this
factor exists, and the two most closely related non‐systematic reviews were pub-
lished over 10 years ago.
Methods: Therefore, by utilizing an iteratively optimized set of search terms
applied across four databases, the current review sought to systematically collect,
synthesize, and present the extant literature concerning the role of PSE in parent
and child well‐being.
Results: This search strategy yielded a total of 115 studies, the results of which
were organized into three broad thematic categories relating to: the parent and child
relationship, parental mental health, or child development.
Conclusions: These results recapitulate the clinical relevance of PSE, and provide
an updated and comprehensive understanding of both the role PSE plays in the
welfare of parents and children, as well as the gaps in the literature as it currently
stands.

K E Y W OR D S

child development, mental health, parental self‐efficacy, parent–child relationship

1 | I N T RO D U C T I O N one's parenting abilities quickly came to be understood within a

Bandurian framework and was termed parental self‐efficacy (Cutrona
Parenthood, though often joyful, is also an experience rife with & Troutman, 1986).
stress‐inducing challenges. New parents face both the physical and Parental self‐efficacy (PSE), which has been defined more recently
financial burden of caring for a child, as well as the other lifestyle as “parents' belief about their ability to influence their child in a health
changes that can stem from this increased responsibility and result and success‐promoting manner” (Eccles & Harold, 1996), has emerged
in negative outcomes, such as a strained spousal relationship as an important clinical target for parent and child well‐being in the
and social isolation (Belsky, 1986). As early as 1986, the emotional intervening decades. For example, one meta‐analysis found that a
cost related to parents' lack of confidence in their ability to care mother's sense of herself and her abilities were a significant factor in
for their child was recognized as problematic for new parents her risk of postpartum depression (Beck, 2001), which is a disorder
(Belsky, 1986). Once identified, this concept of faith in oneself and linked to manifold negative implications for both mother and child

Child Care Health Dev. 2019;45:333–363. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cch © 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 333
 13652214, 2019, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cch.12661 by The University Of Melbourne, Wiley Online Library on [02/06/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
334 ALBANESE ET AL.

(O'Hara & McCabe, 2013). As such an important clinical focus, PSE

has maintained relevance in published literature since its formal
Key Messages
inception.
In reaction to this sizeable body of PSE literature, two reviews • Parental self‐efficacy is key to healthy functioning in
have attempted to take stock of the parental and child outcomes asso- parents and children.
ciated with PSE in a synthesized manner (Coleman & Karraker, 1998; • Parental self‐efficacy impacts: the parent‐child
Jones & Prinz, 2005). However, each review was limited in scope to relationship, parental mental health, and child
one particular type of outcome, specifically: parenting quality development.
(Coleman & Karraker, 1998) and parent and child adjustment (Jones
• However, further psychometric and construct definitional
& Prinz, 2005). Not one review attempted to comprehensively address
work is warranted.
all parental and child outcomes that have been linked to PSE. Addi-
tionally, neither review appeared to have used a systematic approach
to gathering references, thus introducing increased risk of providing
incomplete reviews of their respective topics. Lastly, the most recent the keywords ((“self‐efficacy”) AND parent*) so that the authors would
of these reviews was conducted over 10 years ago. Therefore, a com- be alerted to the release of any new literature regarding PSE published
prehensive, systematically gleaned, and updated review of the paren- after the initial systematic search. It should be noted that, originally,
tal and child outcomes impacted by PSE is warranted. the authors sought to collect articles concerning both PSE‐linked
To address this need, the present review aimed to systematically parental and child outcomes as well PSE‐targeting programmes and
collect, synthesize, and present all extant articles linking PSE with interventions. Given the unwieldy volume of relevant material that
parental and child outcomes. In this way, this review can contribute the original search produced, the results were separated into two dis-
to the field a clear understanding of both the role that PSE plays in tinct reports (one presenting the outcomes linked to PSE contained in
the well‐being of parents and their children, as well as the gaps and the current review; and another reviewing interventions targeting
limitations of the current body of PSE literature. These findings can PSE) to increase ease and clarity for the reader. The review of inter-
benefit parents and their children through informing future research ventions is forthcoming; the authors may be contacted for further
and clinical work targeting PSE. information.

2 | METHODS 2.2 | Inclusion and exclusion criteria

A systematic review of parental and child outcomes linked to PSE was Eligible articles were those that reported the effect of PSE on an out-
conducted with guidance from the Preferred Reporting Items for Sys- come related to parental and child health and well‐being. Accordingly,
tematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher articles reporting on factors affecting PSE (as opposed to articles
et al., 2015). reporting on outcomes affected by PSE), as well as psychometric inves-
tigations (i.e., studies reporting on PSE measure development) were
excluded. Additionally, articles were deemed ineligible if they did not
2.1 | Search strategy utilize a measure of PSE specifically (i.e., used a measure of general
self‐efficacy), if they reported on PSE beliefs centering around one
Four electronic databases were searched—psychinfo, PubMed,
specific task or activity (i.e., self‐efficacy beliefs centering solely
CINAHL, and Web of Science—on 15 January 2018. The search strat-
around breastfeeding), or if they reported on a similar but distinct con-
egy was developed as follows. First, a small set of relevant “test arti-
cept such as parental perceived control or parental competence. This
cles” were collected via a preliminary exploratory search; then, the
eligibility criterion was put in place to ensure that there was a degree
systematic search terms were iteratively developed and validated by
of consistency in the operationalization of PSE. In terms of study pop-
gauging their success at returning these “test articles.” The general
ulation, eligible articles reported on healthy adult parents with healthy,
structure of the finalized set of search terms entered into the data-
full‐term, and typically functioning children. This criterion was put in
bases was as follows: (“self‐efficacy”) AND (parent and synonyms)
place in an attempt to remove confounding factors that might impact
AND (outcomes of interest). The search was tailored for specific data-
PSE assessment. Lastly, as aforementioned, articles reviewing
base ontologies (e.g., Medical Subject Heading [MeSH] terms were
programmes or interventions targeting PSE were removed and
used for PubMed) but was otherwise identical across databases. The
retained for descriptive synthesis in a separate report.
full set of search terms can be viewed in Appendix A. A liaison librarian
with expertise in Public Health and Psychology was consulted
throughout the process of database selection and search term optimi- 2.3 | Study selection
zation to ensure best practices. Additionally, an automatic notification
system was configured through the National Center for Biotechnology Study selection was undertaken utilizing Covidence Systematic
Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM) for Review Software (Veritas Health Innovation) and first involved a
 13652214, 2019, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cch.12661 by The University Of Melbourne, Wiley Online Library on [02/06/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
ALBANESE ET AL. 335

screening of all titles and abstracts by the first and second author 3 | RESULTS
applying the abovementioned eligibility criteria. Though screening
was conducted independently, these authors met regularly to resolve 3.1 | Literature search
discrepancies until consensus was reached. Second, all articles deemed
eligible by both authors through title and abstract screening As seen in Figure 1, the search across all four databases yielded a total
underwent a full text analysis to determine eligibility for data extrac- of 10,332 studies. After the removal of duplicates, and the addition of
tion and inclusion in the final report. one article identified post‐initial search by the notification system,
6,690 studies underwent title and abstract review. Of these, 6,623
articles were deemed irrelevant by two independent reviewers, and
2.4 | Data extraction and synthesis the remaining 367 articles underwent a full‐text review and assess-
ment of eligibility, also conducted by two independent reviewers.
An extraction form was developed into which the following data Two separate Cohen's κ analyses, one for the title and abstract stage
from eligible publications were compiled: sample size, sample popula- of review and another for the full‐text stage of review were run to test
tion, study design, instrument used to measure PSE, age of children, the concordance between the two independent reviewers. For the
and main finding (composed of the subsections: research question, title and abstract review, very good agreement was achieved,
type of analysis, and results). Results from these articles were cate- κ = 0.97 (95% CI [0.95, 0.99]), and for the full‐text review, good
gorized into three emergent themes by the type of outcome achievement was achieved, κ = 0.83 (95% CI [0.77, 0.89]), p < 0.0005.
reported, namely: relating to the parent and child relationship, relat- From the pool of studies for which the full text was reviewed, 252
ing to parental mental health, or relating to child development. A were excluded for the following reasons: (a) 119 articles presented
descriptive synthesis was then conducted for each category of out- purely correlational results between PSE and outcomes of interest
come. Given the heterogeneity in the study design of the final cor- thus precluding casual conclusions; (b) 19 articles were review articles
pus of eligible studies (many of which were of a cross‐sectional or study protocols devoid of results adding to the knowledge base
survey nature); a risk of bias assessment for individual studies was (e.g., not reporting meta‐analytic results and not reporting perfor-
not undertaken. mance results of the study); (c) 39 articles presented results on an

FIGURE 1 Consort diagram of included and excluded references at each stage of review [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
 13652214, 2019, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cch.12661 by The University Of Melbourne, Wiley Online Library on [02/06/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
336 ALBANESE ET AL.

