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Shipboard Electrical
Power Systems
Shipboard Electrical
Power Systems
Second Edition

Mukund R. Patel
Second edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 Mukund R. Patel

First edition published by CRC Press 2011

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ISBN: [9780367430351] (hbk)

ISBN: [9781032043357] (pbk)
ISBN: [9781003191513] (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
 Dedication

to …
the young sailor and the sea.
Contents
Preface...................................................................................................................... xv
Acronyms and Abbreviations.................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................xxi
About the Author.................................................................................................. xxiii
Introduction.............................................................................................................xxv

Chapter 1 AC Power Fundamentals....................................................................... 1

1.1 Current Voltage Power and Energy............................................1
1.2 Alternating Current....................................................................2
1.2.1 RMS Value and Average Power.................................... 3
1.2.2 Polarity Marking in AC.................................................4
1.3 Ac Phasor.................................................................................... 5
1.3.1 Operator j for 90° Phase Shift.......................................7
1.3.2 Three Ways of Writing Phasors.................................... 8
1.3.3 Phasor Form Conversion...............................................8
1.4 Phasor Algebra Review.............................................................. 9
1.5 Single-Phase Ac Power Circuit................................................. 12
1.5.1 Series R-L-C Circuit.................................................... 13
1.5.2 Impedance Triangle..................................................... 17
1.5.3 Circuit Laws and Theorems........................................ 18
1.6 Ac Power in Complex Form..................................................... 19
1.7 Reactive Power.........................................................................24
1.8 Three-Phase Ac Power System.................................................24
1.8.1 Balanced y- and Δ-Connected systems.......................25
1.8.2 Y-Δ Equivalent Impedance Conversion.......................28
Further Reading...................................................................................34

Chapter 2 Shipboard Power System Architectures.............................................. 35

2.1 Types of Ship Drives................................................................ 35
2.2 Electrical Design Tasks............................................................ 36
2.3 Electrical Load Analysis.......................................................... 36
2.3.1 Load Factor or Service Factor..................................... 37
2.3.2 Load Table Compilation.............................................. 38
2.4 Power System Configurations................................................... 41
2.4.1 Basic Conventional Ship............................................. 41
2.4.2 Large Cargo Ship........................................................ 42
2.4.3 Large Cruise Ship........................................................ 43
2.4.4 Ring Bus in Navy Ship................................................ 45
2.4.5 ABS-R2 Redundancy Class of Ship............................46
2.4.6 ABS-R2S Redundancy with Separation.....................46

vii
viii Contents

2.4.7ABS-R2S+ with Two-Winding Propulsion

Motors.........................................................................46
2.4.8 Clean Power Bus for Harmonic-Sensitive
Loads........................................................................... 48
2.4.9 Emergency Generator Engine Starting
System......................................................................... 49
2.5 Cold-Ironing/Shore Power........................................................ 49
2.6 Efficiency and Reliability of Chain.......................................... 50
2.7 Shipboard Circuit Designation................................................. 51
2.8 Ship Simulator.......................................................................... 51
2.9 Systems of Units....................................................................... 52
Further Reading................................................................................... 54

Chapter 3 Common Aspects of Power Equipment.............................................. 55

3.1 Faraday’s Law and Coil Voltage Equation............................... 55
3.2 Mechanical Force and Torque.................................................. 57
3.3 Electrical Equivalent of Newton’s Third Law.......................... 58
3.4 Power Losses in Electrical Machine........................................ 59
3.5 Maximum Efficiency Operating Point.....................................60
3.6 Thevenin Equivalent Source Model......................................... 62
3.7 Voltage Drop and Regulation...................................................64
3.8 Load Sharing Among Sources................................................. 67
3.8.1 Static Sources in Parallel............................................. 67
3.8.2 Load Adjustment......................................................... 69
3.9 Power Rating of Equipment...................................................... 70
3.9.1 Temperature Rise under Load..................................... 71
3.9.2 Service Life under Overload....................................... 71
3.10 Temperature Effect on Resistance............................................ 72
Further Reading................................................................................... 76

Chapter 4 AC Generator...................................................................................... 77
4.1 Terminal Performance.............................................................. 77
4.2 Electrical Model....................................................................... 79
4.3 Electrical Power Output...........................................................80
4.3.1 Field Excitation Effect................................................. 83
4.3.2 Power Capability Limits.............................................. 85
4.3.3 Round and Salient Pole Rotors.................................... 85
4.4 Transient Stability Limit........................................................... 87
4.5 Equal Area Criteria of Transient Stability...............................90
4.6 Speed and Frequency Regulations........................................... 93
4.7 Load Sharing Among Ac Generators....................................... 95
4.8 Isosynchronous Generator........................................................96
4.9 Excitation Methods...................................................................99
4.10 Short Circuit Ratio.................................................................. 100
Contents ix

4.11 Automatic Voltage Regulator................................................. 101

Further Reading................................................................................. 105

Chapter 5 AC and DC Motors............................................................................ 107

