Paper: Iyengar et arl

Paper

Broadgate Exchange House: structural systems

H.Iyengar, BE, MS, CEng, FIStructE, FASCE
Structural Design International Inc., USA

W.E Baker, BS, MS, MASCE

Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, USA

R. c. Sinn, BS, MS, MASCE

Skidmore, Owines & Merrill. IJSA

Synopsis
This paper describes the design and execution of Broadgate
Exchange House, an exciting steel structure in London. This
structure uses four tied-arches to clear span an entire ofSice
building 78m over a congested railroad track site. An important
visual aspect of the building is the use offire engineering
principles to allow the perimeter structural steel to be exposed.
Special features include redundancy, corrosion protection,
behaviour under patterned loads, and buckling analyses. This
special structure combines the diverse roles of a bridge and an
ofSice building into one system with a clarity of expression which
is the focus of the architecture.

Introduction
The art of structural engineering lies in the transformation
of engineering
Challenges into aesthetically elegant architectural solutions. In modem
times, these design challenges have been associated with two classes
of structure -the tower and the bridge. The formof the structure for
the tower is controlled by its ability to resist wind and seismic lateral
loads. The bridge structure,on the other hand, must provide long-span
support to connect areas separated by obstacles either natural or
manmade. The Exchange House building (phase 11 of the Broadgate Fig 1. Building elevation
development) provided a rare design opportunity for combining a bridge
with an office building when the client, .Rosehaugh Stanhope
Developments plc, sought to build an office building over a congested site for the Exchange House building is located where the tracks begin
railroad track site at Liverpool Street Station in London. to converge, which precludes placement of the columns on a regular
Drawing on many innovative engineering principles, including fire grid except for two zones spaced 78m apart (Fig2).
engineering, the final structure is an exposed steel building-bridge The design of the building had to satisfy two design objectives: (1)
concept which combines structural logic with an artful expression of the structure must span 78m over the tracks and (2) a clear structuralist
steel to create what the authors believe is an elegant contribution to expression was sought to identify with the existing iron and steel train
architecture and structural engineering (Fig 1). This paper presents the sheds of the historic Liverpool Street Station and to create a structural-
structural aspects and the architectural features of the concept. architectural articulated masterpiece among a complex of newer masonry
buildings of the development.
The site and the solution Several solutions were considered, among them an exterior 10-storey
The Broadgate project is a major office development on the railroad X-braced truss system, a 10-storey catenary suspension system, and a
‘air rights’ located at Liverpool Street Station. The railroad tracks coverparabolic arch system.In each case, the systems were to clear span the
most of the site and had to be kept intact and usable, thus requiring 78m distance. The X-bracedtruss system, for instance, required almost
that the project be builtto span over a large portion of the tracks. The 30%more steel because of inefficiencies related to indirect load flow.

,-- Railplatforms
Exchange
House

LiverDool/
Street
Train
Station

Fig 2. Site location

The Structural EngineerIVolume

914 711No
149 May 1993
Paper: lyengar et Q]

‘The loads in the truss are transmitted by axial forces in the diagonals, randomly spaced columns that are threaded between the tracks. The
11 significant part of which has to travel to the top ends before being plaza also created aworking platform for the superstructure construction
transmitted down to the piers. The catenary suspension system, while and protected the rail service below from the construction activities.
naturally efficient, required 10-storey end bulkheads from which the Floor framing at the bottom chord of the storey-deep truss supports
suspensions were to be supported. This system required a complex the parking level and other spaces. Theframing at the top chord supports
erection sequence which made it inefficient with regard to cost. In the plaza and creates the ‘raft? or platform for the building. The main
addition, the placement of large vertical bulkhead elements at the ends block and its arch system is the focus of the project and this paper.
would cause blockage to the planned circulation system tothe station. The main block of Exchange House has 10 office levels 78m x 52m
The tied-arch system presented the most direct load flow to the piers, in plan which are supported on four segmented, tied, parabolic arches
simpler connections, a conventional construction method, and was the that span the 78m distance over the railroad tracks below. The two
most efficient system. The resulting arch structure also presented interior arches traverse the building while the two exterior arches are
simplicity, clarity of form and function, and an ability to be exposed. The interior arches express their presence on the interiorusing
architecturally articulated. a series of internal atria.
The exterior arches, their ties, hangers and columns, and fascia beams
Building description that frame into them, are held back from the window wall so as to
The building complex includes four functional elements. These are: create a nominally 2m-wide open gallery at the perimeter which permits
the exterior structure to be exposed, thus creating a structural expression
- the arch supported main block for the building. The architectural form, expression, and articulation
- the conventionally framed west wing are all based on the exposed, painted steel structure. The building
- the east and west core towers enclosure forms a smooth metal and glass skin background to enhance
- the plaza and lower parking structures the clarity of the structure (Fig 1). Member proportions and joint details
The east and west core towers enclose the restrooms, mechanical fan followed strict structural logic to express directly the functions and
rooms, exit stairs, and service elevators. The plaza construction covers workings of the structure. The open gallery and the fire-rated cladding
the railroad tracks using storey-deep trusses to span the somewhat allowed fire engineering methods to be used so as to eliminate applied
fire protection on the exterior, while all interior structural steel elements
are conventionally fireproofed.
I
13 6 0.Om - 78.0m ‘The four arches form three bays, 18.5, 15.0, and 18.5m perpendicular
to the arches, which are spanned by composite floor trusses (Figs 3
and 4). Vertical hangerkolumn elements are supported on the arches
Column - Arch at node points, and the floor framing members are connected to the
Arch
diagona li
hanger/columns through a typical shear connection. Along each end
Node -- of the building, an exposed vertical truss in the middle 15m bay connects
lntermedia
Primary
and with the floor diaphragm to resist wind loads on the broad building
Secondary ti e s
Tie face and also lends out-of-plane stability to the arch system (Fig 5).
Raft
trusses In addition to the direct connectionof the floor framing to the exterior
Hanger- arch system, secondary,bar-type bracing rods in the plane of the floor
:pier were provided in the gallery space (Fig 4). This bracing serves as an
Base - extension of the floor diaphragm and also laterally braces the arch
segments and columns.
The arch system isrestrained against horizontal spreading by a system
of horizontal ties. The primary tie occurs at the bearing point, while a
secondary tie occurs at the first-floor framing level above the primary
tie. In addition, intermediate tiesoccur at each intersection of the arch
with a columnkanger line. These intermediate ties at the exterior arches
occur at the spandrel beam line immediately behind the exterior cladding.
They are activated by horizontal pipe diagonal braces at the arch
Fig 3. System components

