FIRST YEAR M.

A HISTORY
SEMESTER-II

HY 222- INDIAN HISTORY – II (600-1700)

PROCESSES IN TRANSITION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Prepared & Edited by
Dr. Robinson Jose
Assistant Professor of History
University College, Thiruvananthapuram
 HY 222- INDIAN HISTORY – II (600-1700)
PROCESSES IN TRANSITION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

Syllabus

1. Sources: Literature
2. Indian Feudalism: Debate on Indian feudalism
3. Arrival of Arabs – Turkish incursions – Ghazni , Ghori – Sultanate of Delhi –Polity –The
Idea of Kingship--Society – Economy – Trade – Markets & Cantonments – Agriculture –
Land grants – Jagirs.
4. Deccan & the South: (a) Bhakti movement (b) Chola imperialism – Local self
government(c) Bahmani & Vijayanagar – Polity—Society-- Economy (d) Major temples –
(e) Temple Architecture – Pallavas, Chalukyas, Cholas.
5. Mughal Empire (a) Nature of Mughal State & Sovereignty – Mansabdari system .( b)
Mughal economy – Trade--Agriculture – Revenue system –Industries (c) Mughal art &
architecture.
6. Impact of Islam on Indian Society & Culture (a) Sufism in India – Bhakti movement –
Arabic & Persian literature- Origin of Urdu language & literature(b) Indo-SaracenicArt
&Architecture – Mughal painting.
7. Marathas & Sikhs ( a) Rise of Marathas – Shivaji – Peshwas – Organization of state &
Administration (b) Punjab under the Sikhs- Sikhism.
Readings/References:
Module 1:
1. Bakshi S.R, Advanced History of Medieval India,Anmol,India 2002.
2. Farooqui Salma Ahmed &Salma Ahmed Farooqui,A Comprehensive History of
Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid Eighteenth Century,Pearson Education India.
3. Jagadish Narayan Sarkar&RatnaPrakashan, History of History Writing in Medieval
India:Contemporary Historians: an Introduction to Medieval Indian Historiography,
Ratna Prakashan,1977.
4. Mohammad Habib,Historiography of Medieval India,Manak Publications,
2003.
5. Mohibul Hasan,Historians of Medieval India,Meerut Menakshi Prakashan,1968.
6. Morrison, India’s History as Told by its Historians,Adamant Media Coorperation, 2000.
7. Peter Hardy, Luzac,Historians of Medieval India: Studies in Indo- Muslim Historical
Writing,Luzac,1960.
8. Satish Chandra,Historiography, Religion and State in Medieval India,HarAnand
Publications 1996.
Module- 2:
1. R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, Macmillan, 2006.
2. Stein, Burton,‘Politics, Peasants and the Deconstruction of Feudalism in Medieval India‘,
Journal of Peasant Studies,12, No. 2-3(1985).
3. Vijay Kumar Thakur,Towards a Model of Early Medieval Indian
Economy,Commonwealth,NewDelhi,1989.
4. Vijay Kumar Thakur, Recent Writings on Indian Feudalism:A
HistoriographicalCritique,Journal of the Bihar Research Society(1979): 341-354.
5. T.J. Byres andHarbansMukhia,Feudalism and Non-European Societies(Library of
Peasant Studies) Aug 1, 1985.
6. D C Sircar(ed.),Land System and Feudalism in Ancient India,Calcutta, 1960.
7. Marc Bloch(tr),Feudal Society, London, 1965.
8. B N S Yadava, ‗Ruling landed Aristocracy in Society and Culture in Northern India,
Allahabad, 1973.
9. K Antonova,et al, A History of India,Vol.I, Moscow ,1979,p.189.
10. Kathleen Gough, ‗Mode of Production in Southern India‘, Economic and Political
Weekly, February 1980.
11. T K Ravindran, ‗Myth of Indian Feudalism‘, Osmania Journal of Historical
Research,Vol.I. No. 1 July- December 1982. pp.09-29.
12. Kathleen Gough, Rural Society in Southeast India, Cambridge,1981.
Module -3:
1. Anil Chandra Banerjee,The State and Society in Medieval India, 1206-1526,
A.Mukherjee& Co. pvt.Ltd, 1958.
2. AtharAli,The Apparatus of Empire,Centre of Advanced study in History, Aligarh
University ,1985.
3. Farooqui Salma Ahmed & Salma Ahmed Farooqui,A Comprehensive History of
Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid ... Eighteenth Century,Pearson Education India.
4. Herman Kulke (ed.),The State in India – 1000 – 1700 AD, Delhi, Oxford University
Press.
5. IrfanHabib,Essays in Indian History Towards a Marxist Perception, Wimbledon
Publishing Company,2002.
6. Iswari Prasad, History of Medieval India, Allahabad Indian Press.
7. Jafar S.M,Some Cultural Aspects of Muslim Rule in India,Idarah-i Adabiyāt-i Delhi,
1939.
8. Satish Chandra,Historiography, Religion, and State in Medieval India, Har-Anand
Publications New Delhi,,1996
9. Satish Chandra,Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals 1526-1748,
HarAnandPublications,New Delhi,2006.
10. SrivastavaM.P,Social and Cultural Trends in Islamic India, 1206-1719 A.D,Vohra
Publishers, New Delhi,1989
Module- 4:
1. Burton Stein,Peasant, Society and State in South India,Oxford University Press, 1980.
2. Karashima , South Indian History and Society, Oxford University Press, 2001.
3. KesavanVeluthatt ,The Political Structure of Early Medieval South India, Oxford University
Press, Incorporated, 2010.
4. K.A.N. Sastri,History of South India, Oxford University Press, 1976.
5.K.A.N. Sastri,The Cholas,University of Madras,1935.