ineligible patient population; (d) 18 articles presented results on fac- outcomes for parent and child, positively linking PSE to such outcomes
tors which affect PSE rather than what is affected by PSE; (e) 43 arti- as: having routines in the home (Aldoney‐Ramirez, 2017), open com-
cles operationalized PSE in an ineligible way (i.e., used a measure of munication within a family (Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Regalia, &
general self‐efficacy, reported on a similar but distinct concept such Scabini, 2011), having a more positive attitude towards parenting
as parenting competence or confidence, and reported on PSE for (Howard, 2006) as well as a more positive parent–child relationship
solely one parenting task); (f) 20 were excluded for presenting on a (Taylor, 2006), maternal involvement at home (Leivent, 2007), and bet-
purely psychometric study (i.e., looking at the performance or devel- ter family role construction (Yamamoto, Holloway, & Suzuki, 2006).
opment of a measure but devoid of implications of PSE on outcomes PSE has also been found to positively predict paternal involvement
of interest); (g) the authors were denied full text of four articles by across several contexts (Kwok & Li, 2015; Kwok, Ling, Leung, & Li,
the manuscripts' authors and thus could not perform a full‐text 2013; Lemmons, 2017; Molenda‐Kostanski, 2017; Trahan, 2017).
review; (h) six articles were excluded due to an inability to locate the PSE was even found in one Filipino population to predict the score
full text after searching library resources for three large universities on a child abuse inventory (Bantugan‐Bohan, 1994).
to which the authors had access, as well as submitting an inter‐library Importantly, higher PSE has repeatedly been linked to more effec-
loan request through the library at the university in which the authors tive parenting styles and behaviour, specifically: more responsive par-
are housed; (i) seven articles presented non‐significant findings for a enting (Aranda, 2014; Montgomery, 2009), more promotive parenting
non‐interventional study and were thus excluded; (j) nine articles were practices (Ardelt & Eccles, 2001; Glatz & Buchanan, 2015), less coer-
duplicates that were not identified by the Covidence system earlier in cive parenting (Bor & Sanders, 2004), setting developmental goals
the sorting process; (k) one article was not available in English and for one's children (Brody, Flor, & Gibson, 1999), an authoritative par-
thus could not be reviewed in full; and (l) seven articles were related enting style (Celada, 2011), increased parenting skill (Duffield, 1989),
to PSE intervention design and efficacy and were removed for presen- more effective child management strategies (Elder, Eccles, Ardelt, &
tation in a separate report as noted earlier. It should be noted that the Lord, 1995), less dysfunctional parenting (Laforce, 2005), disciplinary
removed review articles were inspected manually for relevant refer- style (Sanders & Woolley, 2005), higher parenting quality (Seo,
ences not already collected, which resulted in the addition of six 2004), parental sensitivity (Wilson, Gettings, Guntzviller, & Munz,
new references to the final corpus of articles represented in the qual- 2014), and child‐rearing behaviour (Roskam & Meunier, 2012).
itative synthesis (in addition to two others added through the afore- Although most of these findings utilized self‐reported survey data, as
mentioned notification system). mentioned before, PSE has also been linked to better in vivo parenting
In total, 115 articles were deemed eligible by both independent behaviour observed in a laboratory context, specifically, increased sen-
reviewers and are included in this review. These 115 articles were sitivity to one's infant during an emotionally arousing task (Leerkes &
divided into three emergent themes: (a) the effect of PSE on outcomes Crockenberg, 2002). Additionally, one study found it possible to
relating to the parent and child relationship, (b) the effect of PSE on experimentally manipulate PSE and observe resultant change in
outcomes relating to parental mental health, and (c) the effect of parent–child interaction in a laboratory setting (Mouton & Roskam,
PSE on outcomes relating to child development. The majority of the 2015). Likely related to PSE's effect on parenting, there is also evi-
studies collected were of a cross‐sectional survey design, including dence to suggest that PSE impacts a parent's perception of their
both longitudinal surveys as well as studies incorporating observation child's behaviour, specifically parental ratings of infant fussiness
of parents and children in a laboratory setting. These studies are pre- (Halpern, Anders, Garcia Coll, & Hua, 1994), infant temperament
sented in Table 1 (divided into three subparts A, B and C, by theme), (Verhage, Oosterman, & Schuengel, 2013a), and child behaviour issues
and major findings within these three themes are narratively synthe- (Jusiene, Breidokiene, & Pakalniskiene, 2015).
sized below. Though higher PSE has largely been linked to positive outcomes
for parent and child, there are some exceptions. First, one study found
mixed results, with greater PSE predicting both reduced hostility and
3.2 The impact of PSE on outcomes related to the
| increased intrusiveness, as well as potentially agency‐robbing and
parent and child relationship over‐protectiveness (Grimes, 2013). Another study found increased
PSE to be related to decreased help‐seeking behaviour on the part
Of the three categorizations of outcomes, the impact of PSE on of the parent, which could negatively impact a child (Fleisher, 2004).
outcomes related to the parent and child relationship boasted the most The remaining 13 studies placed into this thematic category exam-
abundant collection of empirical support, with 47 relevant articles ined the way in which PSE functioned as a mediator, a moderator, or
ultimately sorted into this category. The vast majority of these articles as part of an interaction with other factors when predicting outcomes
specifically discussed the impact of PSE on outcomes related to related to the parent and child relationship. First, PSE has been found
parenting behaviour or style, though other key outcomes included such to fully mediate the relationship between parental fatigue and parental
things as infant attachment, family functioning, and paternal involvement. warmth/hostility (Chau & Giallo, 2015). Second, PSE has been found
Employing largely regression and modelling analyses, most studies to mediate the impact of demographic risk on both parental expecta-
reported on parental and child relationship outcomes that PSE pre- tions as well as parental role/responsibilities, and the impact of stress-
dicts or to which PSE contributes. Many of these were beneficial ful family life events on parental expectations (Dalumpines, 2005).
 TABLE 1A Characteristics and findings of included studies relating to the parent and child relationship
ALBANESE

The Effect of PSE on the Parent and Child Relationship

ET AL.

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Aldoney‐Ramirez 51 mothers Low income Latina Combination of Four items from the 24–31 months Research question: How do parenting belief factors affect quality
(2017) and 48 mothers and survey and Parent Stress Index‐ of relationship between parent and child?
children their children observation Short Form (assessing Type of Analysis: Multiple regression
self‐perceived Result: PSE was positively related to having routines in the home.
parenting ability)
Aranda 659 families Low income Combination of Being a Parent Scale 3–5 years Research question: What factors predict parental responsiveness?
(2014) mothers of survey and Type of Analysis: Structural equation modelling
preschool‐aged observation Result: PSE was found to be a significant predictor of parental
children of child, responsiveness.
longitudinal
Ardelt and 376 mothers Black and White Survey, cross Questionnaire created “Young Research question: What is the relationship between PSE and
Eccles parents of young sectional for study adolescents” promotive parenting practices?
(2001) adolescents living *exact age not Type of Analysis: Structural equation modelling
in adverse reported Result: PSE predicted promotive parenting for Black mothers
environments but not White.
Bandura, 142 families Intact families Survey, cross Questionnaire created 13–19 years Research question: How does PSE affect family functioning?
Caprara, with adolescents sectional for study Type of analysis: Structural analysis
Barbaranelli, in Milan Result: PSE contributed to collective family efficacy, and also
Regalia, contributed to open communication and self‐disclosure.
and Scabini
(2011)
Bantugan‐Bohan 102 subjects Filipino and White Survey, cross Parent Self‐Efficacy Not reported Research question: Does PSE score predict the score on a child
(1994) (63 Filipino, populations sectional Scale abuse inventory?
39 White) Type of Analysis: Hierarchical regression
Result: For the Filipino population, PSE score predicted score on
child abuse inventory.
Bor and 305 families Parents of Survey, cross PSOC 3 years Research question: Which factors predict coercive parenting of
Sanders preschool sectional children at risk of conduct problems?
(2004) children at risk Type of Analysis: Hierarchical regression
of conduct Result: PSE was a significant predictor of coercive parenting.
problems
Brody, Flor, and 139 families Rural, single‐ Combination of Parenting Efficacy 6–9 years Research question: How does maternal PSE predict parenting
Gibson (1999) mother‐headed survey and Scale practices?
African American observation, Type of Analysis: Structural equation modelling
families cross Result: PSE was linked to parenting practices indirectly via
sectional developmental goals.

(Continues)
337

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 TABLE 1A (Continued)
338
The Effect of PSE on the Parent and Child Relationship

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Casse, 260 mothers Dutch mothers Combination of Maternal self‐efficacy Gestation to Research question: Does PSE moderate the relationship
Oosterman, pregnant with survey and in the nurturing role 1 year between maternal satisfaction with their partner and
and Schuengel their first child observation, questionnaire their attachment to their infant?
(2016) cross Type of Analysis: Hierarchical linear regression
sectional Result: PSE appeared to moderate this relationship.
Celada 77 enrolled, Latina immigrant Survey, cross PSOC (efficacy Not reported Research question: Does PSE predict authoritative parenting?
(2011) 67 mothers mothers sectional subscale) Type of Analysis: Hierarchical linear regression
used in Result: PSE made a significant contribution to authoritarian
analysis parenting style.
Chau and 1,143 parents Australian parents Survey, cross PSOC 0–4 years Research question: Does PSE mediate the relationship between
Giallo (mothers = 1,003; sectional parental fatigue and parental warmth/hostility?
(2015) fathers = 140) Type of Analysis: Path analysis
Result: PSE fully mediated the relationship between parental
fatigue and parental warmth/hostility.
Dalumpines 104 caregivers Impoverished, Survey, cross PSOC 6–12 years Research question: Does PSE mediate the relationship between
(2005) urban, African sectional stressors and key parenting outcomes?
American Type of analysis: Multiple regression
parents/ Result: PSE mediated the impact of demographic risk on
caregivers parental expectations and on parental role/responsibilities.
school‐aged PSE also mediated the impact of stressful family life events on
children and parental expectations.
Duffield 50 mothers Middle income Survey, cross Knowledge of 0–36 months Research question: Which factors predict parenting skill?
(1989) mothers sectional Parents about Type of analysis: Multiple regression
Development, Result: PSE was a significant predictor of parenting skill along
Parenting with outcome expectations, parity, and education.
Scale II
Elder 429 parents Inner city families of Survey, cross Questionnaire 11–15 years Research question: How does PSE interact with economic
(1995) adolescents from sectional created pressure, emotional distress, and parenting behaviour?
neighbourhoods for study Type of analysis: Linear structural relations
with high poverty Result: For African American parents, PSE was more predictive
rates of child management strategies that minimize behavioural
risks and enhance developmental opportunities for
children, compared with White parents.
Fleisher 66 mothers Mothers of younger Survey, PSOC 4–12 years Research question: How does PSE relate to help‐seeking
(2004) children cross sectional behaviour for children's psychosocial problems?
Type of analysis: Hierarchical multiple regression
Result: Greater PSE predicted less help seeking. When stress
and PSE increased, help seeking decreased, when stress
decreased and PSE increased, there is an increase in some
ALBANESE

kinds of help seeking.

ET AL.

(Continues)

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 TABLE 1A (Continued)

The Effect of PSE on the Parent and Child Relationship

ALBANESE

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
ET AL.