Columns/
E x t e r i oar r c h

-7

cc Core
To Tower

[nterior
arch]

Fig 4. Typical office floor framing plan

150
 Paper: Iyengar et

Interior
Arch

Exterior.
Arch

$1 Parkinglevel
ck level

Fig 5. End truss elevation Fig 6. Segmented parabola

segments. At the interior arches, the intermediate ties become part of

a moment-resisting frame infilled within the arch envelope.
All gravity loads lead to the arch bearing points which are supported
on a system of tapered reinforced concrete piers and interconnecting
walls along each end. The piers and walls continue down to the track
level where they are supported on hand-mined under-reamed pile groups
(Fig 3). Two and three pile groups with bell diameters up to 6.2 m
support approximate pier loads of 30000kN at exterior bearing points
and 60000kN at the interior. The pile foundation construction sequence
was organised so as not to disrupt the operation of the trains along
adjacent tracks. In addition to these piers, where feasible, plaza support
columns were rounded on small spread footings located between the
tracks supporting mainly the parking and plaza levels. I 1 I

i
I l
T
Suspended lobby
The passenger lifts and escalators for Exchange House are located in
the centre of the main block, providing transportation from the plaza Fig 7(a). Funicular shape
to the superstructure. The plaza and the superstructure are independent
systems with separate movements, stillnesses, and load paths. A rigid
vertical link at the service core between these two elementswould have 6m 12m 6m 12m 6m 12m 6m 12m -6m
Roof
imposed unacceptable loads on the plaza, while disorganising the
movements and loadpaths of the archedsuperstructure. :f
The design solution was to suspend the lobby core from the superstruc-
ture with a thin layer of framing at the plaza level, but indehndent of Level 8
it. Articulated and hinged ramps lead from the plaza to the floor of the Level 7
suspended lobby. The joints between the two structures allow for up Level 6
to lOOmm of differential movement. The elevator pits were also
suspended from the same superstructure system.
Level 3
The structural concept
The parabolic arch produces the most direct load path by axial Level 1
compression when subjected to uniform loading. The building frame Parabolic
Arch
functions on a modular basis, generally with a uniformly spaced gridwork
of columns and beams. A suitable integration between the two types Fig 7(b). Shape finding
of system was essential, while maintaining the appropriate hierarchy
of the load flow. Studies relating to grid column spacings and the shape
of the arch resulted in the following criteria: (i) the shape of the arch horizontal thrust is equal to the simple moment of the load (w1’/8),
should be as close to a parabola as possible; (ii) the column spacings divided by the height of the arch. The segment next to the centre has
should be uniform if possible; and (iii) the intersection between the the vertical load of one columnlhanger and therefore has to have a
columnhangers and the arch should correspond to a floor level where slope. As the succeeding segments pick up additional vertical load, the
an intermediate tie-beam could be provided. slope increases proportionately (Fig 6). It should be noted that a
The loadcarrying abilities of the parabolic arch, when subjected to parabola is the shape of the moment diagram for a uniformly loaded
point loads, can be explained as follows. The slope of each segment beam, and thus the arch parabolic shape results in compression forces
is proportional to the vertical load carried. The centre or key-stone with only secondary moments in the arch members.
segment is flat because the shear is zero at the centreline of the span Since the line of thrust is a straight line from one node point to the
and the segment carries only the horizontal thrust of the arch. The next node, it was decidedto make the arch segments linear to maintain