Module- 5:
1. Athar Ali. M, Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society, OxfordUniversity Press,
2006.
2. IrfanHabib,Agrarian System of Mughal India, OUP, India, 2000.
3. J.N. Sarkar,History of Aurangazeb, Longmans, Green, 1920.
4. P.N. Chopra,Society and Culture in the Mughal Age, Shiva LalAgarwala, 1963.
5. Raj Kumar,Medieval Art and Culture, Anmol Publications Pvt,Limited, 2000.
6. ShireenMoosvi,People, Taxation, and Trade in Mughal India, Oxford University Press.
Module- 6:
1. Arthur John Arberry, Sufism: An account of Mystics of Islam, Dover Publications,
2001.
2. Ashraf K.M,Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan,MunshiramManoharlal, New
Delhi, 1970.
3. Basham A.L,Cultural History of India, Oxford University Press,Incorporated, 1975.
4. RaziuddinAquil,Sufism, Culture, And Politics: Afghans and Islam in
Medieval North India, OUP India, 2012.
Module- 7:
1. Chhabra G.S, Advanced History of Punjab, Volume 2,Parkash, 1973.
2. Joseph Davey Cunnigham, A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin to the
Battles of the Sutlej, J. Murray, 1849.
3. Sardesai.A,A New History of the Marathas, Phoenix Publications, 1957.
4 .A LSrivastava,History of India(1000-1707),Shiva LalAgarwala&Co,Agra,1977.
5. Gordon, Stewart ,The Marathas 1600-1818, The New Cambridge History of India,1993
(Indian States and the Transition to Colonialism). 2, Part 4. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p. 35.
6. Vartak, Malavika (8–14 May 1999). "ShivajiMaharaj: Growth of a Symbol". Economic
and Political Weekly , 34 (19): 1126–1134.
7. Gordon, Stewart ,The Marathas 1600-1818, Cambridge University Press,1993.
 MODULE-1
SOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY

Contents

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Objectives

1.3 Sources

1.3.1 Literary Sources

1.3.2 Foreign Accounts

1.3.3 Archaeological Sources

1.1 Introduction
The source of Medieval Indian history is richer than the sources of Ancient India. There are
plenty of written records and memoirs. They are not without limitation. In fact, a large number of
Muslim chroniclers enjoyed the patronage of the ruling princes and looked hardly beyond the
court and the capital. They provide a good deal of insight and knowledge about the conditions of
those times-art and architecture, history and literature, agriculture and industry, commerce and
trade, culture and civilization, philosophy and religion etc.In fact available sources cover almost
all areas of socio-economic life. In the 11th century, Alberuni, an Iranian scholar who
accompanied Mahmud Ghazni during his invasions of India gave an account of the Indian
society in his Tahquiq Hind. Chand Bardai in his epic narrated the exploits of Prithvi Raj
Chauhan. Kalhan in that century wrote the history of Kashmir.
In the 13th century, Hasan Nizami, a migrant from Ghazni, gave information about Qutub-
ud-din Aibak and Marco Polo provided an account of South India. In the 14th century, Ibn
Batuta, a Moorish traveller wrote about Muhammad Tughlaq, Khwaja Abu Malik described the
history of Delhi Sultans, and Zia-ud-Barni covers the history from Balban to Firoz Tughlaq. In
the 15th century Abdul Razzaq described about the times of Vijayanagar kings. In the 16th
century Babur‘s Babur Nama, and Abul Fazal‘s Ain-i- Akbari and Akbar Nama provided
detailed information about these two emperors. In the 17th century, Jahangir himself wrote Tuzki
– Jahangiri throwing a lot of light on the period.
1.2 Objectives
The main objective of this unit is to create awareness among the students regarding the major
sources for studying the history of Medieval India. It is the work of the historian to convert the
scattered difficult primary evidences into coherent, intelligible secondary sources.
1.3 Sources
1.3.1 Literary Sources
The literary sources for the study of Medieval India include both the sources for the Sultanate
period and the sources for the Mughal period. Following are the major literary sources for the
reconstruction of Medieval India:
Kamilut-Tawarikh of Ibnul Asir:
For the history of Central Asia and the Rise of the Shansabani Dynasty of Ghor, the Kamilut-
Tawarikh of Ibnul Asir gives us a lot of information.
The book was completed in 1230 A.D. The author was a contemporary to many of the events
narrated in the last two volumes of his work He used a critical judgment in utilizing his sources
of information and the result was that his account has rarely been found to be wrong.
As regards his notices of Indian affairs, those are remarkably correct so far as the dates and
essential facts are concerned. However, those are admittedly based on hearsay. The author is
valuable so far as he confirms other sources. In some places, he gives interesting explanations or
details which are not to be found in other authorities.
Tarikh-i-Jahan Gusha-i-Juwaini of Ata Malik:
Ata Malik Juwaini completed his Tarikh-i-Jahan Gusha-i-Juwaini in 1260 A.D. The book is
valuable for the History of Central Asia in the first half of the 13th century. The author held a
high administrative office in Baghdad under Hulaku and was also in a position to use Mongol
official documents. His work gives us a detailed and authentic account of the Mongol conquests
in Western Asia. Although the writer is pro-Mongol in his attitude, his account is free from in-
accuracies. However, his notices of India are few and are made only in connection with the
Shansabanis or the Khwarizmi Prince, Jalaluddin.
Tarikh-i-Guzidah of Hamdullah Mastaufi Qazwini:
The Tarikh-i-Guzidah was completed by Hamdullah Mastaufi Qazwini in 1329 A.D. It is
considered to be the best general history of the East. It contains a brief, though generally
accurate, account of the Ghaznawids, Shansabanis and Sultans of Delhi. The author gives
interesting details about the Ghorides. The value of the book is mostly corroborative.
Genealogies of Fakhruddin Mubarakshah:
For the early history of the Muslim conquest, the historical portion contained in the introduction
to the book of genealogies of Fakhruddin Mubarakshah known as Fakhre-Madabbir, discovered
and edited by Denison Ross, is very valuable. The author was a learned man of repute in the
court of Ghazni and later of Delhi. He also wrote a history of the Ghorides in verse. Although it
is mentioned by Minhaj-i-Siraj, it does not appear to be extant.
Jawamiul-Hikayat of Nuruddin Muhammad Aufi:
The Jawamiul-Hikayat by Nuruddin Muhammad Aufi contains in its Preface details of the
military operations which Iltutmish conducted against Qubacha in 1227 A.D. The author was an
eye-witness of those events.

