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The Oxford Handbook of

MORAL
PSYCHOLOGY
The Oxford Handbook of

MORAL
PSYCHOLOGY

Edited by
M A N U E L VA R G A S and JOHN M. DORIS

1
 3
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 Acknowledgements

Given that this volume runs to 50 chapters, more than 1,000 pages, and nearly 580,000
words, we probably shouldn’t feel so surprised as we do to have spent five years and thou-
sands of emails in the making. It was all we could do to keep track of the volume itself,
and we’ve lost track of many debts we’ve incurred along the way. So we should start, a little
ashamedly, with heartfelt thanks to all the family, friends, and colleagues, unnamed here,
without whose help this handbook would not have been possible. Fortunately, we do re-
member some of our most conspicuous debts.
Vargas is particularly grateful to Stephanie Vargas, whose boundless support transcends
space and place. Vargas began work on this volume in the very hospitable environs of the
philosophy department and School of Law at the University of San Francisco. The lion’s share
of his work on this project was completed at University of California, San Diego, where he
benefitted from the good sense and advice of many wonderful colleagues.
Doris began work on the project while a Laurance S. Rockefeller Fellow at Princeton’s
University Center for Human Values; he’s very grateful to Director Melissa Lane, and all
the wonderful people in the Center community. His work continued in the Philosophy-​
Neuroscience-​Psychology Program at Washington University in St Louis, and finished in
the Philosophy Department and SC Johnson College of Business’ Dyson School at Cornell
University; he’s thankful for all the institutional support, most especially from all the great
folks associated with Dyson. As with everything else, Doris throughout depended on Laura
Niemi for both wise counsel and unstinting support.
At Oxford University Press, Sarah Barrett, Shunmugapriyan Gopathy, and especially
Céline Louasli did invaluable work on the volume’s production, as did Sarah Frazier at
Cornell. Shaun Nichols and Stephen Stich helped us sort out the introduction. Our greatest
debt, save one, is to the authors, who agreed to write, and followed through on, so many
excellent chapters. Finally, the volume owes most to our editor of the past 15 years, Peter
Momtchiloff; here, like with our other projects, he’s helped us to think more expansively
about what philosophy and allied fields might be, and enabled us to shape those thoughts
into a finished volume.
 Contents

List of Figures and Tables  xi

List of Contributors  xiii

Introduction  1

PA RT I . H I S TORY
1. Karma, Moral Responsibility, and Buddhist Ethics  7
Bronwyn Finnigan
2. Motivation, Desire for Good, and Design in Plato’s Moral
Psychology  24
Rachana Kamtekar
3. The Virtuous Spiral: Aristotle’s Theory of Habituation  42
Agnes Callard
4. Reason as Servant of the Will: Some Critics of Aquinas  62
Terence Irwin
5. Moral Sentiments in Hume and Adam Smith  83
Rachel Cohon
6. From A Priori Respect to Human Frailty: Optimism and
Pessimism in Kant’s Moral Psychology  105
Lucy Allais
7. Nietzsche’s Naturalistic Moral Psychology: Anti-​Realism,
Sentimentalism, Hard Incompatibilism  121
Brian Leiter

PA RT I I . F O U N DAT ION S
8. Judgment Internalism  139
Samuel Asarnow and David E. Taylor
viii   Contents