The Structural EngineedVolume 71/No 9/4 May 1993 151

Paper: Iyengar et d

clarity of the load flow.The use of a curved member would have caused
large additional bendingmoments in an otherwise axial forcemember.
The logic here is that the discreteness of the grid demands linear
segments, while a curved arch is more appropriate if the loads are
applied continuously. The change in angle at the nodes relates to the
load transfer that occurs there. In a curved arch segment, there would
not be any nodes and the intersection of the grid columns and the arch
would be suppressed, leading to a lack of clarity of the load flow in
the expression. An analogous situation is represented by a string
supporting a series of weights (Fig 7). A funicular shape isnatural and
appropriate, but a smooth curve beliesthe presence of the weights and
is inappropriate both structurally and visually.
The need for a tie at the intersection of the vertical with the arch B a t t e np l a t e 1
stems from the fact that, if the arch is not exactly parabolic or if the Arch
loads are not exactly uniform, a horizontal kick will occur at the
intersection of the arch and the vertical. This kick canthen be resisted
by the tie at this intersection.
Using the criteria stated above, a computerised study was done to
find the best geometry for the arch. The study consisted of checking
different combinations of bay sizes and floorline intersectionsin order
to find the combination that most closely matched a parabola. The
result was a grid spacing of 6m with the arch crown at Seven storeys
with only minor deviations from the three criteria. The best
occurred with a system that has a combination of bays of 6m, 12m, 6m,
12m, 6m, 12m, 6m, 12m, and 6m and was seven storeys high at the
crown (Fig 7(b)). All of the arch nodes fell along the parabola.
match

A
H a n g e r -..J
41'
Primary tle S e c o n d a rtyi e
uniform spacing of 6m, however, violated the criteria at the third and
sixth column lines from each end, which meant that either the parabola
had to be compromised or the floorline criteria would not be met. It
was decided to keep the pure parabolic shape and deal with the non-
coincidence with the floorline by additional diagonal bracings which
would absorb the kick forces from non-uniform loads.
At the bearing points, the arch thrusts develop large horizontal forces.
The tie system resists these forces,making the overall arched frame a
selfcontained system that transmits only vertical reactions at the base.
The bearings were designed to provide rotational relief, while providing
Hanger 2
the least lateral restraint for gravity and temperature movementsof the
system. The bending moments developed as a result of the shear diagonaldue truss Enddiagonal Arch
to residual restraint were easily resisted by the concrete piers themselves.
While the system responded as intended for uniform dead loads, the
arch system proved to be sensitive to unequal live loads. A setof fascia
diagonals in the plane of the arch connecting thearch with the primary
tie succeeded in eliminating this sensitivity. In addition, these arch
diagonals also significantly improved the buckling strength of the
(UB 533)
overall arch system.
Resistance to wind loads is obtained by vertical trusses on the side Hangers/columns
frames (Fig 5) for wind on the broad building face and by the frame
Fig 8. Arch system: component sections
infilled arch system on the interior archlines for winds in the
perpendicular direction.
thickness allow for rotations and translations caused by gravity and
System components thermal loadings. At each support point, the plates above and below
The principal components of the system are the arch segments, the arch the bearing pads are keyed to prevent or allow certain lateral movements
nodes,thebasenode,theprimaryandsecondaryties,the (Fig 16).
hangers/columns, the arch diagonals, the horizontal bar bracing, and The fascia arch diagonals consist of dual 200mm diameter pipes.
the end trusses. These components are identified in Figs 3 and 4. The X-braced system of the vertical end trusses consists of cruciform
The segments for the two exterior arches consist of back-to-back, diagonals attached to wide flange horizontals and verticals with
builtup channel sections connected with batten plates (Fig 8). The conventional gusset plates (Fig 8). The columdhanger elements are
channels are lOOOmm deep and are madeof plates up to 100mm-thick. standard rolled and builtup wide flange shapes designed to act in tension
The channels are spaced 320mm apart in order to increase the weak below the arch and compression above the arch. Appropriate tension
axis moment of inertia and to accommodate the hanger/column and compression-type splices are provided according to the nature of
connection at the nodes. For the two interior arches, the battens were the primary forces resisted by these vertical elements. The horizontal
made continuous, creating a box shape between the node points. The bracing members that connect the columns with the floor diaphragm
arch nodes are where the hanger/columns are connected to the arch are bars ranging in diameter from 50mmto 70mm. Similar braces which
and also where the angle change occurs from one segment tothe next. connect the arch segments to the floors are 150mm diameter pipe
The nodes were conceived to simplify the erection with a bearing plate sections.
detail, including shim plates for tolerance. The floor framing consists of composite floor trusses at 3m centres
The primary tie is formedof four parallel plates attached tothe base with alternate trusses extending through the exterior curtain wall connect-
node with pins. The primary ties are spliced using a three pin detail. ing to the column/hangers. The spandrelbeam is a continuous element
The secondary tie is located above the primary tie corresponding with, which performs as a floor girder as well as an intermediate tie.
and supporting, the first-floor framing. The secondary tie is shaped
like an Ibeam with pin connections to transmit the horizontal tensile System behaviour
force. The primary and secondary ties resist the arch thrust jointly. The primary gravity loads are uniform and the system responds as
The base node provides thetransition between the arch, thetie system, intended, with the arch segments in compression with correspondingly
and the bearing support. Special rubber bearing pads up to 250mm in high vertical stiffness. Fig 9(a) shows a deformation plotwith a vertical