Giallo, 982 parents Australian parents Survey, PSOC 0–4 years Research question: Which relationships between family and
Treyvaud, (mothers = 851; cross sectional child factors, as well as parenting involvement, are mediated
Cooklin, fathers = 131) by PSE?
and Type of analysis: Path analysis
Wade Result: PSE was found to mediate the relationship between
(2013) parent well‐being, child temperament, and parent
involvement.
Glatz 401 parents Parents with adolescent Survey, Questionnaire 11–12 years Research question: What are the links between PSE,
and (mothers = 286; children longitudinal created for at baseline parenting, and children's behaviour?
Buchanan fathers = 115) (time points: study Type of analysis: Cross‐lagged panel models
(2015) and 305 baseline, 1 year Result: PSE influenced promotive parenting which in turn
adolescents later, 2 years influences children's externalizing behaviour.
later)
Glatz, 130 parents Parents with both Survey, cross Brief 5‐item of 6th/7th grade, Research question: Is the relationship between PSE and
Cotter, (mothers = 89; an adolescent and sectional PSE mean age parenting style moderated by children's behaviour?
and fathers = 41) older adolescent 11.79 years Type of analysis: Path analysis
Buchanan child Result: PSE was linked with promotive parenting when children
(2017) were older adolescents and had lower externalizing behaviours.
Gondoli and 94 parent–child Cohabitating Combination of 6‐item self‐efficacy 7th–8th grade, Research question: Is the inverse relationship between maternal
Silverberg dyads parent–child survey and sub‐scale from around age 13 emotional distress and maternal responsiveness mediated by
(1997) dyads observation, Gecas and PSE?
cross sectional Schwalbe's (1986) Type of analysis: Regression (mediation analysis)
self‐esteem scale Result: The inverse relationship between maternal emotional
distress and maternal responsiveness was mediated by PSE.
Gondoli 94 parent–child Cohabitating Combination of 5‐item subscale 7th–8th grade, Research question: Is the relationship between emotional distress
(1995) dyads parent–child survey and developed by around age 13 and parental responsiveness mediated by PSE?
dyads observation, Wells‐Parker Type of analysis: Multiple regression
cross sectional Result: PSE found to mediate the relationship between maternal
emotional distress and parental responsiveness.
Grimes 164 couples Married couples Combination of Parental Cognitions 0–12 months Research question: What is the relationship between PSE and
(2013) completed the transitioning to longitudinal and Conduct parenting behaviours?
study (178 at parenthood survey (time points Toward the Infant Type of analysis: Regression
baseline) at 6 and 12 months) Scale Result: Greater parental self‐efficacy was uniquely related to
and observation increased parental over‐protective behaviours by fathers when
infants were both 6 and 12 months and by mothers when
infants were 12 months.
Halpern, 21 mother‐infant Primiparous mothers of Combination of survey PSOC 3 weeks– Research question: What is the relationship between PSE, night
Anders, dyads newborn infants and observation, 3 months time maternal behaviour, and infant sleep/wakefulness?
Garcia longitudinal (time Type of analysis: Regression
Coll,
339

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 TABLE 1A (Continued)
340
The Effect of PSE on the Parent and Child Relationship

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
and Hua points at 3 weeks Result: PSE did predict fussy temperament ratings, but only
(1994) old and 3 months) explained 10% of the variance.

Howard 87 fathers Fathers of young Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire 6–24 months Research Question: What is the relationship between PSE and
(2006) children (time points at 6, created for parenting attitudes among fathers?
12, 18, and 24 study Type of analysis: Latent growth curve modelling
months) Result: Fathers with higher PSE have a more positive attitude
towards parenting.
Izzo, Weiss, 93 mothers First generation Survey, cross Questionnaire 3–9 years Research Question: Does PSE mediate the relationship between
Shanahan, immigrant mothers sectional created for the social support and parental warmth and control?
and from Mexico living in study Type of analysis: Path analysis
Rodriguez‐ low income Result: PSE found to mediate this relationship.
Brown neighbourhoods
(2000)
Jusiene, 281 children Mothers of new‐borns Survey, longitudinal Leiden Parental 0–4 years Research Question: Does PSE predict maternal ratings of
Breidokiene, and their in Lithuania (seven time points Efficacy emotional regulatory issues with kids?
and mothers from birth to Questionnaire Type of Analysis: Latent class analysis
Pakalniskiene 4 years) Result: PSE was a significant predictor of maternal ratings of
(2015) behavioural issues.
Kwok, 2,029 fathers Fathers of nursery‐ Survey, cross PSOC (efficacy 2–6 years Research question: Does PSE predict father involvement?
Ling, school‐aged children sectional subscale) Type of analysis: Hierarchical linear regression
Leung, in Hong Kong Result: PSE was a significant positive predictor of paternal
and Li involvement, moderated by marital satisfaction.
(2013)
Kwok and Li 2,029 fathers Fathers of nursery‐ Survey, cross‐ PSOC (efficacy 2–6 years Research question: Does PSE predict father involvement?
(2015) school‐aged children sectional subscale) Type of analysis: Structural equation modelling
in Hong Kong Result: PSE was a positive predictor of paternal involvement.
Laforce 227 parents Primary caregiver Survey, cross PSOC (efficacy 5–10 years Research Question: What is the relationship between PSE and
(2005) parents of sectional subscale) parenting?
elementary‐school Type of Analysis: Multiple regression
age children in Result: PSE predicted parental reasoning moderated by sense of
Ontario Canada control, predicted power‐assertion strategies, and generally
higher PSE predicted less dysfunctional parenting.
Leerkes 92 mothers Primiparous pregnant Combination Maternal Self‐ In gestation Research question: How does PSE predict observed maternal
and women of cross sectional efficacy Scale behaviour towards infants?
Crockenberg survey and Type of analysis: Multiple regression
(2002) observation Result: PSE interacted with infant distress to predict maternal
sensitivity during an emotionally arousing task.
Leivent 158 Japanese Mothers in the United Survey, longitudinal Maternal Strategy 5–6 years Research question: How does PSE predict parental involvement in
(2007) and US States and Japan (once at beginning Self‐Efficacy and children's lives?
ALBANESE
ET AL.

(Continues)

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 TABLE 1A (Continued)

The Effect of PSE on the Parent and Child Relationship

ALBANESE

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
ET AL.

mothers of child's 1st grade Child Outcome Self‐ Type of analysis: Hierarchical linear regression
(Japanese = 85, year, again at Efficacy Scales Result: PSE was a significant predictor of involvement at home for
US = 73) beginning of 2nd Japanese mothers, not a significant predictor for US moms.
grade)
Lemmons 110 fathers Non‐resident African Survey, cross PSOC 5–17 years Research question: Is PSE a predictor of paternal involvement?
(2017) American fathers sectional (with Type of analysis: Multiple regression
additional qualitative Result: PSE was the second biggest predictor behind having a
analysis) relationship with the mother of the children.
Lesniowska, 252 mothers Mothers of young Survey, cross sectional PSOC (efficacy 1–4 years Research question: Is the relationship between maternal fatigue
Gent, and children in Australia subscale) and over‐reactive parenting mediated by PSE?
Watson (2016) Type of analysis: Meditation model analysis
Result: PSE found to mediate this relationship.
Machida, 306 mothers Mothers of Head Survey, longitudinal Parent opinion Average age Research question: Does PSE mediate the relationship between
Taylor, and their Start families, (one fall and one survey 4.6 years Age child characteristics and parental involvement in home learning
and Kim children majority of which spring time point) range not activities?
(2002) were Hispanic/ reported Type of analysis: Mediation model analysis
Latino Result: PSE found to mediate this relationship.
Mathew, 211 parents Asian American Survey, cross PSOC Under 18 years Research question: Does PSE mediate the relationship between
Zhai, parents who had sectional social support and parental nurturance?
and Gao one or more Type of analysis: Multiple regression and mediation analysis
(2017) children under Result: PSE was found to mediate this relationship.
age 18 living in
the same
household
Meunier, 340 families Families of Belgian Survey, longitudinal Echelle globale du 3–6 years Research question: Does PSE mediate the relationship between
Roskam, children (two time points sentiment de child behaviour and later parent behaviour?
and within one competence Type of analysis: Two‐wave longitudinal structural‐equation
Browne calendar year) parentale modelling (SEM) with latent variables
(2011) Result: PSE was found to mediate this relationship.
Molenda‐ 101 fathers Asian American Survey, cross Parenting self‐agency Kindergarten Research question: Does PSE predict father involvement?
Kostanski fathers with sectional measure through Type of analysis: Multiple regression
(2017) school‐aged college‐aged Result: PSE was found to be significantly and positively associated
children with father involvement.
Montgomery 39 mothers Mothers of infants Combination of Maternal Self‐Efficacy 11–15 months Research question: What is the relationship between PSE,
(2009) survey (cross Scale maternal responsiveness, and both positive and negative affect?
sectional) and Type of analysis: Simultaneous multiple regression
observation Result: PSE accounted for 23.4% of the variance in maternal
responsiveness.

(Continues)
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 TABLE 1A (Continued)
342
The Effect of PSE on the Parent and Child Relationship

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Mouton and 42 mothers “Well functioning” Experimental Global Parental Self‐ 4–5 years Research question: Can PSE be manipulated and change the
Roskam mothers in (manipulating Efficacy Scale of interaction styles between mothers and their children?
(2015) Belgium moms' SE in lab Meunier and Type of analysis: t test
and watching Roskam Result: Mothers who were manipulated to bolster their PSE
effects on engaged in more positive play with their children
parent–child
interaction)
Roskam and 729 parents Parents in Belgium Survey, cross Echelle globale du 2–9 years Research question: What predicts child behaviour trajectories?
Meunier (mothers = 373, sectional sentiment de Type of analysis: Multilevel modelling
(2012) fathers = 356) compe'tence Result: PSE, along with children's behaviour, found to determine
parentale childrearing behaviour.
Rominov, 5,107 children Biological or Combination of Questionnaire created 0–9 years Research question: Does paternal postnatal PSE predict later
Giallo, and and their adoptive fathers longitudinal for study parenting behaviours?
Whelan families cohabitating with survey (three time Type of analysis: Path analysis
(2016) their children points between Result: A combination of high distress and low PSE in the postnatal
age 0 and 9) and period was associated with higher levels of hostile parenting
interview and lower parenting consistency when children were aged 4–
5 years; additionally, these were associated with poorer child
outcomes at 8–9 years.
Sanders 124 children Australian mothers Survey, cross The General Self‐ 2–8 years Research question: What is the relationship between maternal
and Woolley and their of children with sectional Efficacy Scale, PSOC, PSE, parent disciplinary style, and child conduct problems?
(2005) parents conduct problems The Parenting Tasks Type of analysis: Multiple regression
Checklist Result: PSE measures were significant predictors of parent
disciplinary style after controlling for other parent and child
factors.
Seo (2004) 42 children Early Head Start Survey, cross The Maternal Self‐ 0–3 years Research question: What is the relationship between maternal PSE
and their children and their sectional Efficacy Scale and quality of parenting?
mothers mothers Type of analysis: Regression
Result: Higher maternal PSE is associated with higher scores on a
parenting quality measure.
Taylor (2006) 92 mothers Single Black Survey, cross Parental Self‐Agency 2–7 years Research question: What is the relationship between PSE,
mothers sectional Measure childrearing practices, and the parent–child relationship?
Type of analysis: Regression
Result: Increased PSE increases positive aspect of parent–child
relationship.
Teti and 86 mothers Mothers (sample Survey, cross PSOC 3–13 months Research question: What is the relationship between maternal PSE
Gelfand split between sectional and behavioural competence?
(1991) depressed and Type of analysis: Multiple regression
non‐depressed Result: PSE mediated the relationship between psychosocial
ALBANESE

mothers) factors and behavioural competence.