Chach-Nama:
The Chach-Nama was originally written in Arabic. Later on, it was translated into Persian by
Muhammad Ali bin Abu Bakar Kufi in the time of Nasir-ud-din Qubacha. It has now been edited
and published by D. Daud-Pota. This work gives a history of the Arab conquest of Sindh and is
our main source of information of that subject.
Tabquat-i-Nasiri of Minhaj-us-Siraj:
The Tabquat-i-Nasiri was written by Minhaj-us-Siraj. It has been translated into English by
Raverty. It is a contemporary work and was completed in 1260 A.D. It gives us a firsthand
account of the conquest of India by Muhammad Ghori and also the History of the Delhi
Sultanate up to 1260 A.D. However, it is to be observed that Minhaj-us Siraj was not an
impartial writer. He is very much biased in favour of Muhammad Ghori, Iltutmish and Balban.
Mijihaj relied largely for example on the Ahsan Al-Taqasim-fi-Marifat Al-Aqalam of Al-
Muqaddasi, the Maghazi by Al-Waqidi and the Tarikhi-Wilayat-i-Khurasan by Al-Sallami. No
attmept has been made by the author to evaluate the reliability of the sources used by him. As a
matter of fact, the author has occasionally given different dates for the same events in different
contexts.
Tarikh-i-Muhammadi of Muhammad Bihamad Khani:
The Tarikh-i-Muhammadi was completed in 1438-39 by Muhammad Bihamad Khani. The
author did not belong to the Ulema class but was a member of the military class. The work deals
with patriarchs and prophets including the life of Prophet Muhammad, the Caliphs, Umayyids,
the Abbasids, the Ghaznavids, the Saljuqs, the Sanjarids, Shansabani Sultans of Ghor and
Ghazni, Shamsi Sultans of Hind etc. It also contains the history of the Sultans of Delhi, Timur,
biographies of Saints and the struggles of the Sultans of Kalpi with their Hindu and Muslim
neighbours.
The Tarikh-i-Muhammadi is arranged in the form of annals of the life of the Prophet and the
history of the early Caliphs. It is a year by year narration of events, chiefly military. After that,
the arrangement is by dynasty and reign with the emphasis on military events of appointments to
office.
The biographies of the saints are full of praises. The author has paraphrased earlier histories
without discussion of criticism. Among the sources cited by him are the Tabqat-i-Nasiri, Tarikh-
i-Firoz Shahi by Barani and the Tazkirat Al-Auliya by Farid-al-din-al-Attar.
Tarikh-i-Firozshahi Zia-ud-Din Barani:
The Tarikh-i-Firozshahi was written by Zia-ud-Din Barani. The author was a contemporary of
Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq, Muhammad-bin- Tughluq and Firoz Tughluq. Barani brings the story
from Balban to Firoz Tughluq. He gives a very useful account of the history of the Slave
Dynasty, the Khaljis and the Tughluqs. The book was completed in 1359 A.D. and has now been
published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
The chief merit of the book lies in the fact that it was written by a person who held a high
position in the administration and was consequently in possession of accurate information. The
author has described the system of revenue administration in great detail. Although Barani knew
the duties and responsibilities of a historian, but he was not free from prejudice. Moreover, his
style is so obscure that it is difficult to understand him.
Tarikh-i-Firozshahi of Shams-i-Siraj Afif:
The Tarikh-i-Firozshahi of Shams-i-Siraj Afif deals with the history of the reign of Firoz
Tughluq. The author was himself a member of the Court of Firoz Tughluq and no doubt his work
is considered to be a first rate authority on the subject. The work of Afif was written not long
after the capture of Delhi by Timur in 1398-99. There is no evidence in the work itself that Afif
wrote either at the behest of some powerful man or in hope of reward. Affif's work is the only
survival of a number of other works praising Alauddin Khalji, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq,
Muhammad Tughluq and Firoz Tughluq.
The book does not express the author's motives as perhaps a possible general introduction to the
whole collection of Manaqib may have done. It is a possible hypothesis that Afif intended to
portray a golden age of the Sultanate of Delhi before the calamity of Timur fell on it. Afif has
praised Firoz Tughluq for his generosity towards his servants, his care for the people, his respect
for the Sufis and his activities as a builder. He describes Firoz as an ideal man. The Sultan is
depicted as a tailor's dummy garbed in ideal attributes-an exhibition figure for the edification of
the pious. History is the story of what must have happened when an ideal ruler presided over the
Delhi Sultanate. Historiography is a form of pious panegyric.
Taj-ul-Massir of Hasan Nizami:
The Taj-ul-Massir was written by Hasan Nizami. It deals with the events from about 1192 A.D.
to 1228 A.D. It deals with the career and reign of Kutb-ud-din Aibak and the early of reign of
Iltutmish. Being a contemporary account, the work is regarded to be a first-rate authority on the
subject. Hasan Nizami was a migrant first to Ghazni and then to Delhi, from his native Nishapur.
He worte the Taj-ul-Massir after encouragement from the Sadr at Delhi in response to a royal
desire for an account of the glorious deeds of the Ghorid conquerors.
The work "records a minimum of events with a maximum of florid description, hyperbole,
amphibology, homonym, inversion, anti-thesis, simile and rhetorical figure drawn from, for
example, astrology, medicine, chess, biology and botany. Every army is as numerous as the stars;
every soldier is as blood-thirsty as Mars, who carries a lance like a meteor, a sword like
lightning, a dagger like thunder-bolt and a shield like the moon. Melody and rhyme, art and
artifice are preferred to economy and precision in statement. Hasan Nizami's heroes are always
brave, victorious, perspicacious, generous and cultured."
Tarikh-i-Sindh or Tarikh-i-Masumi of Mir Muhammad Masum:
TheTarikh-i-Sindh or Tarikh- i-Masumi was written by Mir Muhammad Masum. This book was
written in about 1600 A.D. It deals with the history of Sindh from the time of its conquest by the