9. Virtue  158
Lorraine L. Besser
10. The Nature and Significance of Blame  177
David O. Brink and Dana Kay Nelkin
11. Punishment as Communication  197
Fiery Cushman, Arunima Sarin, and Mark Ho
12. The Moral Psychology of Respect  210
Stephen Darwall
13. Emotion Kinds, Motivation, and Irrational Explanation  220
Justin D’Arms
14. Moral Expertise  237
Julia L. Driver
15. Redirecting Rawlsian Reasoning Toward the Greater Good  246
Joshua D. Greene, Karen Huang, and Max Bazerman
16. Self-​Deception and the Moral Self  262
Richard Holton
17. Two Ways to Adopt a Norm: The (Moral?) Psychology of
Internalization and Avowal  285
Daniel Kelly
18. Morality and Possibility  310
Joshua Knobe
19. Social Construction, Revelation, and Moral Psychology  333
Ron Mallon
20. Weakness of Will  349
Alfred R. Mele
21. Moral Intuitions and Moral Nativism  364
John Mikhail
22. Animal Moral Psychologies  388
Susana Monsó and Kristin Andrews
23. Moral Learning and Moral Representations  421
Shaun Nichols
 Contents   ix

24. Methods, Models, and the Evolution of Moral Psychology  442

Cailin O’Connor
25. The Moral Psychology of Humour  465
Lauren Olin
26. The Limits of Neuroscience for Ethics  495
Adina L. Roskies
27. The Moral Psychology of Moral Responsibility  509
Fernando Rudy-​Hiller
28. Personal Identity  543
David Shoemaker and Kevin Tobia
29. Some Potential Philosophical Lessons of Implicit Moral Attitudes  564
Walter Sinnott-​Armstrong and C. Daryl Cameron
30. The Nature of Reasons for Action and Their Psychological
Implications  584
Michael Smith
31. Prudential Psychology: Theory, Method, and Measurement  600
Valerie Tiberius and Daniel M. Haybron
32. Situationism, Moral Improvement, and Moral Responsibility  629
Maria Waggoner, John M. Doris, and Manuel Vargas

PA RT I I I . A P P L IC AT ION S
33. Negligence: Its Moral Significance  661
Santiago Amaya
34. Sex by Deception  683
Berit Brogaard
35. The Moral Psychology of Blame: A Feminist Analysis  712
Mich Ciurria
36. Are Desires Interdependent?  733
Fiery Cushman and L. A. Paul
37. Mens Rea in Moral Judgment and Criminal Law  744
Carly Giffin and Tania Lombrozo
x   Contents

38. Variations in Moral Concerns across Political Ideology:

Moral Foundations, Hidden Tribes, and Righteous Division  759
Jesse Graham and Daniel A. Yudkin
39. Adaptive Preferences and the Moral Psychology of Oppression  779
Serene J. Khader
40. Marriage, Monogamy, and Moral Psychology  798
Stephen Macedo
41. Empathy and Moral Understanding in Psychopathy  838
Heidi L. Maibom
42. Moral Character, Liberal States, and Civic Education  863
Emily McTernan
43. A Moral Psychology of Poverty?  877
Jennifer M. Morton
44. Agency in Mental Illness and Cognitive Disability  893
Dominic Murphy and Natalia Washington
45. The Moral Psychology of Victimization  911
Laura Niemi and Liane Young
46. Forgiveness and Moral Repair  929
Kathryn J. Norlock
47. Accountability and Implicit Bias: A Study in Scepticism about
Responsibility  947
Gideon Rosen
48. Loss of Control in Addiction: The Search for an Adequate
Theory and the Case for Intellectual Humility  966
Chandra Sripada
49. Love and the Anatomy of Needing Another  983
Monique Wonderly
50. Race and Moral Psychology  1000
Robin Zheng