152 The Structural Engineer/Volurne 71/No 9/4 May 1993

 Paper: Iyengar et a1

displacement at midspan of 60mm and a base lateral movement of

lOmm under dead load. A suitable precamber maintains the level of
the floor systems within close tolerances.
Non-uniform live loads fall into two categories: symmetrical and
unsymmetrical. Non-uniform live loads cause horizontal kick forces
at the node joints. For symmetrical skip loads, these horizontal kick
forces tend to pinch together or flatten out the arch system (Fig 9(b)).
The intermediate ties and the horizontal framing resist these forces and
hold the basic shape of the arch.
Unsymmetrical loads produce an undesirable sidesway deformation
mode (Fig 9(c)) in the arch system, with consequent high bending
moments in the arch segments. A study of several solutions to this
problem indicated that the addition of the arch diagonals was most
effective. These diagonals extend from the centreline of the system at
the primary tie to the quarter points of the arches. These diagonals
effectively prevent sidesway by truss action, with the diagonals on one
side of the arch in tension and on the other side in compression. Since
these diagonals meet at the centreline, the vertical components of the
diagonals cancel each other, with the horizontal component resisted
by the primary tie. Fig 9(c) illustrates the differences in deformations
A A A with and without these arch diagonals.
The deformations of the interior arch system under narrow facewind
With
intermediate
ties
and notional horizontal loads are shown in Fig 9(d). The arch is shown
to be extremely stiff for horizontal drift below the crown of the arch,
with the conventional Vierendeel moment-resisting frame more flexible
above.
Since the arch is a compression element, its overall inplane buckling
strength is of concern. Tied arches with hangers are fundamentally
very stable systems. The first buckling mode is one of sidesway.
Eigenvalue studies with and without the arch diagonals indicated large
benefits in overall stability due to the presence of the diagonals. These
arch diagonals improve the buckling strength of the system by a factor
of 2.4 by effectively forcing additional nodes into the buckled shape
Without
intermediate
ties
(Fig 9(e>).

Loading and member design

The complexity of the structural system involving exterior exposed
steelwork and requirements for system redundancy led to an extensive
series of load cases and combinations to determine the most critical
member forces to be used in the final design. The basic load cases and
criteria listed below were developed and then combined as required.

Gravity loads
The entire 2-dimensional planar arch framework was analysed with
reactions from the floor framing trusses applied to the column/hanger
members floor by floor, at each joint. The basic load was uniform,
With
diagonals Without
diagonals consisting of structural dead loads, superimposed building services
weights, office partition allowances, and cladding weights.As the arch
system is sensitive to nonuniform or unbalanced loadings, the live load
portion of the gravity load was considered separately. The point loads
from each individual column/hanger line were handled as discrete load

4
cases (Fig 10(a)). In addition to the load patterns indicated in Figs9(b)
and 9(c), a numberof pattern types for the design of the arch segments,
column/hanger and tie members were investigated. As the load data
for each column/hanger stack was manipulated independently, it was
possible to determine the most critical load pattern for any specific
individual element. On this basis, a critical load pattern for each member
in the system was developed. The structural model was composed
With
diagonals Without
diagonals primarily of linear beam elements completely fixed at the member
intersections. Special translational and rotational springs were used to
model the support bearing boundary conditions.

Lateral loads
Since the wind load resistance perpendicular to the short face of the
building is obtained from the two interior arches, the wind loading in
this direction was applied to the interior arch model, including the
Vierendeel frame above level 8. The wind loading magnitudes were as
prescribed in CP4. In addition, notional horizontal forces as specified
by BS5950 were applied to the interior frames. The interior arch frames
With
diagonals Without
diagonals
were found to be extremely stiff in resisting wind loadings. A separate
1st mode - x 11.8 ust mode - x = 4.9
model was used to analyse the broad face wind which was applied to
each of the vertical end trusses.

Thermal loads
Fig 9(a) to 9(e). System behaviour Ambient thermal. Thermal loads due to seasonal variations caused by