ET AL.

(Continues)

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 ALBANESE
ET AL.

TABLE 1A (Continued)

The Effect of PSE on the Parent and Child Relationship

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Trahan 93 fathers Fathers Survey, cross PSOC (efficacy 0–18 years Research question: What predicts paternal involvement?
(2017) sectional subscale) Type of analysis: Hierarchical multiple regression
Result: PSE predicted greater father involvement.
Verhage, 616 mothers Pregnant, Survey, cross Dutch translation of the 32 weeks into Research question: What is the directionality of the relationship
Oosterman, primiparous sectional Maternal Self‐Efficacy pregnancy between PSE and perceptions of infant temperament?
and Schuengel, Dutch mothers in the Nurturing Role until 1 year Type of analysis: Regression
(2013b) Questionnaire after birth Result: PSE found to influence perceptions of infant temperament.
Wilson, 38 parents Parents in an Combination of Self‐Efficacy for 0–36 months Research question: What is the relationship between PSE and
Gettings, intergenerational survey (cross‐ Parenting Tasks observed parent–child interaction?
Guntzviller, learning sectional) and Index Type of analysis: Regression
and Munz programme observation Result: PSE is positively, albeit weakly, associated with observer
(2014) modelled on ratings of parental sensitivity from low to moderate levels of
Early Head PSE yet inversely associated with sensitivity for moderate to
Start high PSE.
Yamamoto, 108 mothers Japanese mothers Survey, cross Questionnaire Not reported Research QUESTION: How is PSE associated with
Holloway, with a child in sectional created for study parenting behaviours?
and Suzuki the last year of Type of analysis: Regression
(2006) preschool Result: Higher PSE is associated with better family
role construction.
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 TABLE 1B Characteristics and findings of included studies relating to the parental mental health
344

The Effect of PSE on Parental Mental Health

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Abdollahi, Agajani‐ 838 mothers Primiparous mothers in Survey, longitudinal Parent Expectations Gestation to Research question: What predicts the development of
Delavar, Iran (time points at third Survey 3 months postpartum depression in first time pregnant women?
Zarghami, and trimester of gestation Type of analysis: Logistic regression
Lyre (2016) and 12 weeks Result: Low PSE was found to be a predictor of
postpartum) developing postpartum depression.
Abdollahi, 2,279 women Pregnant women in Iran Survey, longitudinal Parent Expectations Gestation to Research question: What predicts the development of
Zarghami, Azhar, (time points at 32– Survey 12 weeks postpartum depression in pregnant women?
Sazlina, and Lye 42 weeks gestation, Type of analysis: Regression
(2014) 0–2 weeks Result: Risk of postpartum depression is decreased for
postpartum, 2– those with high PSE.
8 weeks, 8–12 weeks
postpartum)
Barnett, de Baca, 59 mother– Lower income mothers, Survey, cross sectional Questionnaire Mean age Research question: How are PSE and depressive
Jordan, Tilley, child dyads majority Latino/ created for study 10 years symptoms associated?
and Ellis (2015) Hispanic Type of analysis: Hierarchical regression
Result: PSE was predictive of depressive symptoms in
mothers.
Biehle and 104 couples Primiparous couples Survey, cross sectional Self‐Efficacy for Gestation Research question: What factors predict adaptation to
Mickelson (2011) Parenting Tasks parenthood?
Scale Type of analysis: Multiple linear regression
Result: PSE found to be related to better mental health
and relationship satisfaction for both mothers and
fathers.
Binda and Crippa 60 couples Couples expecting their Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire Gestation to Research question: What role does PSE play in the
(2000) first child in Northern (time points at 6– created for the 4 months transition to parenthood?
Italy 8 months pregnant study Type of analysis: Linear structural equations
and 4 months Result: Found PSE was related to parental satisfaction in
Postpartum) the transition to parenthood.
Boyraz and Sayger 217 fathers Fathers Survey, cross sectional Parental Self‐Efficacy 0–18 years Research question: What factors predict paternal well‐
(2011) Scale being?
Type of analysis: Hierarchical regression
Result: PSE significantly and positively predicted paternal
wellbeing after controlling for demographic factors
and family cohesion.
Coleman and 145 mothers Mothers of children in Survey, cross sectional Self‐Efficacy for 5–12 years Research question: What is the relationship between
Karraker (2000) public elementary Parenting Tasks PSE, general SE, maternal characteristics, and
school Index, PSOC, parenting satisfaction?
Parenting Self Type of analysis: Regression
Agency Measure
ALBANESE

(Continues)
ET AL.

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 TABLE 1B (Continued)

The Effect of PSE on Parental Mental Health

ALBANESE

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
ET AL.

Result: Higher PSE predicted greater parenting

satisfaction, also PSE mediates the influences of
mothers' experience with children other than their
own and maternal education on parenting satisfaction.

Coleman (1999) 42 mother‐ Mothers and their Combination of survey Maternal Efficacy 19–23 months Research question: What is the relationship between PSE
toddler toddlers (cross sectional) and Questionnaire, and competence in parenting toddlers?
dyads observation Self‐Efficacy for Type of analysis: Regression to examine mediation
Parenting Tasks effects
Index—Toddler Result: PSE found to be a mediator between toddler
Scale, PSOC temperament and both parenting stress and parenting
(efficacy subscale) satisfaction.
Cutrona and 55 mothers Mothers in second or Survey, longitudinal PSOC Gestation to Research question: Is the relationship between postnatal
Troutman (1986) third trimester of (time points during 3 months depression and infant temperament mediated by PSE?
pregnancy pregnancy and Type of analysis: Path analysis
3 months postpartum) Result: PSE was found to mediate this relationship.
Davey, Tough, 1,403 mothers Low risk pregnant Survey longitudinal Parental Gestation to Research question: Which factors are predictors of
Adair, and women in Canada (time points at early Expectations 8 weeks subclinical and major postpartum depression?
Benzies (2011) to mid pregnancy, Survey postpartum Type of analysis: Multiple logistic regression
third trimester, and Result: Low PSE found to be a risk factor along with
8 weeks postpartum) other covariates (history of depression, anxiety during
pregnancy, being born outside of Canada).
deMontigny, Girard, 205 fathers Biological fathers of Survey, cross sectional Parental 8–16 months Research question: Which factors are associated with
Lacharité, healthy infants with Expectations postnatal depression in fathers?
Dubeau, and which they Survey Type of analysis: Logistic regression
Devault (2013) cohabitate Result: Low PSE is associated with the development of
postnatal depression in fathers.
Don, Chong, Biehle, 104 couples Heterosexual Survey, longitudinal Self‐Efficacy for Gestation to Research question: What predicts latent class
Gordon, and cohabitating couples (time points at third Parenting Tasks 9 months membership into different levels of anxiety during the
Mickelson (2014) expecting their first trimester, 1, 4, and 9 Scale transition to parenthood?
child months postpartum) Type of analysis: Latent class analysis
Result: Found that individuals with greater PSE were
more likely to fall into a class characterized by low and
declining levels of anxiety.
Gavita, David, and 211 parents Romanian parents Survey, cross sectional PSOC 2–17 years Research question: What kind of cognitions affect
DiGiuseppe parental distress and satisfaction?
(2014)) Type of analysis: Bootstrapping procedures
Result: Low PSE parent in combination with parental
negative global evaluations for the self/child, added
significantly to their distress.

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 TABLE 1B (Continued)
346
The Effect of PSE on Parental Mental Health

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Giallo, Cooklin, and 4,242 mothers Biological mothers of Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire 3 months to Research question: Which factors predispose women to
Nicholson (2014) infants in Australia (four time points, created for study 7 years enduring depressive symptoms postpartum?
each 2 years apart Type of analysis: Latent class analysis
except for a 3 year Result: Found lower PSE to be among the risk factors for
gap between time enduring depressive symptoms.
points 3 and 4)
Giallo, D'Esposito, 2,470 fathers Fathers cohabitating Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire 3 months to Research question: Are there latent classes of
Cooklin, with infants for which (four time points, created for study 7 years psychological distress for fathers over the course of
Christensen, and they are primary or each 2 years apart the first seven postnatal years?
Nicholson, (2014) secondary caregiver except for a 3 year Type of analysis: Latent class analysis
gap between time Result: Low PSE was associated with membership to a
points 3 and 4) class of moderate distress that increased with time.
Giallo et al. (2013) 3,219 fathers Australian fathers Survey, cross sectional Questionnaire 0–12 months Research question: Which factors are associated with
cohabitating with created for study psychological distress for fathers in the postpartum
their infant children period?
Type of analysis: Logistic regression
Result: Low PSE found to be a risk factor for
psychological distress for fathers in the postpartum.
Gross and 104 couples Primiparous Survey, longitudinal Self‐Efficacy for 1–9 months Research question: How does PSE predict parental
Marcussen, cohabitating couples (time points at 1, 4, Parenting Tasks mental health over the course of the transition to
(2017) and 9 months Scale parenthood?
postpartum) Type of analysis: Structural equation modelling
Result: PSE is negatively associated with postpartum
depression for mothers and fathers.
Gross, Conrad, 252 mothers Mothers of toddlers Survey, longitudinal Toddler Care 1–2 years Research question: What is the relationship between
Fogg, and (three completions of Questionnaire PSE, depression, and toddler temperament over the
Wothke (1994) survey questionnaires course of toddlerhood?
over the course of Type of analysis: Structural equation modelling
1 year) Result: The lower a mother's PSE, the higher her
depression.
Haslam, Pakenham, 242 mothers at Primiparous women in Survey, longitudinal PSOC (efficacy Gestation to Research question: Does PSE mediate the relationship
and Smith (2006) baseline, Australia (time points at third subscale) 4 weeks between social support and postpartum depression?
192 trimester of Type of analysis: Path analysis
completed pregnancy and Result: PSE was found to mediate this relationship,
both time 4 weeks postpartum) specifically for parental social support.
points
Howell, Mora, and 724 mothers Postpartum mothers Survey, cross sectional Questionnaire 2–6 weeks Research question: What are the correlates and
Leventhal (2006) created for the predictors of early postpartum depression?
study Type of analysis: Multivariate modelling
ALBANESE

(Continues)
ET AL.