Arabs up to the time of Akbar, the Mughal Emperor. It is not a contemporary account, but is
based on Chach-Nama. It gives an accurate account of the conquest of Sindh by the Arabs.
Tahqiq-Hind of Alberuni:
The Tahqiq-Hind was written by Alberuni who was a great Arabic and Persian scholar. He
stayed in India for many years and learnt Sanskrit. He translated many Sanskrit works into
Arabic and Persian. The Tahqiq-Hind gives an account of the literature, religion and sciences of
the Hindus at the time of his visit to India. Alberuni was a contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni
and he gives a lot of useful information about the condition of India at the time of her invasion
by Mahmud. The book has been translated into English by Sachau.
Tarikh-i-Yamini of Utbi:
The Tarikh-i-Yamini was written by Utbi. It deals with the history of Subuktgin and Mahmud of
Ghazni up to 1020 A.D. We do not find details in this account. Dates are also missing. In spite of
that, it is a great work on Mahmud of Ghazni.
Zain-ul-Akhbar of Abri Said:
The Zain-ul-Akhbar was written by Abu Said. It gives us some information about Mahmud of
Ghazni. The data given by the author are exact.
Tarikh-i-Masudi of Abul Fazl Muhammad Bin Husain-al-Baihaqi:
The Tarikh-i-Masudi was written by Abul Fazl Muhammad Bin Husain-ai-Baihaqi. It deals with
the history of Mahmud of Ghazni and gives us an idea of court life and intrigues among officials.
Khaza' in-ul-Futuh of Amir Khusrau: The Khaza' in-Futuh was written by Amir Khusrau who
was a contemporary of the rulers of Delhi from Jalal-ud-Din Khalji to Muhammad Tughluq. The
author was partial towards Ala-ud-din Khalji. While he praises his master very much, he omits
his faults and shortcomings. Being an eye-witness of what he has written, his work is of very
great importance. The work has been translated into Enlgish by Prof. Habib.
Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi of Yahya ibn Ahmad Sarhindi:
The Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi was written between 1428 and 1434 by Yahya ibn Ahmad Sarhindi.
It gives a very valuable account of the reigns of the rulers belonging to the Sayyid dynasty (1414
to 1451 A.D.). The Author "gives us what he himself witnessed or learnt from trustworthy
observers from the time of Firozshah to the accession of the third Saiyyad Sultan Muhammad."
He is "our most original authority" for the period of 35 years from 1400 to 1435 A.D. He also
supplements the meager information of Shams-i-Siraj Afif from about 1380 onwards.
'Yahya was a conscientious and exact narrator of events. His style is exceedingly simple and the
work abounds in dates. Although he wrote for a patron-king, he is not a panegyrist. All later
writers have been directly or indirectly indebted to him. The whole account of the Saiyyad period
in Tabqat-i-Akbari of Nizamuddin Ahmad is a mere reproduction of the narrative of the Tarikh-i-
Mubarak Shahi. Badauni follows him closely. Ferishta has very often borrowed his words. The
Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi does not explain why things happened in history beyond adducing the
conventional dogma of divine decree. It contains morals in prose and verse, warning mankind
against snares and delusions of worldly success.
Sirat-i-Firozshahi:
The Sirat-i-Firozshahi was written about the year 1370 A.D. It is a contemporary account which
is very useful for the reign of Firoz Tughluq.
Fatawah-i-Jahandari of Zia-ud-din-Barani:
The Fatawah-i-Jahandari was written by Zia-ud-uin Barani. This was completed in the 14th
century. The author gives his own views about the secular and reef's policy of the government.
The book gives an idea of the ideal political code which the author was the Muslim rulers to
follow.
Futuh-al-Salatin of Khwaja Abu Malik Isami:
The Futuh-al-Salatin was written by Khwaja Abu Malik Isami in 1349 A.D. It has been edited
and published by Dr. Mahdi Hussain. It run" into about 12,000 verses. It was intended to be the
Shah Nama of Hindustan. The author migrates from Delhi to Daulatabad during the reign of
Muhammad Tughluq. Ultimately, he found a patron in Sultan Ala-ud-din Bahman Shah, the
founder of Bahmani Kingdom.
The Futuh-al-Salatin treats the past as a succession of exciting episodes in which Muslim heroes,
chiefly the Sultans of Delhi, Demonstrate their qualities. The work begins with Mahmud of
Ghazni and particularly praises Ala-ud-Din Khalji as a great conqueror of Hindu princes.
Episodes have been mixed up anecdotes. Divine intervention is frequent but capricious. The
work is hostile to Muhamma Tughlaq. The sources of the book an anecdotes, legends and
common reports current among his friend and associates.
Kitab-ur-Rahlah of Ibn Batuta:
The Kitab-ur-Rahlah was written by Ibn Batuta, a Mooris traveller, who visited India in 1333
A.D. and remained here for 9 years. He also acted as Qazi o Delhi for 8 years. The work is a
contemporary account written by a great scholar who had firs hand information about the affairs
of Muhammad Tughluq.
Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghan of Ahmad Yadgar:
The Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghan was written b Ahmad Yadgar. It deals with the history of the
Afghans in India. It is very useful for the rule of the Lodi Dynasty. The author commences his
work with the accession of BahloULodi in 1451
The last chapter deals with the defeat and capture of Hemu in 1556 A.D. The author shows little
regard for dates and "at the end of the reign of each Afghan King Gives fanciful and sometimes
absurd stories."
Makhzan-i-Afghani of Niamatulla:
Niamatulla's Makhzan-i-Afghani is a general history of the Afghans from the time of Adam to
1612. It was written in the 17th century in the reign of Jahangir. A distinctive feature of this book
is the genealogical account of various Afghan tribes. It also contains memoir of Khan-i-Jahan
Lodi, one of the greatest Generals of Jahangir. The author was a Waqia Navis at the Court of
Jahangir. He was a contemporary of Ferishta, though he does not mention him anywhere in his