The Structural Engineer/Volume 71/No 9/4 May 1993 153

4 9 9 "C

Fig lO(a) to (d). Structured loadings

12.0171 span
value of yield strength and elastic modulus. A minimum load factor of
1.25 under design fires and 1.05 for severe fires was used in verifying
member capacities in the event of a fire.
Criteria f o r system redundancy
The design criteria included provision for system redundancy among
the major structural elements, particularly those positioned outside the
building enclosure. Special analysis models were constructed to verify
Continuous
Recessed the primary and secondary tie system redundancy consistent with the
Spandrel London building code requirements to limit the possibility for
disproportionate collapse arising from the loss of a single structural
member. Member forces i n the arch segments, base node, and
column/hangers in the vicinity of the ties, assuming the primary tie
18.5rn truss
removed and secondary tie intact, and the opposite, were checked.
Either the primary or the secondary tie can resist the entire system
16.2rn t r u s s design tension alone in the event that one of them is lost. Redundancy
in the primary tie system itself is considered on the basis that SO% of
the tie plates can be removed temporarily.
The typical floor perimeter framing with floor truss ends connected
to exterior column/hangermembers includes provision for an alternate
load path should either a floor truss end or a column/hanger member
Fig 11. Perimeter condition: ulternate load path fail. The perimeter spandrel beam located directly behind the cladding
line is continuously moment connected along the length of the building.
With the loss of a single truss on the exterior 6m module, this spandrel
the exterior frame exposurewere considered as a separate set of loadings. beam has the capacity to span 12m to the adjacent floor trusses connected
A positive temperature variation of 30°C and a negative of 35°C were to the column/hanger (Fig 11). Therefore, all floor trusses penetrating
considered. Thermal loads were applied to the beam elements as fixed the curtain wall were designed to support these additional loads
end forces at each end of the various members. temporarily at a reduced load factor consistent with the usual
requirements for redundancy design. Similarly, an alternate load path
Fire loading. Exterior frame memberswere verified for thermal loads, is provided by the same mechanism for load redistribution to adjacent
considering loss of strength and stiffness under high temperatures hanger/columns through the continuity of the spandrel beam, should
resulting from fire conditions. Two basic categories of fire load case one of the hangedcolumns be lost.
were considered, based on their relative probability of occurrence:
multiple floor design fires with the exterior fire-rated glazing intact Design of structural members
(Fig lO(b)) and single floor area catastrophic or severe fireswhere the Once the critical load combinations were determined for the various
glass has been broken allowing the flames to escapefrom the building frame members, the member designs were performed in the usual
envelope (Fig lO(c)). High temperature structural analysis was performed fashion to the provisions of BS 5950. Some special designs were required
applying thermal loads to the exposed frame elements based on the for unusual cases, however, as described below.
steel temperature levels determined from fire engineering heat-transfer
calculations. Analysis for the various fire events included provision Buttened arch segments. Particular attention was given to the stability
for reduced modulus of elasticity as applicable to the various frame of the battened exterior arch segments. The strength and stability of
members affected by the fire. The forces resulting from uniformly battened compression members is covered specifically by BS5950. It
applied gravity loads were taken in combination with those from the was nevertheless decided to perform a series of stability studies from
high-temperature structural analysis. Exterior frame members were first principles to investigate whether the Code formulae were directly
then checked according to the provisions of BS 5950, based on a reduced applicable to the particular battened arch segments used. The study

154 Engineer/Volume 71/No 9/4 May 1993

 Paper: Iyengar et al

initially out-of-straight studies were particularly useful in gauging the

forces to be used in designing the batten plates and welds. The study
was an elastic second-order analysis with updated geometry. The results
verified that the Code batten design forces are adequate but that the
member slenderness was slightly underestimated. The Code defines
the battened column slenderness as the square root of the sum of the
squares of the slenderness of the entire cross-section and the local
chord cross-sections between battens. As shown in Fig 12 the actual
slenderness determined from the eigenvalue analysis is higher than the
Code value. The difference between the calculated capacity and the
Code capacity is, however, negligible for these stocky elements.
Arch
Segment Battening Level one studies. The secondary ties at level one experience large
horizontal movements because of tie thermal growth and tie stretch
L from the arch thrust. These movements occur at level one and must be
t t
accommodated by the floorslab and beams. A series of studies was
performed considering relative movements of the interior and exterior
No Sweep ties. The forces involved in the arch thrust orofthat the thermal growth
are too large to be resisted by the floor structure. Therefore, the emphasis
was on detailing inplane flexibility into the floor system to allow the
movements to occur adjacent to the ties. This was done by detaching
LAO00 the welded shear studs from the interior tie,so that the slab can move
Initial SweeD
independently of the tie, and by limiting the weak axis stiffness of the
girders that frame into the exterior tie. The beam connections were
made sufficiently strong so that they could accommodate the reduced
forces that accompany the movements.In an effort to avoid restraining
Final Sweep Under
Axial
Load the arch thrust, the firstfloor slab was poured last after most of the
dead load tie stretch had occurred.Also, a set of movement joints was
made in the level one slab and subframing with additional slab
reinforcement to control potential cracking. The functionality of the
floor is not affected by these movement joints, as raised access flooring
Fig 12. Battened arch segment: stability study is used over the entire space.