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 TABLE 1B (Continued)

The Effect of PSE on Parental Mental Health

ALBANESE

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
ET AL.

Result: Lower PSE associated with a higher likelihood of

depressive symptoms.

Howell, Mora, 720 mothers at Postpartum mothers Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire 2 weeks– Research question: Which modifiable factors are
DiBonaventura, baseline, (time points at created for the 6 months associated with postpartum depression?
and Leventhal 563 2 weeks and 6 study Type of analysis: Logistic regression
(2009) completed months postpartum) Result: Mothers who developed postpartum depression
both time had lower PSE.
points
Hsu and Sung 19 mothers First time mothers and Combination of survey PSOC 3–6 months Research question: What is the contribution of maternal
(2008) their infants (longitudinal, time PSE to first time mothers' separation anxiety?
points at 3 and Type of analysis: Hierarchical linear regression
6 months) and Result: Maternal PSE appeared to buffer the impact of
observation infant negative reactivity on maternal separation
anxiety.
Johnson (2017) 80 fathers Stay‐at‐home fathers Survey, cross sectional Parental Self‐Agency Not reported Research question: How is PSE related to role
Measure satisfaction with stay‐at‐home fathers?
Type of analysis: Multiple regression
Result: PSE (along with other factors) predicted role
satisfaction.
Kleinman and 150 women Jewish married women Survey, cross sectional Parenting Self‐ 1–6 months Research question: What is the relationship between
Reizer (2018) in Israel Efficacy Scale PSE, postpartum depression, caregiving
representations, and marital satisfaction?
Type of analysis: Hierarchical regression
Result: PSE found to mediate the association between
“deactivated” (complacent and uninvolved) caregiving
and postpartum depression.
Kunseler, Willemen, 822 mothers First time expectant Survey, longitudinal Self‐Efficacy in the Gestation through Research question: What is the directionality of the
Oosterman, and mothers in the (time points at Nurturing Role 1 year relationship between PSE and mental health outcomes
Schuengel (2014) Netherlands 32 weeks pregnancy, Questionnaire over the course of the transition to parenthood?
3 and 12 months Type of analysis: Multivariate response methods
postpartum) Result: PSE found to be both a predictor of mental health
outcomes as well as a result of mental health
outcomes.
Kwan, Kwok, and 3,459 parents Parents of nursery‐ Survey, cross sectional PSOC (efficacy 2–6 years Research question: Does PSE moderate the relationship
Ling (2015) (fathers = school‐aged children subscale) between stress and marital satisfaction?
2,029, in Hong Kong Type of analysis: Hierarchical regression
mothers = Result: Found a moderating effect of PSE for fathers but
1,430) not mothers.

(Continues)
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 TABLE 1B (Continued)
348
The Effect of PSE on Parental Mental Health

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Kwok and Wong 526 parents Parents of children Survey, cross sectional PSOC (efficacy 2–12 years Research question: Does PSE moderate the relationship
(2000) living in Hong Kong subscale) between stress and mental health in parents?
Type of analysis: Multiple regression
Result: PSE found to moderate this relationship.
Lavenda and 445 parents Jewish Israeli parents Survey, cross sectional Parental self‐efficacy Not reported Research question: Does PSE moderate the relationship
Kestler‐Peleg scale between spousal support and stress in parents?
(2017) Type of analysis: Regression
Result: Found that PSE does moderate this relationship,
but only when PSE is low.
Lee and Koo (2015) 178 mothers Mothers in Korea who Survey, cross sectional Maternal Self‐ 0–24 months Research question: What role does PSE play in the
have had a baby Efficacy Scale relationship between attachment schema and maternal
within the last 2 years depression?
Type of analysis: Moderated mediation analysis
Result: Mothers with high PSE were protected from the
negative impact of attachment insecurity and low self‐
esteem on maternal depression, compared with low
PSE mothers.
Mark‐Ribiczey, 407 mothers Mothers in Finland Survey, longitudinal PSOC 4–18 years Research question: What is the relationship between PSE
Miklosi, and and parental well‐being?
Szabo (2016) Type of analysis: Mediated moderation analysis
Result: PSE was negatively related to the use of self‐
blame, and positively associated with the greater use
of refocus on planning and positive reappraisal; also
the effects of self‐blame were buffered by high PSE.
Mickelson, Biehle, 104 couples Heterosexual married or Survey, longitudinal Self‐Efficacy for 24 weeks Research question: Does internalized stigma impact
Chong, and cohabitating (time points at 24 and Parenting Tasks gestation to postpartum depression symptoms via PSE?
Gordon (2017) primiparous couples 32 weeks of Measure 9 months Type of analysis: Path analysis
in the transition from pregnancy, 1, 4, postpartum Result: PSE found to be a mediator between internalized
pregnancy to 9 months postpartum) stigma and postpartum depression symptoms for
postpartum mothers and experienced stigma and postpartum
depression symptoms for fathers.
Mihelic, Filus, and 255 mothers Primiparous expectant Survey, cross sectional Maternal Self‐ Gestation Research question: What is the relationship between
Morawaska mothers in Australia Efficacy Inventory PSE, family/social support, maternal adjustment,, and
(2016) prenatal expectations?
Type of analysis: Structural equation modelling
Result: PSE found to be a mediator, fully mediating the
relationship between confidence and setting realistic
expectations.

(Continues)
ALBANESE
ET AL.

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 TABLE 1B (Continued)

The Effect of PSE on Parental Mental Health

ALBANESE

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
ET AL.

O'Neil, Wilson, 607 mothers Mothers of toddlers Survey, cross sectional PSOC 2 years Research question: What is the effect of PSE on
Shaw, and depression?
Dishion (2009) Type of analysis: Regression
Result: PSE was found to be associated with depressive
symptoms, but moderated by ethnicity (PSE
significantly associated with depressive symptoms for
European American mothers but was not for the
African American and Hispanic mothers).
Olioff and Aboud 40 mothers Married, pregnant Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire Gestation to Research question: How do PSE and self‐esteem predict
(1991) women expecting (time points at 43.5– created for the 6 weeks postpartum dysphoria?
their first child in 37.5 weeks pregnant study Type of analysis: Hierarchical multiple regression
Canada and 6 weeks Result: PSE and self‐esteem found to be significant
postpartum) predictors of postpartum dysphoria.
Quimby and 209 students Non‐traditional Survey, cross sectional Self‐Efficacy Not reported Research question: Does PSE influence psychological
O'Brien (2006) undergraduate Expectations for well‐being?
students (at least Role Management Type of analysis: Hierarchical linear regression
25 years of age, off‐ measure (Parent Result: Along with other variables, PSE predicts:
campus residents, and Self‐Efficacy psychological distress, self‐esteem, and life
part‐time or full‐time subscale) satisfaction.
students, all are
primary caregivers of
at least one child)
Reece and Harkless, 85 couples Couples in last trimester Survey, longitudinal Parent Expectations Gestation Research question: What is the relationship between
1998 of pregnancy at (time points during Survey PSE, stress, and parental adaptation during early
baseline last trimester of transition to parenthood?
pregnancy and at Type of analysis: Regression
4 months postpartum) Result: For mothers, PSE and stress were inversely
related, and PSE postpartum was positively associated
with partner relationship, satisfaction, confidence, and
support. For fathers, PSE at 4 months was associated
with confidence and life situation. PSE and stress as
predictor variables modestly explained adaptation to
parenthood. Gender and PSE predicted support for
parenting.
Rochlen, McKelley, 213 fathers Stay‐at‐home fathers Survey, cross sectional Parental Self‐Efficacy Not reported Research question: Does PSE predict adjustment to the
Suizzo, and Measure: stay‐at‐home father role?
Scaringi (2008) Nurturance and Type of analysis: Regression
Autonomy support Result: PSE was found to be a significant predictor of
Subscales adjustment.

(Continues)
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 350

TABLE 1B (Continued)

The Effect of PSE on Parental Mental Health

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Schoppe‐Sullivan, 182 couples Dual‐earner male– Survey, longitudinal 10‐item Parenting Gestation to Research question: Does PSE moderate the relationship
Settle, Lee, and female couples Efficacy Scale newborn between supportive co‐parenting and parenting
Kamp Dush transitioning to stress/satisfaction
(2016) parenthood (having Type of analysis: Moderation analysis
first child) Result: Maternal perceptions of greater supportive co‐
parenting were associated with low parenting stress
only when their PSE was low. Paternal perceptions of
greater supportive co‐parenting were associated with
greater parenting satisfaction only when PSE was high.
Wong, Lam, and 131 fathers Fathers with younger Survey, cross sectional PSOC Kindergarten or Research question: Which factors predict paternal
Kwok (2003) children in Hong primary school parenting stress?
Kong Type of analysis: Regression
Result: PSE interacted with parenting‐specific stress to
predict overall stress level.
Yeung and Chan 504 parents Parents in impoverished Survey, cross sectional PSOC (efficacy Kindergarten or Research question: Is PSE a mediator between family
(2011) Chinese families subscale) primary school stress and negative effects of poverty?
Type of analysis: Regression
Result: PSE found to be a significant mediator.
ALBANESE
ET AL.