work. He commenced his work, in the year in which Ferishta finished his work (1593 A.D.).
Like Ahmad Yadgar, Niamatullah also has little regard for dates and is fond of marvellous
stories.
Tarikh-i-Daudi of Abdulla:
Another work of the 17th century is the Tarikh-i-Daudi of Abdulla. It deals with Lodi and Sur
dynasties. It is deficient in dates and gives many anecdotes. It gives no dates but incidentally
mentions Jahangir who ascended the throne in 1605 A.D. The work is fragmentary. The Tarikh-
i-Shershahi or Tohfa-i-Akbarshahi is useful for the history of the Lodi dynasty.
Fawadul Fawaid of Amir Hasan Sijzi:
Fawadul Fawaid of Amir Hasan Sijzi throws illuminating sidelight on contemporary society. The
poet kept daily record of the conversations of Nizamuddin, the saint of Budaun. The book
contains very interesting comments on men and events around the circle of the saint. The work
enjoyed immense popularity and became the model of a series of compilations. Some of the
compilations are considered to be genuine and have a bearing on the society of the 13th century.
Conversations of another contemporary Sufi named Faridu-din Mahmud were edited by his son
under the title of Soroor-us-Sudur. Mir Khurd, a young disciple of Nizamuddin, compiled an
account of the Indian Sufis of the Chishti order with the title of Siyarul Auliya. The Siyarul
Arefin by Shaikh Jamali compiled in 1539 contains some additional details not found elsewhere.
The Akhbarul Akhiar by Abdul Haqq Dehlavi was completed in the reign of Jahangir. It is
history of Indian mystics. Gulzar-i-Abrar by Muhammad Ghousi gives us interesting details
about the lives of other Sufis. Indirectly it gives us interesting details about the social and
political life of the people of the Sultanate period.
1.3.2 Foreign Accounts
Al Beruni (1024- 1030 AD) he wrote the work Tahkik-i- Hind (Reality of Hindustan). He
was born in Khiva in Central Asia. He came to India along with Muhammad Ghazni. He wrote
twenty books on India.
Al Masudi (957 AD) - Al-Masudi was born in Baghdad and is known as the 'Herodotus of
the Arabs' because he was the first Arab to combine history and scientific geography in a large-
scale work. He travelled extensively in India, the Middle East, and Africa. Al-Masudi wrote a
30-volume history of the world and recounted the experiences of his travels form Europe to
India. He travelled in India at the time of Muhammad of Ghazni. His most famous book is the
Meadows of Gold.
Amir Khusru (1290- 1325) - He adorned the court of Sultan Muhammad. After the death of
Muhammad he adorned the court of the sultans from balban to Ghiasuddin Tughlaq as a poet
Laurate. He is popularly known as ―Tuti-e- Hind‖ or the ―Parrot of India‖. He wrote more than
ninety books on diverse themes.
Ibn Batuta (1333-1347) - Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta, also known as Shams ad -
Din, was born at Tangier, Morocco. His travels lasted for about thirty years, after which he
returned to Fez, Morocco at the court of Sultan Abu 'Inan and dictated accounts of his journeys
to Ibn Juzay. These are known as the famous Travels (Rihala) of Ibn Battuta. Ibn Battuta was the
only medieval traveller who is known to have visited the lands of every Muslim ruler of his time.
In 1333, Ibn Battuta arrived in India after traveling through much of west Asia.
Marco Polo(1292-1294) - was a Christian merchant from the Venetian Republic whose
travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia
and China. He visited Andaman Islands in 1295 A.D. He was considered as the ―Father of
Modern Geography‖.
Abdur Razzak -Kamal-ud-Din Abd-ur-Razzaq ibn Ishaq Samarqandi, (1443–1444), was
a Persian chronicler and Islamic scholar. He was the ambassador of Shah Rukh, the Timurid
dynasty ruler of Persia to Calicut, India, from January 1442 to January 1445. He chronicled in
his Matla-us-Sadain wa Majma-ul-Bahrain the life and events in Calicut under the Zamorin and
also of the Ancient City of Vijayanagara at Hampi, describing their wealth and immense
grandeur. He stayed in the Vijayanagar during 1442 to 1443.
 Nicolo Condi (1420-1421) - He was an Italian traveler who visited India in 1420. He visited
the Vijayanagar Empire during the period of Devaraya II. He also travelled through the Malabar
Coast. He left a detailed account of South India especially the Vijayanagar Empire.
Domingoes Paes (1520-1522) - He was a Portuguese traveler who visited Vijayanagar
Empire during the period of Krishnadeveraya. His account of Hampi, the capital of the
Vijayanagara Empire is of the most detailed of all historic narrations on this ancient city.
Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516) - was a Portuguese writer and Portuguese India officer between
1500 and 1516–17. His "Book of Duarte Barbosa" (Livro de Duarte Barbosa) is one of the
earliest examples of Portuguese travel literature.
Fernao Nuniz (1535-1537) – He was a Portuguese traveler, chronicler and horse trader who
spent three years in Vijayanagara, capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the time period 1535-
1537 CE. His writings have brought to light many interesting details about Vijayanagara at that
time, including construction of massive fortification works, watch towers and security walls.
From his notes it is known that the expansion of the regal capital limits happened during the rule
of King Bukka Raya II and Deva Raya I.
1.3.3 Archaeological Sources
The coins and monuments are important sources for the construction of the history medieval
period of India. The Sultans were great lovers of architecture. The architecture which the Turkish
conquerors of India brought in this land in the last decade of the twelfth century was not
exclusively Muslim or even Arabian. Rather their buildings had the influence of indigenous art
traditions.
Balban built the Red Palace. Alauddin-Khalji built the Jamait Khana Masjid at the shrine of
Nizam-ud-din-Auliya and the famous Ali Darwaja at the Qutub Minar. The Tughluq‘s erected
the tomb of Tughluq Shah, the city of Tughluqabad and Kuffa Firoz Shah. Sikandar Lodi also
built Moth Ki Masjid.