-
Fig
arch13. Exterior Fig 14. Exterior
elevation

-c

The Structural EngineerIVolume 71/No 914 May 1993 155

Paper: Iyengar et al

dimensional articulation of the arch system. The exposed frame on the

short faces clearly expresses the columns and vertical wind bracing
truss in the middle 15m bay (Fig 5 ) .
The basic arch segments are linear elements with endbearing plates
connected to nodes which provide the angle change to the next linear
segment (Fig 15). The arch members themselves are composed of built-
up channel members arranged back-to-back (Fig 8) to allow the column/
hanger members to pass between them and be connected to them. The
flanges of the channel section provide articulation and crispness to the
otherwise solid arch shape. Regularly spaced batten plates tie the two
channels together to make them function as one and, at the same time,
provide a certain openness through the width of the members. This
battened column allows for large section properties about both principal
axes to resist the dominant axial compression forces in the arch.
The nodes use the same channel shapes as the arch segments and
have interior transverse vertical plates to receive the columdhangers
(Fig 16). Node elements punctuate the continuous expression of the
Fig 15. Exterior node arch by expressing the angle change and the bolted bearing plate
connection to the arch segments.
All nodes are uniformly shaped except the primary node at the base
The architectural premise was to emphasise the structural logic and which provides the transition between the arch, primary tie, and bearing
function, with the aesthetics based on expressing the crisp, open forms support (Figs 17 and 18). The base node expresses the required
of the steel shapes (Fig 1). The need to place the steelwork about 2m robustness of this transition through its larger size and thicker plates
away from the facade to satisfy fire engineering criteria allowed an and rests on thick base plates interspersed by the rubber bearings.
architectural expression whereby the 3-dimensional character of the Primary ties are horizontal multiple plate elements with large pin
exposed steel can be fully articulated against a smooth backdrop of a connections at the base node and at their intermediate splices which
skin-type window wall. This principle is followed not only on the long clearly express their function as tension members. Polished stainless
side of the building,but also on the short sides. The functional hierarchy steel caps representthe quality of fineness andprecision in these primary
of the arch system was expressed in layering components on the system hinges. The primaryties pass below the first floor and are also exposed.
to depict clear channels of load flow. The concept of allowing the The secondary tie is a built-up I-shape provided at the floor first above
columnhanger elements to pass through the arch without interrupting the primary tie which receives the first-floor framing and is connected
the inplane geometric continuity of the arch served to emphasise the to the arch just above the base node and also connected to each hang
primary function of the arch while communicating clearly that the and major arch diagonal. The secondary tie form expresses the character
building grid is simply suspended from the arch, as shown in Fig 13. of a floor beam, while its pinned splice expresses its function as a tie.
The secondary natureof the diagonals in the arch plane is expressed The columnhanger elements are wide flange sections with a tension
by smaller circular shapes which bypass the hangers with direct web bolted splice at locations below the arch and a compression-
connections to the arch and primary tie while being laterally tied by bearing-plate-type joint above the arch. These hangerkolumns are
the hangers (Fig 14). This maintains the continuity of the hangers as oriented so as to express their flanges on the exterior and facilitate the
well as the diagonals. Floor framing truss extensions protrude through connection to the arch node through interior transverse connection
the facade and are directly connected to the columnhangers. The overall plates. The exterior arch diagonals are made up of two parallel pipes
support system is clear in that the loads flow from the floor to the (Fig S), each passing on one side of the hangers connecting to the tie
columnhangers to the arch and then down to the bearings, which are elements and the arch through large pinned joints. The overall structural
restrained by ties. The columns above the arch are laterally bracedby system was conceived as a self-contained steel unit including the arches,
diagonal bar struts in the plane of the floors which adds to the 3- tie system, and other components which can be supported on concrete

I AECH NOCE AT
I w : 1:to
I v E L ~ 2
-L
COLUHM COklMECTION AT 4RCI-I MODE
-: 1:10
L

Fig 16(a). Node exterior (facsimile of working drawing) Fig 16(b). Node interior (facsimile of working drawing)

156 The Structural EngineerIVolume illNo'914 May 1993

 Paper: Iyengar et a1

L R U

I
-

n,

I i
-
r!
!Zmm 3CaZ'hLs 3-
-i
K -
Y .,!to

Fig 17. Bearing node (facsimile of working drawing)

Fig 18. Bearing node

piers very much like a bridge. The ljuttressed concrete piers are tapered
to emphasise their bearing condition with interconnecting scalloped
walls along the short direction which act to transfer the broad face
wind shears to the foundation. The piers support the steel system at an
elevated position creating an open entry plaza, which emphasises its
openness, while providing a suitable platform to exhibit the steel system
above. The floor framing which supports the firstfloor is also exposed
and can be viewed from the entry plaza. The primary ties at all four
arch lines pass below the first-floor framing, lending clarity to the arch
system.
L- I The bearing node (Figs 17 and 18) was required to satisfy several
movement criteria. Bearing supports on one side of the arch were
required to allow horizontal extensions of the system while the other
I