Index  1021
 List of Figures and Tables

Figures

Fig. 3.1 The Habituation Circle 49

Fig. 3.2 Virtuous Spiral 58
Fig. 11.1 The tasks used by Ho et al 2019. In (a), the participant is asked to reward
and punish the actions of a dog. The goal is to teach the dog to walk along
the path and into the door without stepping on flowers. In (b) the task is
identical except that the agent is a person, the path is made of tiles and leads
to a bathtub, and the area to be avoided is a rug. The target policy (c) is
identical for both tasks. Figure reprinted with permission  200
Fig. 11.2 A schematic representation of how participants punished and rewarded
various actions by the agents (dog or child) in Ho et al (2019). Arrows
represent the average amount of punishment and reward; blue arrows
represent averages with positive value (rewards) and red arrows represent
averages with negative value (punishments). The length of the arrow is
proportional to the magnitude of the absolute value. The direction of
the arrow indicates the action in question (i.e., movement from one cell
to another). A hierarchical clustering analysis identified two clusters of
participant responses. One of these, which the authors interpret as “action
signaling”,involves rewarding actions that are in the target policy and
punishing actions that are not. The other of these, which the authors interpret
as “state training”, involves rewarding actions that terminate in “permissible”
squares and punishing actions that do not. Figure reprinted with permission 201
Fig. 11.3 Nearly all subjects (36/ 39) tested by Ho and colleagues (2019) generated a
set of rewards and punishments containing at least one positive reward cycle.
The set of positive reward cycles generated by participants is diagrammed
alongside the number of participants who generated each one. Figure
reprinted with permission 202
Fig. 18.1 Scale of possible amounts of TV a person could watch, using the
framework from Kennedy and McNally (2005) 322
Fig. 18.2 Scale of possible amounts of TV a person could watch, depicting the
difference between average and normal 323
Fig. 18.3 Scale of possible attitudes an agent might have toward an outcome
she brings about 328
Fig. 18.4 Depiction of the harm case, showing a scale of possible attitudes, the
agent’s actual attitude, and the attitude to which it will be compared 329
xii    List of Figures and Tables

Fig. 18.5 Depiction of the help case, showing a scale of possible attitudes, the agent’s
actual attitude, and the attitude to which it will be compared. 329
Fig. 23.1 Numbers represent the highest denomination of the die; rectangles
represent the relative sizes of the hypotheses 436
Fig. 23.2 Potential scopes of rules represented in a subset structure 437
Fig. 24.1 A payoff table of the prisoner’s dilemma. There are two players, each of
whom choose to cooperate or defect. Payoffs are listed with player 1 first. 453
Fig 24.2 A payoff table of the stag hunt. There are two players, each of whom
choose to hunt stag or hare. Payoffs are listed with player 1 first. 456
Fig. 24.3 A payoff table of the Nash demand game. There are two players, each of
whom choose one of three bargaining demands. Payoffs are listed with
player 1 first. 457
Fig. 24.4 A payoff table of a simple coordination game. There are two players,
each of whom chooses A or B. Payoffs are listed with player 1 first. 458
Fig. 34.1 Trolley problem: would you pull the lever to save people, thereby
killing one? 700
Fig. 34.2 Trolley problem: would you push and thereby kill the large man to
save five people? 701
Fig. 38.1 Ideological differences in foundation endorsement (adapted from
Graham, Haidt, and Nosek 2009) 762
Fig. 38.2 Moral concerns of libertarians as compared to liberals and
conservatives (adapted from Iyer et al. 2012) 765
Fig. 38.3 The seven tribes ranked by their overall position on the ideological
spectrum (adapted from Hawkins et al. 2018) 767
Fig. 38.4 Political activities across the hidden tribea (adapted from
Hawkins et al. 2018) 769
Fig. 38.5 Beliefs about political compromise (adapted from Hawkins et al. 2018) 770
Fig. 38.6 Endorsement of each of the moral foundations according to political
tribe (adapted from Hawkins et al. 2018) 771
Fig. 38.7 Correlation (r) between prioritization of the moral foundations
and endorsement of various political opinions (adapted from
Hawkins et al. 2018) 772

Tables

Table 22.1 Some of the animal evidence of (proto- )moral behaviour 391
Table 38.1 Moral foundations and morally- motivated violence
(adapted from Graham and Haidt 2012) 774
 Contributors