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 TABLE 1C Characteristics and findings of included studies relating to child development

The effect of PSE on child development

ALBANESE

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
ET AL.

Ahun et al. 1,218 children and their Children and their Survey, longitudinal Parental Cognitions 5 months to Research question: What is the relationship between parental
(2017) parents parents in Quebec (time points yearly and Conduct 12 years factors and children's internalizing problems?
from 5 months to toward the Infant Type of analysis: Multinomial logistic regression modelling
7 years and every Scale Result: Low PSE found to be associated with offspring's high
2 years from 7 to internalizing problem trajectories.
12 years)
Anderson 297 couples Parents with a sixth Survey, cross sectional Parent's Self‐Agency Mean age Research question: What is the relationship between work
(2006) grade child Measure 11.86 years stress, PSE, ineffective parenting behaviour, and youth
problem behaviours?
Type of analysis: Structural equation modelling
Result: Found work stress to be related to lowered PSE and
increased ineffective parenting behaviours, which in turn,
increased youth internalizing and externalizing problem
behaviour. Also, lower mothers' PSE found to be directly
related to youth externalizing problem behaviour, and lower
fathers' PSE found to be directly related to youth
internalizing and externalizing problem behaviour.
Bojczyk, 112 mother–child dyads Head Start Survey, cross sectional Parent Self‐Efficacy 3.5–5.75 years Research question: What is the relationship between maternal
Haverback, programme Measure PSE, preschool children's home learning environment, and
and Pae mothers and their children's literacy skills?
(2017) children Type of analysis: Maximum likelihood path analysis
Result: PSE found to have direct effects on home learning
environment.
Carless, Melvin, 106 parents and their Australian sample of Survey, cross sectional PSOC (efficacy 12–17 years Research question: What is the relationship between PSE and
Tonge, and adolescents half school‐ subscale) adolescent school refusal?
Newman refusing Type of analysis: Logistic regression
(2015) adolescents and Result: PSE found to be a predictor of school‐refusal. But
their parents and significance is lose when factors like family dysfunction,
half normative adolescent depression, and parent depression were
adolescents and controlled for.
their parents
Coleman et al. 68 mother–toddler Predominantly Combination of survey Self‐Efficacy for 19–25 months Research question: Is PSE a mediator between parenting
(2002) dyads middle‐class and in‐person Parenting Tasks behaviours and toddler scores on the Bayley Scales of Infant
mother–toddler assessment of infant Index—Toddler Development?
pairs using the Bayley Scale Scale Type of Analysis: Regression
Result: PSE found to be a mediator between the composite
Competence Inhibiting parenting behaviour variable and
scores on the Bayley Mental Scale and between the
tendency to ignore child misbehaviour and Mental Scale
scores on the Bayley.

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 TABLE 1C (Continued)
352
The effect of PSE on child development

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Coleman and 68 mother–toddler Predominantly Combination of survey Self‐Efficacy for 19–25 months Research question: Does PSE predict child developmental
Karraker dyads middle‐class and in‐person Parenting Tasks status and behaviour?
(2003) mother toddler assessment of infant Index—Toddler Type of analysis: Regression
pairs using the Bayley Scale Scale Result: PSE found to significantly predict certain aspects of
child development and behaviour.
Dumka, Prost, 161 families Mexican American Survey, cross sectional Multicultural Sixth and seventh Research question: What is the relationship between PSE and
and Barrera and European Inventory of grade, exact adolescent conduct problem in Mexican American and
(2002) American two‐ Parenting Self‐ age range not European American families?
parent families Efficacy reported Type of analysis: Path modelling
Result: Found that PSE was negatively related to adolescent
conduct problems for mothers but not fathers, maternal PSE
seems to be salient factor for risk of adolescent conduct
problems.
Dumka, 189 adolescents and Mexican American Survey, cross sectional Multicultural 11–14 years Research question: How does PSE impact positive parental
Gonzales, their maternal adolescents, in Inventory of control practices and over time predict adolescents conduct
Wheeler, caregivers their seventh Parenting Self‐ problems?
and Millsap grade year, and Efficacy Type of analysis: Structural equation modelling
(2010) their maternal Result: PSE found to predict future positive control practices
caregivers rather than the reverse. PSE also showed direct effects on
decreased adolescent conduct problems.
Gregory (1998) 431 families National sample of Survey, cross sectional Questionnaire 10–17 years Research question: How does PSE predict deviance in
families created for study adolescence?
Type of analysis: Path analysis
Result: Higher PSE and more autonomy granting and lower
peer group deviance.
Heerman, 601 parent–child dyads Racial and ethnic Survey, cross sectional Shortened version of 3.6–5.1 years Research question: What is the association between PSE and
Taylor, minority parent– the PSOC children's health behaviours?
Wallston, child dyads Type of analysis: Multiple linear regressions
and Barkin Result: Higher PSE associated with better sleep duration in
(2017) children and fewer meals eaten in front of the TV.
Holland et al. 432 mothers Medicaid recipients Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire 0–24 months Research question: Is PSE a mediator between maternal
(2011) who had to meet (time points at birth, created for the depression and child hospitalizations?
two of three high‐ 6, 12, and 24 months) study Type of analysis: Mediation analysis
risk criteria: being Result: Lower PSE compared with higher PSE was associated
unmarried, being with more child hospitalizations yet very low PSE was
unemployed, or associated with fewer hospitalizations than low PSE.
having less than
12 years of
education
ALBANESE

(Continues)
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 TABLE 1C (Continued)

The effect of PSE on child development

ALBANESE

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
ET AL.

Holloway et al. 691 mothers (309 Mothers of Survey, longitudinal Berkeley Parenting Average age = Research question: Is the relationship between SES and
(2016) Japanese, 372 elementary‐ (baseline and 2– Self‐Efficacy 7 years children's achievement in Japan and Korea mediated or
Korean) school‐aged 3 months later) Scale–Revised moderated by PSE?
children in Korea Type of analysis: Moderation analysis
and Japan Result: For Japanese mothers, PSE moderated the association
between education of mothers and school‐related
competence in children, higher education positively
associated with this competence. For Korean sample, income
associated with school‐related competence through PSE.
Jackson, Choi, 100 mothers Single Black mother Survey, longitudinal (1– The Parenting Self‐ 3–4 years Research question: Is the relationship between environmental
and Bentler welfare recipients 1.5 years between Efficacy Scale factors and children's behavioural and cognitive functioning
(2009) time points) mediated by maternal PSE?
Type of analysis: Testing of a conceptual model
Result: PSE may mediate the link between mothers' depressive
symptoms and their pre‐schoolers’ subsequent school
adjustment.
Johnson (2009) 171 primary caregivers Primary caregivers of Survey, cross sectional Parenting self‐ 4 years old Research question: Does PSE predict school readiness for pre‐
students in a 4‐ agency measure schoolers?
year‐old Type of analysis: Multiple regression
kindergarten Result: PSE contributed significantly to the prediction of goals
programme for children.
Junttila and 981 students, their Parents of fourth Survey, cross sectional Parental Self‐Efficacy 10 years Research question: Can distinct subgroups of mothers, fathers,
Vauras parents, and their grade children in Scale families be identified based on PSE features? Also, how
(2014) teachers rural Southern membership to these groups predicts school competence in
Finland kids?
Type of analysis: Latent profile analysis
Result: Distinct subgroups were identified which differed in
terms of mothers' age and education and children's academic
skills. Also children of stronger PSE parents found to be more
prosocial.
(Junttila, 454 children, their Parents of fourth Survey, cross sectional Self‐Efficacy for 10 years Research question: What is the relationship between PSE,
Vauras, and parents, and their grade children in Parenting Tasks parental loneliness, and child's peer‐evaluated social
Laakkonen teachers rural Southern Index competence, self‐evaluated loneliness, teacher‐evaluated
(2007)) Finland motivational orientation, and academic skills?
Type of analysis: Latent variable structure modelling.
Result: Found a relationship between PSE and child's social
competence and consequently between social competence
and child's loneliness. The relationship between PSE and
child's academic achievement were mediated by child's social
competence.

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 354
TABLE 1C (Continued)

The effect of PSE on child development

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
McDonald, 3,360 mothers Medically low‐risk Survey, longitudinal Parental cognitions Not reported, Research question: What are the risk and protective factors for
Kehler, pregnant and and conduct though mother developmental delay in children in an at risk environment?
Bayrampour, parenting toward the infant pregnant at the Type of Analysis: Resilience analysis
Fraser‐Lee, population in time of Result: PSE was among the protective factors for child
and Tough Calgary, mothers development in “at risk” family environments.
(2016) only
Nievar (2005) 1,364 Large diverse U.S. Survey, longitudinal PSOC 6 to 36 months Research question: What is the relationship between PSE,
sample collected (time points at 1, 6, attachment security to kids, and child self‐control?
from universities 15, 24, and Type of analysis: Structural equation modelling
across the United 36 months) Result: PSE and parental practices are predictive of attachment
States security and children's self‐control.
Oro, Doane, 222 twin pairs Twin pairs and their Survey, longitudinal Parental Cognitions 1 to 5 years Research question: Does emotional availability of the parent
and Lemery‐ parents (time points at Toward the Infant mediate the relationship between PSE and negative
Chalfant 12 months and Scale emotionality of the child?
(2017) 5 years of age of Type of analysis: Multilevel modelling
child) Result: PSE found to be negatively related to negative
emotionality and positively related to emotional availability.
Peacock‐ 144 parents Low income parents Survey, cross sectional Two subscales from 15–36 months Research question: Does PSE mediate the relationship between
Chambers, of young children Self‐Efficacy for depression and fostering a good home learning
Martin, Parenting Tasks environment?
Necastro, Index–Toddler Type of analysis: Multiple linear regression
Cabral, and Scale Result: PSE found to mediate this relationship, low PSE ➔ less
Bair‐Merritt optimal home learning environment.
(2017)
Phillipson and 3,956 children and their Children and families Survey, cross sectional Questionnaire Mean age Research question: How are PSE and other parenting outcomes
McFarland families in Australia created for the 12 years are related to adolescent's academic performance?
(2016) study Type of analysis: Nested structural equation models
Result: Found a significant relationship mediated by child's
perception of parenting.
Seçer, Gülay 200 children and their Young children and Survey, cross sectional Parenting Sense of 5–6 years Research question: What is the effect of maternal SE on peer
Ogelman, mothers (96 girls, 104 their mothers Competence Scale relations between children ages 5 and 6?
Önder, and boys) —Mother Form Type of analysis: Linear regression
Berengi Result: Found a significant negative relationship between PSE
(2012) and variables of aggression, exclusion, fearful‐anxiety,
hyperactivity, and peer victimisation of their children. Also
PSE had a predictor effect on their child's level of aggression,
exclusion, fearful‐anxiety, hyperactivity, and peer
victimisation
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(Continues)
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 ALBANESE

TABLE 1C (Continued)
ET AL.