-h-- 1 Not allowed

Fig 19. Base movements

The Structural EngineerIVolume 71/No 914 May 1993 157

Paper: Iyengar et d

Fire
Bare Flame Resistant
Shielding Glass

c
Steel

Fire
Arch

875 C 244 OC 40 OC

Column

I I 86 OC
1 Fire

704 OC 44OoC

Fig 20. Fire engineering steel temperutures

end was restrained. Wind forces on the broad face were transferred to of-the-art in the technical evaluation of building fires. Technical manuals
two middle piers, one on eachend of the building. The exterior bearing outlining this procedure have been published by Constrado i n Great
points were allowed to move in the short direction, therefore, not Britain' and the American Iron and Steel Institute in the United States2.
constraining the structure dueto short face thermal movements. These In addition, a specific probabilistic study was performed relating the
movement restraints at the bearings were provided by bulkhead stiffeners fire load to conventional fire ratings which are represented in hours of
attached to the bottom bearing plates which are keyed into U-shaped fire protection. This stage resulted in establishing a design fire. A fire
slots in the upper bearing plate (Fig 18). By presetting the clearances load of 30kg/m2 was used for the office occupancy which was determined
around the slots, one could permit certain horizontal movements to to cause a fire equivalent to a 1 '/.h fire resistance. A more severe fire
occur while restraining others (Fig 19). loading of 60kg/m' was used for a notional 1Om x 5m storage room
The bearing pads below the base node were designed to satisfy several which could be located anywhere along the exterior window wall.
criteria. The primary parameters were bearing strength (allowable The third stage was to calculate the heat transfer into the steel
13.8MPa) and stiffness related to compression, rotation, and translation. structural elements and determine the maximum steel temperature for
The pads were required to be stiff enough to support the required the given fire. The calculations take into account the proximity of the
bearing stresses with minimum compressibility, while allowing the steel to the fire, the shape of the elements exposed to the fire. and the
required shear translation with minimum retained shear or horizontal flame shields around the elements, if any. (No flame shields were used
forces. In addition, a useful hfe of 200 years in terms of durability was in the final design.) These calculations are based on classical heat
sought. The result was a specially composed rubber material interlayered transfer theory. Heat transfer to the steel includes radiant heat gain
with steel plates jacketed in neoprene. The size of the pad and its from the fire and flame, radiant heat loss to the atmosphere, and
thickness (250mm) was designed to produce the desired behaviour. convective heat gain from hot gases surrounding the steel (Fig 20).
Each pad was pretested with respect to stiffness and bearing properties The final stage, after maximum steel temperatures have been determin-
before being used. ed, was to perform a structural analysis of the entire 3-dimensional
structural system at these elevated temperature levels to determine the
Fire engineering concepts forces and deformations in the frame caused by the fire loading condition.
A n engineered approach was used to evaluate the fire resistance and The object is to illustrate structural safety and integrity under these
protection for the exposed steel elements. All elements interior to the conditions.
window wall were conventionally fire-protected according to British
Standards. In addition, the interior spaces were protected by an inspected Fabrication and erection
sprinkler system with an emergency power backup so as to improve This unique structure, while simple in concept, required a high degree
the system reliability to a 99% level. With this degree of protection on of dimensional control and craftsmanship during steel fabrication and
the interior, it was possible to review the fire protection needs of the erection. The basic criteria related to:
exterior elements in open air on a rational basis from fire loads expected
- appropriate fit of the members in the erected structure
in the building.
- suitable allowances for member distortions and camber to result
The design for fire included four stages. The first was to determine
in a level floor-plate
the nature of a fire that could occur in this particular building, taking
into account the size and proportions of the- floor plan, the amount i f A comprehensive system of tolerances for fabrication and erection was
combustible material in the building, the total window area, and the worked out to achieve those ends. This was accomplished by a creative
air supply to the fire. The free supply of air typical of through-draught working relationship between the designers and steel fabricators
conditions, as well as a constrained draught condition, was reviewed (Hollandia BV of the Netherlands, Victor Buyck Steel Construction of
to produce the most severe fire. Belgium, and Tony Gee & Partners) early i n the design process prior
The second stage in the design was to correlate the specific parameters to the actual bid. The arch was erected on temporary shores, with
of this building to established standards and full-scale tests already adjustable jacks at each hanger location acting as columns during
performed on a number of buildings in the United States and Great erection. The shores were supported on the plaza structure which was
Britain. Through these correlations, the temperature and flame profile capable of supporting the superstructure bare steel and metal deck up
of an actual fire can be approximated. This procedure has been to the eighth floor which would complete the arch and its system, after
incorporated into many model building Codes and represents the state- which the shores were to be removed. Constructing additional floors

158 The Structural Engineer/Volume 71/No 9/4 May 1993

 Paper: Iyengar et al Informal study groups

above level 8 and the concreting of all floors were to be done after the
removal of the shores. The jacks at the shores were to be used to
maintain the structure at the desired cambered locationsuntil the arches
Informal study groups
were complete. The structural system itself would then take over after
that. After completion of the arch system, the steel erector elected to
The purposeof the study group scheme isto create opportunitiesf o r
raise the entire superstructure system at the main pier supports by about
members of the Institution to exchange ideas and workon deepening
5Omm to disengage the shores simultaneously. This was accomplished
and developing their knowledgeof structural engineering, thus
by fiat jacks at these supports. The structure was then lowered onto
stimulating a greater interest in and promoting the art and science
of
the bearing pads.
structural engineering.
The structure was fabricated to the prespecified cambered position
Members wishing to takepart in thework of a study group or who
for each arch. Someminimal member length adjustments were provided
require further information about a study group should write to the
to allow for out-of-plumb tolerances of column stacks under service
appropriate Convener.
loads. Maximum tolerances for vertical and horizontal locations of the
grid points and for their relative differences were established. For ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~