5.1 Induction Motor...................................................................... 107
5.1.1 Performance Characteristics..................................... 111
5.1.2 Starting Inrush kVA Code......................................... 116
5.1.3 Torque-Speed Characteristic Matching.................... 117
5.1.4 Motor Control Center................................................ 119
5.1.5 Performance at Different Frequency
and Voltage................................................................ 120
5.2 Synchronous Motor................................................................ 121
5.3 Motor Hp and Line Current.................................................... 125
5.4 Dual-use Motors..................................................................... 126
5.5 Unbalanced Voltage Effect..................................................... 128
5.6 Dc Motor................................................................................ 131
5.7 Universal (Series) Motor AC or DC....................................... 133
5.8 Special Motors for Ship Propulsion....................................... 134
5.9 Torque Versus Speed Comparison.......................................... 134
Further Reading................................................................................. 137

Chapter 6 Transformer....................................................................................... 139

6.1 Transformer Categories.......................................................... 140
6.2 Types of Transformers............................................................ 142
6.3 Selection of kVA Rating. . ....................................................... 143
6.4 Transformer Cooling Classes................................................. 145
6.5 Three-Phase Transformer Connections.................................. 146
6.6 Full-Δ and Open-Δ Connections............................................. 147
6.7 Magnetizing Inrush Current................................................... 149
6.8 Single-Line Diagram Model................................................... 149
6.9 Three-Winding Transformer.................................................. 152
6.10 Percent and Per Unit Systems................................................. 154
6.11 Equivalent Impedance at Different Voltage........................... 157
6.12 Continuous Equivalent Circuit Through Transformer........... 159
6.13 Influence of Transformer Impedance..................................... 161
Further Reading................................................................................. 165

Chapter 7 Power Cable....................................................................................... 167

7.1 Conductor Gage...................................................................... 167
7.2 Cable Insulation...................................................................... 169
7.3 Conductor Ampacity.............................................................. 171
7.4 Cable Electrical Model........................................................... 174
7.5 Skin and Proximity Effects.................................................... 176
x Contents

7.6 Cable Design........................................................................... 178

7.7 Marine and Special Cables..................................................... 180
7.8 Cable Routing and Installation............................................... 187
Further Reading................................................................................. 189

Chapter 8 Power Distribution............................................................................. 191

8.1 Typical Distribution Scheme.................................................. 191
8.2 Grounded and Ungrounded Systems...................................... 193
8.3 Ground Fault Detection Schemes........................................... 196
8.4 Distribution Feeder Voltage Drop.......................................... 197
8.4.1 Voltage Drop During Motor Starting........................ 198
8.4.2 Voltage Boost by Capacitors..................................... 198
8.4.3 System Voltage Drop Analysis..................................200
8.5 Bus Bars Electrical Parameters..............................................202
8.6 High-Frequency Distribution................................................. 203
8.7 Switchboard and Switchgear..................................................206
8.7.1 Automatic Bus Transfer.............................................208
8.7.2 Disconnect Switch.....................................................208
Further Reading................................................................................. 211

Chapter 9 Fault Current Analysis...................................................................... 213

9.1 Types and Frequency of Faults............................................... 213
9.2 Fault Analysis Model.............................................................. 213
9.3 Asymmetrical Fault Transient................................................ 215
9.3.1 Simple Physical Explanation..................................... 216
9.3.2 Rigorous Mathematical Analysis.............................. 218
9.4 Fault Current Offset Factor.................................................... 218
9.5 Fault Current Magnitude........................................................ 219
9.5.1 Symmetrical Fault Current........................................ 220
9.5.2 Asymmetrical Fault Current..................................... 221
9.5.3 Transient and Subtransient Reactance....................... 223
9.5.4 Generator Terminal Fault Current............................. 229
9.5.5 Transformer Terminal Fault Current......................... 229
9.6 Motor Contribution to Fault Current...................................... 230
9.7 Current Limiting Series Reactor............................................ 232
9.8 Unsymmetrical Faults............................................................ 233
9.9 Circuit Breaker Selection Simplified...................................... 234
Further Reading................................................................................. 238

Chapter 10 System Protection.............................................................................. 239

10.1 Fuse.........................................................................................240
10.1.1 Fuse Selection............................................................240
10.1.2 Types of Fuse............................................................. 242
10.2 Overload Protection................................................................ 245
Contents xi

10.3 Electromechanical Relay........................................................ 245

10.4 Circuit Breaker.......................................................................248
10.4.1 Types of Circuit Breaker........................................... 250
10.4.2 Circuit Breaker Selection.......................................... 254
10.5 Differential Protection of Generator...................................... 256
10.6 Differential Protection of Bus and Feeders............................ 257
10.7 Ground Fault Current Interrupter........................................... 257
10.8 Transformer Protection........................................................... 258
10.9 Motor Branch Circuit Protection............................................ 259
10.10 Lightning and Switching Voltage Protection.........................260
10.11 Surge Protection for Small Sensitive Loads........................... 265
10.12 Protection Coordination.........................................................266
10.13 Health Monitoring..................................................................266
10.14 ARC Flash Analysis............................................................... 267
Further Reading................................................................................. 271

Chapter 11 Economic Use of Power.................................................................... 273