Lucy Allais is jointly appointed as Professor of Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University and
the University of Witwatersrand.
Santiago Amaya is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of the Andes
(Colombia).
Kristin Andrews is York Research Chair in Animal Minds and Professor of Philosophy at
York University.
Samuel Asarnow is Associate Professor of Philosophy at Macalester College.
Max Bazerman is Jesse Isidor Straus Professor of Business Administration at the Harvard
Business School.
Lorraine L. Besser is Professor of Philosophy at Middlebury College.
David O. Brink is Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the University of California,
San Diego.
Berit Brogaard is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Miami.
Agnes Callard is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of Chicago.
C. Daryl Cameron is Associate Professor of Psychology, Senior Research Associate in the
Rock Ethics Institute at The Pennsylvania State University.
Mich Ciurria is Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Missouri-​St. Louis.
Rachel Cohon is Professor of Philosophy at the University at Albany, State University of
New York.
Fiery Cushman is Professor of Psychology at Harvard University.
Justin D’Arms is Professor of Philosophy at The Ohio State University.
Stephen Darwall is Andrew Downey Orrick Professor of Philosophy at Yale University
and John Dewey Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at the University of
Michigan.
John M. Doris is Professor in the Sage School of Philosophy and Peter L. Dyson Professor
of Ethics in Organizations and Life at the Charles H. Dyson School of Applied Economics
and Management, SC Johnson College of Business, Cornell University.
Julia L. Driver is Darrell K. Royal Professor in Ethics and American Society at the University
of Texas at Austin.
xiv   Contributors

Bronwyn Finnigan is Senior Lecturer in the Research School of Social Sciences at the
Australian National University.
Carly Giffin is Research Associate at the Federal Judicial Center.
Jesse Graham is George S. Eccles Chair in Business Ethics, Associate Professor of
Management, Eccles School of Business at the University of Utah.
Joshua D. Greene is Professor of Psychology and a member of the Center for Brain Sciences
faculty at Harvard University.
Daniel M. Haybron is Theodore R. Vitali C.P. Professor of Philosophy at Saint Louis
University.
Mark Ho is Postdoctoral Research Associate in Psychology at Princeton University.
Richard Holton is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge.
Karen Huang is Assistant Professor of Ethics at the McCourt School of Public Policy at
Georgetown University.
Terence Irwin is Emeritus Professor of Ancient Philosophy at the University of Oxford and
Professor Emeritus at Cornell University.
Rachana Kamtekar is Professor of Philosophy at the Sage School of Philosophy and
Professor of Classics at Cornell University.
Daniel Kelly is Professor of Philosophy at Purdue University.
Serene J. Khader is Jay Newman Chair in Philosophy of Culture at Brooklyn College
and Professor of Philosophy and Women’s and Gender Studies at the CUNY Graduate
Center.
Joshua Knobe is Professor of Philosophy, Psychology, and Linguistics at Yale University.
Brian Leiter is Karl N. Llewellyn Professor of Jurisprudence and Director of the Center for
Law, Philosophy & Human Values, University of Chicago.
Tania Lombrozo is Professor of Psychology at Princeton University.
Stephen Macedo is Laurance S. Rockefeller Professor of Politics and the University Center
for Human Values, Princeton University.
Heidi L. Maibom is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cincinnati.
Ron Mallon is Professor of Philosophy and Philosophy-​
Neuroscience-​
Psychology at
Washington University in St. Louis.
Emily McTernan is Associate Professor in Political Theory at the University College London.
Alfred R. Mele is the William H. and Lucyle T. Werkmeister Professor of Philosophy at
Florida State University.
John Mikhail is Carroll Professor of Jurisprudence at Georgetown University Law Center.
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Appendix 1: Theoretical framework and methodology

Learning Objective 1: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 2: Best practices and recommendations
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 11: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 17: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 18: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 3: Best practices and recommendations
Practice Problem 20: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 23: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 29: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 4: Key terms and definitions
Practice Problem 30: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 32: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 34: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 36: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 38: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Review 5: Research findings and conclusions
Example 40: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 41: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 43: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 6: Literature review and discussion
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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