instance, the difference in level between the centre of the arch span to
its edge on the first floor was limited to 19 mm, while the horizontal History of Structural Engineering
mislocation between the same points was limited to IOmm. The level Convener: Frank Newby, MA(Cantab), FEng, FIStructE, HonFRIBA,
difference between the adjacent grid points (6m centres) was limited 27 Mayfield Avenue, London W4 1PN
to lOmm and, for any two points over the whole floors, to 25mm. The The Structural Engineer, March 1973, p1 10
horizontal out-of-plum tolerance of a column stack was limited to
25mm over its entire height and 7mm in any one storey. This resulted
in defining a comprehensive set of tolerances which were then translated
to specific fabrication and erection tolerances. The arches were
Model Analysis as a Design Tool
Convener: F. K. Garas, PhD, CEng, FIStructE, MICE,
completely preassembled in a horizontal position in the fabrication Taylor Woodrow ConstructionLtd., Taywood House, 345 Ruislip
shop to verify tolerances. For the arch node connections, the shim Road, Southhall, Middlesex UB1 2QX
plates between the butt plates were custom milled to fit at preassembly. The Structural Engineer, February 1977, p63
For the tie elements, the boring of the final pinned splices was carried
out during preassembly. Becauseof the exposed nature of the structure,
field shimming was not allowed. Some oversizing of bolt holes was
allowed, where possible, to allow for field adjustments. A high degree Qualitative Analysis of Structural
of accuracy was inherent in all fabricated elements to produce the Behaviour
desired tolerances. Convener: D. Johnson, BSc(Eng), PhD, CEng, FIStructE, MICE,
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Nottingham Trent
Corrosion protection University, Burton Street, Nottingham NGI 4BU
The basic corrosion protection for exterior exposed steel involved a The Structural Engineer, November 1978, p309
fourcoat application paint system. In addition, all joints and members
were reviewed with respect to moisture penetration and retention
potential and accessibility for future maintenance. All painted exposed
steel was sandblasted to remove all rust and mill scale to base metal,
The Design of Steel Portal Frames
Convener: L. J. Morris, BSc(Eng), PhD, ACGI, DIC, CEng, FIStructE
after which a prime coat of zinc-rich epoxy paint or flame-sprayed
Simon EngineeringLaboratories, University of Manchester,
aluminium paint was used. Flame-sprayed aluminium (a very long-life
Manchester M13 9PL
primer) was used at locations inaccessible for painting after construction.
The Structural Engineer, Part A, June 1983, p170
Two coats of fiuorocarbon paint of the desired colour were applied in
the shop, with a touch-up coat and the final finish coat applied after
erection in the field. All steel surfaces in contact were clamped together
with bolts using a specific minimum tension to prevent moisture Vibration Problemsin Structures
infiltration. Weep holes were provided to prevent accumulation of water Convener: J. W. Smith,BSc(Hons), PhD, ACGI, CEng, MIStructE
in troughs and at similar locations. Department of Civil Engineering,University of Bristol, Bristol
BS8 1TR
Conclusion The Structural Engineer, Part A, June 1983, p170
In the Exchange House project, a difficult design problem resulted in
the creation of an innovarive structure and exciting architecture. This
project exemplifies the tradition of building design wherein architects Computing in structural engineering
and structural engineers can, by working together, produce an elegant Convener: A. T. Humphrey,CEng, MIStructE, MIMechE,
solution - a building whose structural and architectural designs Analysis & Test Division, GEC Research, Marconi Research Centre,
complement one another. West Haningfield Road, Gt. Baddow,Essex
The Structurul Engineer, March 1987, p83
Acknowledgements
Owner: Rosehaugh Stanhope Properties ~ ~ ~~~

Architects/structural engineers: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill

General contractor: Bovis International AdvancedComposite Materials and
Steel fabricatorderectors: Hollandia/Buyck Joint Venture Structures
Erection consultant: Tony Gee & Partners Convener: P. R. Head, BSc(Eng), ACGI, CEng, MIStructE, MICE,
Maunsell Structural Plastics Ltd., Maunsell House, 160 Croydon
References Road, Beckenham, Kent BR3 4DE
1 . Law, M., O’Brien, T.: Fire safety ofbare externnl structural steel The Structural Engineer, Part A, June 1987, p221
Croydon, Constrado, 1981
2. AmericanIron & SteelInstitute: Firesafestructuralsteel,
Washington, DC, AISI, 1979 Management and Maintenance of
Bridges
Convener: G. Davison, BSc, CEng, MIStructE,
c/o The Institution of Structural Engineers, 1l Upper Belgrave Street,
London S W l X 8BH
Structural news, 23 January 1990, p4

The Structural Engineer/Volume 71/No 9/4 May 1993 159