The effect of PSE on child development

Author Sample size Sample population* Study design PSE measure used Age of children Main finding
Seçer, 200 children and their Children and their Survey, cross sectional Parenting Sense of 5–6 years Research question: What is the effect of paternal PSE on
Ogelman, fathers (96 girls, 104 fathers in Turkey Competence Scale children's peer relations?
and Önder boys) —Fathers' form Type of analysis: Regression
(2013) Result: Paternal PSE is the best predictor of peer victimization.
Seefeldt, 133 children and their Former Head Start Secondary data analysis Three items from the Kindergarten Research question: Does PSE predict children's academic
Denton, parents children and their Being a Parent (exact age not performance?
Galper, and parents Scale reported) Type of analysis: Regression
Younoszai Result: PSE significantly predicted children's academic abilities
(1999) as measured by the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test‐
Revised, and the Letter‐Word Recognition and Applied
Problems subtests of the Woodcock‐Johnson Tests of
Achievement‐Revised.
(Sequerra, 104 mothers Israeli married Survey, cross sectional The self‐efficacy for 14–46 months Research question: Is PSE a predictor of child behaviour
2011) mothers each with parenting tasks problems?
a single toddler index—Toddler Type of analysis: Hierarchical linear regression
scale Result: PSE significantly predicts child behaviour problems
Shumow and 929 parents Parents of Survey, cross sectional Questionnaire 10–17 years Research question: Does PSE predict adolescent academic
Lomax, adolescent created for the performance?
2002) children study Type of analysis: Path analysis
Result: PSE predicted academic performance through parental
involvement and monitoring.
Weaver, Shaw, 652 parent–child dyads Mothers of children Combination of survey, PSOC 2–4 years Research question: Is PSE associated with later conduct
Dishion, and at risk of conduct longitudinal (time problems in kids?
Wilson problems points at age 2, 3, and Type of analysis: Conditional growth curve modelling
(2008) 4), and observation Result: PSE predicts conduct problems, mediated by
depression.
Weaver (2011) 684 first time mothers First time mothers Survey, longitudinal Questionnaire Gestation to Research question: How does PSE predicts child development
(time points created for the 24 months during first 2 years of life?
prenatally, ages 6, 12, study Type of analysis: Latent growth curve modelling
and 24 months) Result: Prenatal perceived ability to provide material needs was
the only domain of PSE that significantly predicted higher
children's cognitive development at age 2.
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356 ALBANESE ET AL.

Third, PSE was found to mediate the relationship between the follow- during toddlerhood (Barnett, de Baca, Jordan, Tilley, & Ellis, 2015;
ing: parent well‐being, child temperament, and parent involvement Gross, Conrad, Fogg, & Wothke, 1994). However, interestingly, one
(Giallo, Treyvaud, et al., 2013), maternal emotional distress and mater- study found this relationship between PSE and depressive symptoms
nal responsiveness (Gondoli, 1995; Gondoli & Silverberg, 1997), social to be moderated by ethnicity, with PSE found to be significantly
support and parental warmth and control (Izzo, Weiss, Shanahan, & associated with depressive symptoms for European American mothers
Rodriguez‐Brown, 2000), maternal fatigue and over‐reactive parenting but not for African American and Hispanic mothers (O'Neil, Wilson,
(Lesniowska, Gent, & Watson, 2016), child characteristics and parental Shaw, & Dishion, 2009).
involvement in home learning activities (Machida, Taylor, & Kim, In addition to depression, PSE has been found to predict or con-
2002), support and parental nurturance (Mathew, Zhai, & Gao, tribute to several other parental mental health outcomes. Specifically,
2017), child behaviour and later parent behaviour (Meunier, Roskam, higher PSE has been linked to lower and declining levels of anxiety in
& Browne, 2011), and psychosocial factors and behavioural compe- the postpartum period (Don, Chong, Biehle, Gordon, & Mickelson,
tence in mothers (Teti & Gelfand, 1991). 2014), decreased risk of psychological distress for both fathers and
In terms of its role as a moderator, PSE has been found to moder- mothers (Giallo, D'Esposito, et al., 2013; Quimby & O'Brien, 2006),
ate the relationship between maternal satisfaction with one's partner decreased risk of postpartum dysphoria (Olioff & Aboud, 1991), and
and her attachment to her infant (Casse, Oosterman, & Schuengel, lower overall stress levels in fathers (Wong, Lam, & Kwok, 2003).
2016). In terms of interacting with other factors to predict parent Additionally, higher PSE has been linked to better adaptation to par-
and child relationship outcomes, PSE has first been found to interact enthood (Biehle & Mickelson, 2011; Reece & Harkless, 1998),
with child temperament and age to predict parenting style such that increased paternal well‐being (Boyraz & Sayger, 2011), greater parent-
higher PSE was associated with higher rates of promotive parenting, ing satisfaction (Binda & Crippa, 2000; Mark‐Ribiczey, Miklosi, &
particularly when externalizing behaviours were reported as lower by Szabo, 2016), as well as increased role satisfaction and better role
parents (Glatz, Cotter, & Buchanan, 2017). Second, PSE was found adjustment for stay‐at‐home fathers (Johnson, 2017; Rochlen,
to interact with distress level to predict parenting style and parenting McKelley, Suizzo, & Scaringi, 2008). Lastly, it should also be noted that
consistency, which in turn predicted child outcomes (Rominov, Giallo, a study examining the directionality of the relationship between PSE
& Whelan, 2016). and mental health outcomes observed a bidirectional association,
wherein PSE both affects and is affected by mental health outcomes
(Kunseler, Willemen, Oosterman, & Schuengel, 2014).
3.3 | The impact of PSE on outcomes related to As with the first category of outcomes, the remaining 14 studies
parental mental health placed into the parental mental health outcome category examined
the way in which PSE functioned as a mediator, moderator, or in
The impact of PSE on outcomes related to parental mental health was interaction with other factors when predicting outcomes related to
the category containing the second largest number of relevant articles, parental mental health. Specifically, PSE has been identified as a
with 40 articles ultimately collected. The parental mental health out- mediator in the relationship between toddler temperament and both
come most frequently linked to PSE was postpartum depression, parenting stress and parenting satisfaction (Coleman, 1999), infant
though other key outcomes such as psychological distress, satisfaction temperament and postnatal depression (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986),
with the parental role, and adaptation to parenthood were also social support and postpartum depression (Haslam, Pakenham, &
examined. Smith, 2006), postpartum depression and complacent or uninvolved
Consistent with the first category of outcomes, most articles parenting (Kleinman & Reizer, 2018), stress and parental mental
sorted into this thematic category employed regression and modelling health (Kwok & Wong, 2000), social support and stress (Lavenda &
analyses to report on parental mental health outcomes that are pre- Kestler‐Peleg, 2017), both self‐esteem as well as attachment security
dicted by PSE or to which PSE contributes. As mentioned, these arti- and maternal depression (Lee & Koo, 2015), internalized stigma and
cles most frequently examined the way PSE predicts postpartum postpartum depression (Mickelson, Biehle, Chong, & Gordon, 2017),
depression. Specifically, many of these studies linked lower PSE to a confidence and setting realistic prenatal expectations (Mihelic, Filus,
higher risk of developing postpartum depression (Abdollahi, Agajani‐ & Morawaska, 2016), and lastly, family stress and the negative effects
Delavar, Zarghami, & Lye, 2016; Abdollahi, Zarghami, Azhar, Sazlina, of poverty (Yeung & Chan, 2011).
& Lye, 2014; Davey, Tough, Adair, & Benzies, 2011; Howell, Mora, PSE was found to moderate the impact of negative infant
DiBonaventura, & Leventhal, 2009; Howell, Mora, & Leventhal, reactivity on maternal separation anxiety (Hsu & Sung, 2008), the
2006). It is also important to note that the predisposition to postpar- relationship between stress and martial satisfaction for fathers (Kwan,
tum depression that low PSE seems to represent has been identified Kwok, & Ling, 2015), and the relationship between supportive
in both mothers as well as fathers (deMontigny, Girard, Lacharité, co‐parenting and parenting stress/satisfaction (Schoppe‐Sullivan,
Dubeau, & Devault, 2013; Gross & Marcussen, 2017). Further, low Settle, Lee, & Kamp Dush, 2016). Also, PSE was found to interact
PSE has also has been identified as a risk factor for enduring more with negative parental cognitions to predict parental distress, such
symptoms of depression (Giallo, Cooklin, & Nicholson, 2014) and has that parents with higher PSE were better able to regulate their
also been linked to depression in later stages of parenthood such as negative cognitions leading to less parental distress (Gavita, David, &
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ALBANESE ET AL. 357