Sultan Qutubud-din-Aibak constructed the famous Quwat-ul-Islam mosque at Delhi, the
Dhai-Din ka Jhoupra at Ajmer, the Qutub Minar at Delhi.There are several other like
architectures scattered in many provinces like Multan, Bengal, Gujrat, Malwa, Jaunpur, Kashmir
and Dakhin also helped us to form a comprehensive idea about the history of the Sultanate period
of India.
 MODULE-2
Foreign invasions in Medieval India- Arabs, Turks and Delhi Sultans
2.1. Introduction
Foreign Invasion in India during the medieval period was the outcome of instability and
fragility of Indian rulers. It initiated with the weakening of Rajput Empire. Although Rajputs
symbolized chivalry and feudalism, their internal conflicts marked their downfall in the medieval
period. This laid the foundation for Foreign Invasion and the Arabs and the Turks invaded India
in this period. The rise and growth of Islam was an important event in the medieval history of
India. Its first converts, the Arabs, made it a powerful force in the politics of Asia. The credit of
establishing the Muslim rule in Indiahowever went to the Turks. Apart from being interested in
India's wealth, the Turks also wanted to establish their empires and take over other kingdoms.
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Arrival of Arabs
The establishment of Arab rule in Sind in 712 A.D. was preceded by a number of efforts
to penetrate India. The first military expedition was sent to Tahan near Bombay in 637. More
were sent in the coming years against Broach and Debal. The view that the Arbas indeed were
not interested in territorial acquisition till the ruler of Sind in 700 A.D. provoked them, is not
accepted by the book 'A Comprehensive History of India'. This book relies on the authority of
baladhuri, who is regarded as the most reliable authority on the subject. Accroding to the book,
the Arabs made systematic inroads on the three kingdoms of Kabul, Zabul and Sind. Very often
the first two were united in resisting the aggression of the Arabs. Baladhuri says that after 650
A.D. the Arabs entered India. One more expedition was sent by the Caliphate of Ali to conquer
Kabul but was frusterated. Another attempt was made in 698 A.D., which was still less
successful. The weakness of the Arabs was undoubtedly due to internal troubles and weakness of
the Caliphate during the last days of Umayyids, but after the establishment of powerful Abbasid
Caliphate the earlier designs were repeated. Kabul was conqured but again escaped from the
control of the Caliphate. Zebul was conquered only in 870 A.D.
Although both Kabul and Zabul succumbed to Islam the heroic resistance they offered
checked the spread of Islam into the Subcontinent. Few countries in the world, those too small
principalities like these, have defied the arms of Islam so bravely and for so long 2000 years.
Good number of details is found regarding the history of Sind in the 7th Century A.D. in
Chachnama, a Persian translation of an old Arabicc history of the conquest of Sind by the Arabs.
An expedition of the Arabs was sent against Debal some time before 643 A.D. Baladhuri speaks
of Muslim victory but Chachnama says that the Muslims were defeated. The conquest of Sind
was abandoned for some time. When then new Calipha Uthman attempted to conquer, he too left
it after a setback. During the daysof Caliphate of Ali, a well-equipped Muslim Army came along
the land route, According to Baladhuri, the Muslims were put to rout. After this, a series of
expeditions were sent to conquer an outpost of Sind, which all ended in failure.
The Arabs resumed their aggression against Sind only after 705 A.D. An Arab ship fell in
thehands of pirates near Debal. A Muslim Governor demanded their release and also the arrest of
the pirates. It appears, Dehar refused to oblige. As a matter of fact, the governor for Iraq was
appointed for both the areas of Hindi and Sind. For long time the Arabs chafed at their failure to
conquer Sind. Thus, the governor Hajja merely seized the plicy as a pretext to defeat and conquer
Sind. After making elaborate preparation, Mohammad-Bin-Kasim, the son-in-law of Hajjaj, was
sent with a well equipped army. He advanced to Makran and laid siege to Debal in 711 A.D. The
capital was captured then, Muhammad advanced along the Indus to conquer the whole area. It
appears that very often trachery led to the Arab conquest of Sind Muhammad advanced against
Multan and succeeded in capturing it. According to Chachanam, Muhammad himself advanced
to the frontier of Kashmir.
The triumph and career of Muhammad was suddenly cut short by political changes at
home. Since the new Caliph was the sworn enemy of Hajjaj. Muhammad was taken prisoner,
insulted and tortured to death. This development made Jaisimha, the son of Daher, to re-occupy
Bahmansbad. The Caliph sent an army to subdue the rebels. They even parleyed with Jaisimha.
Junaid, the Governor of Sind, defeated Jaisimha and took him prionser. Thus ended the dynasty
of Daher and the independence of Sind.
The comperatively easy conquest of Muhammad, son of Kasim, should not make us
forget the long resistance offered by Sind to the Arabs. Later, Junaid sent several expeditions to
the interior of India. They were signally defeated by the Pratihara kng Nagabhatta - I Pulakesin,
the Chalukya chief of Gujarata, and probably also by Yasovarman. These defeats forced the
Arabs to confine themselves to Sind. The Arabs lost control of Sind during the last years of
Umayyids. The Abbasid Caliphs once again started to re-establish their power in Sind. A claim
was made. The Arabs once again conquered Multan and Kashmir bu the evidence shows that
Lalitadiya thrice defeated the Arabs. It was some time between 800 and 830 A.D. that the Arabs
fully re-conquered the lost areas. It was during this period that the Arabs forces probably
advanced as far as Chittor but the resistance offered by Indian kings probably forced them to
retreat. After the collapse fo the Abbasid power, Sind became virually independent and was
divided into two independent states. Niehter of them could become powerful.
Turkish invasions