11.1 Economic Analysis................................................................. 273
11.1.1 Cash Flow with Borrowed Capital............................ 273
11.1.2 Payback of Self-Financed Capital............................. 274
11.2 Power Loss Capitalization...................................................... 276
11.3 High Efficiency Motor............................................................ 278
11.4 Power Factor Improvement..................................................... 281
11.4.1 Capacitor Size Determination................................... 285
11.4.2 Parallel Resonance with Source................................ 288
11.4.3 Safety with Capacitors.............................................. 288
11.4.4 Difference between PF and Efficiency...................... 289
11.5 Energy Storage During Night................................................. 290
11.6 Variable Speed Motor Drives AC and DC............................. 291
11.7 Regenerative Braking............................................................. 291
11.7.1 Induction Motor Torque versus Speed Curve............ 293
11.7.2 Induction Motor Braking........................................... 294
11.7.3 DC Motor Braking.................................................... 297
11.7.4 New York and Oslo Metro Trains............................. 298
Further Reading................................................................................. 303

Chapter 12 Electrochemical Battery.................................................................... 305

12.1 Major Rechargeable Batteries................................................307
12.1.1 Lead Acid..................................................................307
12.1.2 Nickel Cadmium.......................................................308
12.1.3 Nickel Metal Hydride................................................309
12.1.4 Lithium Ion................................................................309
12.1.5 Lithium Polymer........................................................ 310
12.1.6 Sodium Battery......................................................... 310
xii Contents

12.2 Electrical Circuit Model......................................................... 310

12.3 Performance Characteristics.................................................. 311
12.3.1 Charge/Discharge Voltages....................................... 312
12.3.2 c/d Ratio (Charge Efficiency).................................... 312
12.3.3 Round Trip Energy Efficiency................................... 312
12.3.4 Self-Discharge and Trickle-Charge........................... 314
12.3.5 Memory Effect in NiCd............................................. 314
12.3.6 Temperature Effects.................................................. 315
12.4 Battery Life............................................................................. 315
12.5 Battery Types Compared........................................................ 317
12.6 More on the Lead-Acid Battery.............................................. 318
12.7 Battery Design Process.......................................................... 318
12.8 Safety And Environment........................................................ 321
Further Reading................................................................................. 324

Chapter 13 Electric Propulsion............................................................................ 325

13.1 State of Electric Propulsion.................................................... 325
13.2 Types of Electric Propulsion Drive........................................ 326
13.2.1 Azimuth Z-drive........................................................ 326
13.2.2 Azimuth Pod-Drive................................................... 326
13.3 Propulsion Power System Configurations.............................. 329
13.3.1 Separate Electrical Propulsion Power....................... 329
13.3.2 Integrated Electric Propulsion Power........................ 329
13.4 Advantages of Electric Propulsion......................................... 330
13.4.1 Advantages to Cruise and Navy Ships...................... 330
13.4.2 Special Advantages to Navy Ships............................ 332
13.5 AC Vs. DC Power Option....................................................... 334
13.6 Optimum Voltage Level......................................................... 335
13.7 Propulsion Power Requirement.............................................. 336
13.8 Ship Speed vs. Fuel Consumption.......................................... 336
13.9 Hybrid Propulsion................................................................... 337
13.9.1 Hybrid Tug Boat........................................................ 338
13.9.2 Hybrid Ferry..............................................................340
Further Reading................................................................................. 343

Chapter 14 Ship Emission Regulations and Clean Power

Technologies...................................................................................... 345
14.1 Overview of Ship Emissions.................................................. 345
14.2 Key Marine Air Pollutants.....................................................346
14.3 Marine Emission Regulations................................................ 347
14.4 Means of Emission Reduction................................................ 349
14.4.1 Low Sulfur Fuel Switching....................................... 349
14.4.2 Speed Reduction (Slow Steaming)............................ 350
14.4.3 Using Shore power at Port (Cold Ironing)................. 350
Contents xiii

14.4.4 Using Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)......................... 351

14.4.5 Using Scrubbers........................................................ 351
14.5 Clean Power Technologies...................................................... 351
14.5.1 Fuel Cell Power......................................................... 352
14.5.1.1 Electrochemistry........................................ 352
14.5.1.2 Electrical Performance.............................. 354
14.5.1.3 Types of Fuel Cell...................................... 354
14.5.1.4 Fuel Cells for Navy and Military Use....... 357
14.5.1.5 Fuel Cell in Merchant Ships...................... 358
14.5.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries................................................ 358
14.5.3 Solar Photovoltaics.................................................... 362
14.5.4 Wind Power............................................................... 367
Further Reading................................................................................. 370

Chapter 15 Marine Industry Standards................................................................ 371

15.1 Standard-Issuing Organizations............................................. 371
15.2 Classification Societies........................................................... 372
15.3 Ieee Standard-45..................................................................... 373
15.4 Code of Federal Regulations.................................................. 379
15.5 Military-Std-1399................................................................... 379
Further Reading................................................................................. 381

Appendix A: Symmetrical Components............................................................. 383

Appendix B: Operating Ships Power System Data Example............................ 391
Index....................................................................................................................... 395
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