DiGiuseppe, 2014). Lastly, PSE was also found to interact with increased internalizing problems (Ahun et al., 2017). Second, and nota-
emotion regulation to predict parental satisfaction (Mark‐Ribiczey bly, one longitudinal twin study found PSE to be positively related to
et al., 2016). emotional availability in children and negatively related to negative
emotionality in children (Oro, Doane, & Lemery‐Chalfant, 2017).
One study found PSE to be related to children's physical health
3.4 | The impact of PSE on outcomes related to child outcomes. In particular, high PSE was found to be predictive of better
development sleep duration and fewer meals in front of the television for children
(Heerman, Taylor, Wallston, & Barkin, 2017).
Twenty‐eight articles were collected that were categorized into the Akin to the previous two categories of outcomes, the remaining
third group of outcomes, findings related to child development. There five studies categorized as relating to child development outcomes
were several studies that tied PSE to general child development out- examined the role of PSE as a mediator or moderator. Specifically,
comes, but the majority of the studies presented outcomes related PSE was found to mediate the relationships between: parenting
to the arenas of: children's behaviour, academics and school‐related behaviour and infant development as indexed by the Bayley Scales
performance, children's mental health, and physical health outcomes. of Infant Development (Coleman et al., 2002), mothers' depressive
As with the preceding two categories of outcomes, most articles symptoms and school adjustment for preschoolers (Jackson, Choi, &
sorted into this thematic category applied regression and modelling Bentler, 2009), and parental depression and fostering a good home
analyses to survey data in order to report on child development out- learning environment (Peacock‐Chambers, Martin, Necastro, Cabral,
comes that PSE predicts or contributes to. In terms of PSE's relation- & Bair‐Merritt, 2017). Also, PSE was found to mediate the relationship
ship to general indices of children's development, one study found between maternal depression and child hospitalizations, with low PSE
PSE to be related to a child's performance on the Bayley Scales of generally associated with more hospitalizations compared with higher
Infant Development (Coleman & Karraker, 2003), another study found PSE, but very low PSE being associated with fewer hospitalizations
PSE to be a protective factor against developmental delay in at‐risk than low PSE (Holland et al., 2011). One study found PSE to act as a
family environments (McDonald, Kehler, Bayrampour, Fraser‐Lee, & moderator between school‐related competence in children and both
Tough, 2016), and yet another found higher prenatal PSE beliefs in education and income of mothers (Holloway et al., 2016).
certain arenas to significantly predict children's cognitive development
at age two (Weaver, 2011).
PSE was also frequently linked to various aspects of children's 4 | DISCUSSION
behaviour, with higher PSE generally predicting better behavioural
outcomes for children. Specifically, maternal PSE was found to predict This comprehensive review, featuring 115 articles, clearly identifies
children's behaviour problems (Anderson, 2006; Sequerra, 2011) and the clinical relevance of PSE to the health and well‐being of both
child self‐control (Nievar, 2005), as well as conduct issues and devi- parents and children. The number of articles alone speaks to its
ance in adolescence (Dumka, Gonzales, Wheeler, & Millsap, 2010; importance, but the nature of the outcomes to which it is linked
Dumka, Prost, & Barrera, 2002; Gregory, 1998; Weaver, Shaw, further underscores its clinical relevance. Low PSE appears to be a
Dishion, & Wilson, 2008). PSE was also reported on in the context salient risk factor for outcomes that affect both parent and child, such
of children's social behaviour specifically, with one article linking as postpartum depression, which is now coming to be understood as
higher PSE to lower levels of aggression, exclusion, fearful‐anxiety, “the most under‐diagnosed obstetric complication in the United
hyperactivity, and peer victimisation in children (Seçer, Gülay States” and is linked to manifold negative repercussion for parent and
Ogelman, Önder, & Berengi, 2012; Seçer, Ogelman, & Önder, 2013), child (Earls, 2010). Moreover, low PSE also has been linked to long‐term
and another linking PSE to children's social competence (Junttila, outcomes much further into childhood, such as adolescent conduct
Vauras, & Laakkonen, 2007). issues. PSE thus seems to be such a key metric in understanding
Many articles also linked PSE to academic and school‐related out- parent and child functioning that it has even been suggested to be an
comes in children. For example, studies found higher PSE to be related index of risk of maltreatment (Bantugan‐Bohan, 1994).
to fostering a more optimal home learning environment for kids However, there are several issues with current state of the field of
(Bojczyk, Haverback, & Pae, 2017), certain aspects of school readiness study for PSE that must be overcome if this construct is to be better
in preschoolers (Johnson, 2009), school competence (Junttila & understood. First, as discussed in both prior reviews of PSE, better
Vauras, 2014), and academic performance in both childhood and ado- definition and measurement of the construct are sorely needed
lescence (Phillipson & McFarland, 2016; Seefeldt, Denton, Galper, & (Coleman & Karraker, 1998; Jones & Prinz, 2005). In fact, an entire
Younoszai, 1999; Shumow & Lomax, 2002). Another study found recent review was devoted to the conceptual delineation of the similar
PSE to be related to adolescent school refusal, but this relationship constructs of parenting confidence, PSE, and parenting competence,
lost significance when controlling for other family factors (Carless, as these distinct terms are used interchangeably in the literature
Melvin, Tonge, & Newman, 2015). (Vance & Brandon, 2017). Moreover, the construct of PSE is thus
Multiple studies linked PSE to children's mental health outcomes. often mislabelled as parental confidence, competence, or self‐esteem
First, low PSE was found to play a predictive role in children's (Hess, Teti, & Hussey‐Gardner, 2004). It should be noted that though
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358 ALBANESE ET AL.

the recent conceptual delineation review found PSE and parental con- establishing the path to move research forward in this arena to the
fidence to have very similar antecedents, attributes, and consequences benefit of future generations of parents and children.
(Vance & Brandon, 2017), other conceptual analytic work has
reaffirmed PSE as its own construct, distinct from related constructs ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
such as parental confidence or self‐esteem (de Montigny & Lacharité, The authors would like to acknowledge Ms. Kathleen Turner, Liaison
2005), which suggests that it is the mislabelling of constructs that Librarian for the School of Public Health and the Department of Psy-
“muddies the waters” in the PSE literature, rather than actual concep- chology at Drexel University for her help on this project. This research
tual redundancy. did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,
With regard to the psychometrics of PSE specifically, another commercial, or not‐for‐profit sectors.
recent review analysed the 34 extant measures of PSE through
assigning quality rankings across several domains, and found the DECLARATIONS OF INTEREST
available set of PSE measurement tools to be lacking in several critical
none.
ways (Wittkowski, Garrett, Calam, & Weisberg, 2017). Specifically,
according to Wittowski et al., there is a paucity of information in
ORCID
these measures for key topics such as criterion validity (related to
Ariana M. Albanese https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2382-1237
the lack of a “gold standard” measure in the field) and minimal clini-
cally important differences. The authors identified a need for exten-
sive psychometric evaluation of PSE in future work (Wittkowski RE FE RE NC ES

et al., 2017). Abdollahi, F., Agajani‐Delavar, M., Zarghami, M., & Lye, M. S. (2016).
Postpartum mental health in first‐time mothers: A cohort study. Iranian
This psychometric dubiousness is reflected in the corpus of articles
Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 10(1). https://doi.org/
reviewed here, as a wide array of tools are used to tap into this 10.17795/ijpbs‐426
concept (see Table 1). A number of the studies utilized incomplete
Abdollahi, F., Zarghami, M., Azhar, M. Z., Sazlina, S. G., & Lye, M. S. (2014).
and unvalidated measures (such as select subscales from a measure) Predictors and incidence of post‐partum depression: A longitudinal
or questionnaires that were created by the researchers for their cohort study. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research, 40(12),
specific study, and thus were less rigorously tested than formally 2191–2200. https://doi.org/10.1111/jog.12471

validated measures. Similarly, given the issues at play in the field with Ahun, M. N., Consoli, A., Pingault, J.‐B., Falissard, B., Battaglia, M., Boivin,
regard to a lack of conceptual clarity, it is difficult to ascertain how M., … Côté, S. M. (2017). Maternal depression symptoms and
internalising problems in the offspring: The role of maternal and family
consistent the understanding of PSE was from one study to the next.
factors. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry https://doi.org/
Additionally, as is presented in Table 1 the majority of studies uti- 10.1007/s00787‐017‐1096‐6, 27, 921–932.
lized cross‐sectional survey data, leaving room for continued work
Aldoney‐Ramirez, D. (2017). Low‐income Latino immigrant mothers and
clarifying the nature of the relationships between PSE and parent their toddlers: How does socialization promote inhibitory control skills?
and child outcomes using longitudinal data. Particularly in terms of (77), ProQuest Information & Learning, US. Retrieved from http://
understanding causal relationships, it will be important for future lon- ezproxy2.library.drexel.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2016‐47711‐175&site=ehost‐
gitudinal work to aid in clarifying the directionality of the relationships
live Available from EBSCOhost psyh database.
between PSE and key outcomes, as well as how these relationships
Anderson, O. A. (2006). Linking work stress, parental self‐efficacy, ineffec-
function over time and in varying contexts.
tive parenting, and youth problem behavior. (67), ProQuest Information
Lastly, as also presented in Table 1 the samples available in the cor-
& Learning, US. Retrieved from http://ezproxy2.library.drexel.edu/
pus of studies reviewed are quite varied. These studies represent dif- login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
ferent ethnic groups, ages of children, levels of socioeconomic status, psyh&AN=2006‐99019‐040&site=ehost‐live Available from EBSCO
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variation in samples does function to support some findings relating Aranda, C. L. (2014). An ecological investigation of contextual factors and
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However, given that such context‐specific factors seem to have an
US. Retrieved from http://ezproxy2.library.drexel.edu/login?url=
effect on PSE, such as ethnicity (O'Neil et al., 2009), it is important http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=
for future work to test relationships on larger and more varied sam- 2014‐99150‐098&site=ehost‐live Available from EBSCOhost psyh
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In conclusion, as demonstrated in this review, PSE is a key factor
019251301022008001
impacting parent and child well‐being. Armed with both a complete
Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Regalia, C., & Scabini, E. (2011).
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ALBANESE ET AL. 363

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ament” OR “infant behavior” OR “mental health” OR depress* OR
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How to cite this article: Albanese AM, Russo GR, Geller PA. stress” OR emotion* OR practice* OR bond* OR “parent‐infant bond-
The role of parental self‐efficacy in parent and child well‐ ing” OR “prenatal bonding” OR relation* OR “parent–child relations”
being: A systematic review of associated outcomes. Child Care OR “parent‐infant relations” OR “parenting skills” OR “well‐being”
Health Dev. 2019;45:333–363. https://doi.org/10.1111/ OR quality OR behavior OR “parental behavior” OR “child behavior”
cch.12661 OR intervention OR “parent training” OR psychoeducation)).