2.3.1 Indian invasions of Muhammad Ghori

Several invasions were carried out by Muhammad Ghori, who was an ambitious ruler and
the brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad. Muhammad Ghori wanted to expand his empire for
power and glory. He was the governor and general under the Ghori dynasty. Unlike his elder
brother, who tried to extend the empire towards the west, Muhammad Ghori, wanted to expand
his empire towards the east. There are a series of invasion by Muhammad Ghori which led to the
establishment of Turkish rule in India. Muhammad Ghori first conquered part of Khorasan from
the Seljuks and then began a series of campaigns in India. His first Indian expeditions were the
foundations of Mohammedan rule in India. He reduced Sindh and Multan in the course of two
expeditions and even made an unsuccessful attack on Bhima Deva Chalukya of Gujarat. He had
already got possession of Peshawar and Punjab and the whole of Sindh down to the seacoast.
Thereafter, he acquired and strengthened the fort of Sialkot and lastly he defeated and captured
Khushru Malik, the last member of the house of Ghazni. Thus, Ghori dynasty became the lords
of the Punjab. Muhammad Ghori now possessed the whole line of the Indus River down to the
sea. Then he started strengthening his Indian base and prepared his eastern frontier town of
Sirhind. He had got rid himself of all Muslim rivals, had reorganised his forces and could now
face the Rajputs of Hindustan.
Muhammad Ghori`s preparations alarmed the great Prithviraj Chauhan, the ruler of Delhi
and Ajmer. At that time, the most powerful of Rajputanas were Jai Chandra of Kanauj and
Prithviraj of Delhi but their jealousy and mutual hatred prevented them from offering a united
resistance to the invader. Muhammad Ghori had his first battle with Prithviraj in 1191 AD. In
this first invasion, Ghori confronted Prithviraj at Tarain near Thaneswar. In this battle, the Hindu
chief was assisted by his Rajputs brothers his rival of Kanauj. Ghori himself was wounded in this
battle and had to be carried away from the field. The Muslim army broke away in a panic and
was pursued for forty miles by the winners. The Rajputs besieged Sirhind and, after a long
blockade, got favourable terms from the garrison. Muhammad Ghori returned with even a larger
army in the next year in 1992 AD. He met with the opposition Prithviraj as the head of a large
Rajput alliance and with numerous horses and elephants. But Prithviraj was defeated in this
battle. The fall of Prithviraj was adopted as a tactics by the Mohammedans and made the Hindus
feel suddenly assaulted and they started to think that they were fleeing from the field. Samarsi of
Chitor, the brother-in-law of Prithviraj and known for his wisdom and bravery, and Govind Rai,
his brother, were both slain. Prithviraj himself fled from the field, but was taken back and
miserably executed. The victory was followed by the quick reduction of Samana, Hansi and
other places in the neighbourhood.
Muhammad Ghori then captured Ajmer which was the chief capital of the enemy and gave it
to the charge of a natural son of Prithvi Raj on condition of his paying tribute. He returned to
Ghazni leaving his favourite slave, Qutub-Ud-Din Aibak, in charge of the Conquest of Ajmer.
The latter quickly captured Meerut, Aligarh and Delhi, the last of which he made his head-
quarters. Shortly afterwards he extinguished Hindu rule in Ajmer and annexed it permanently to
the Muslim dominion. The next target of Muhammad Ghori became Kanauj. He attacked Kanauj
in 1193 and perished the Ganges. The king Jai Chandra was defeated near Chandwar. Then
Ghori advanced to Varanasi which was the second capital of the Gaharwars and destroyed its
temples. According to the Mohammedan chroniclers, all the country up to Varanasi was captured
and all the Hindu coins were re struck with the name of the conqueror.
Muhammad Ghori made Qutub-Ud-Din the viceroy of his all his conquests in Hindustan as he
was a very capable ruler. In the meantime, a Turkish-Afghan adventurer in the service of
Muhammad Ghori, by name Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, who had gained fame under
Qutub-Ud-Din, attacked Bihar in 1197 A.D. He rooted out easily the Pala dynasty and collapsed
the Buddhism that had its stronghold there. This expedition continued up to Bengal and attacked
the aged Rai Lakshmana Sena of Gaur at his capital, Nuddea (Navadwipa). Muhammad
destroyed Nuddea, the home of Sanskrit learning, and made Lakhnauti his capital in 1199 AD.
Muhammad Ghori thought of extending his arms to the region of the Himalayas but his attempt
proved futile and he had to return after great loss. Muhammad Ghori desired to expand his
kingdom in the west and invaded Khwarizm with a huge force but he sustained a disastrous
defeat and had to escape with his life. Tajuddin Eldoz, a slave of Ghori who was in charge of
Ghazni, shut its gates against his master. The defeat of Muhammad Ghori assumed
independence. Qutub-Ud-Din remained steadfast and loyal and helped his master in recovering
the leftovers. Muhammad Ghori was deceitfully murdered during his journey from Lahore to
Afghanistan by a party of Khokhars in 1206 A.D. His dynasty could not survive long after him.
The Turkish slaves who had served as generals under him assumed independence. Muhammad
Ghori was less fanatical than Sultan Mahmud. From the beginning he aimed at the building up of
a permanent dominion and tried to consolidate his conquests under regular rule. He brought the
fairest part of Hindustan under Muslim control and was the real creator of the Muslim rule in
India. His work in India turned out to be solid and bore good fruit in the hands of Qutub-Ud-Din
and his successors. Muhammad Ghori charged Qutub-Ud-Din with the duty of extending the
dominion of Islam in India and succeeded in founding a dynasty of rulers in Delhi. Muhammad
Ghori had planned a permanent settlement and his scheme was successful in the hands of his
general and successor, Qutub-Ud-Din.
2.3.2 Indian invasions of Muhammad Ghazni

Ghazni was the capital of a large Turkish kingdom. Aptigin, a Turkish slave rose to become
the ruler of Ghazni. After his death in 963, his slave and son-in-law Subaktigin seized power and
conquered many regions around Ghazni. After his death in 997 his son Mahmud ascended the
throne. His swift and decisive conquests of Khorasan, Sistan and Ghur made him the most
formidable power in that region. He now turned his attention on India. He is usually associated
with 17 invasions in 25 years. His first invasion directed against the frontier towns was in the
years 1000 and his last and most important was at Somnath Temple in 1025.

Various reasons were cited by the historians, which led to the repeated attacks of Mahmud of
Ghazni on India. Mahmud of Ghazni was the first to penetrate deep into India. He was successful
in breaking up the military strength of the Hindus and plundering the wealth of India. But, he did
not establish his empire in India. Mahmud of Ghazni wanted to set up the glory of Islam in India.
Mahmud of Ghazni was not prepared to follow the advice of Ulema and was purely a man of this
world. Many scholars opine that he attacked Hindu temples not only because of his religious zeal
but also he desired to get their wealth. According to many historians the primary motive of the
invasions of Mahmud was not religious but economic. If he troubled the Hindu kings and looted
their wealth, he repeated the same story with the Muslim rulers of Central Asia. He desired to
possess the wealth of India. But his intention to propagate Islam and to establish its glory in India
was evident in his destruction of Hindu temples and images of Hindu gods. Viewing from the
circumstances of his age and the religious zeal of the Turks, who were new converts to Islam, it
was quite possible for Mahmud to possess a religious fanaticism. Mahmud of Ghazni desired
wealth for the sake of wealth. He needed resources to continue his policy of expansion of the
empire. Therefore, the wealth of India was alluring for him and he repeated his attacks to acquire
more and more wealth from India. There was also a political purpose for his frequent invasions
in India. The Ghaznavids and the Hindushahis were combating against each other since the reign
of Alptigin and the Hindushahi rulers had attacked Ghazni thrice. It was essential for Mahmud to
destroy this antagonistic and powerful neighbour. Therefore, he himself pursued an aggressive
policy against it. The success against the Hindushahi kingdom encouraged him to penetrate
deeper into India. Like all other great rulers of his age, Mahmud of Ghazni also desired to earn
fame and recognition by his conquests and victories and that also constituted as one of the
reasons of his attacks on India. Muhammad Ghazni invaded India 17 times.Among his invasions
the invasion of Somanath in 1025 AD was the most notable one.

The Somnath Temple located in the Kathiarwar region of Gujarat is one of the twelve
Jyotiriings (golden lingas) symbols of the God Shiva. It is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Somnath
mean ―The Protector of Moon God‖. It is known as ‗the Shrine Eternal‘, as although the temple
has been destroyed six times it has been rebuilt every single time.The first temple of Somnath is
said to have existed before the beginning of the Christian era. The second temple, built by the
Maitraka kings of Vallabhi in Gujarat, replaced the first one on the same site around 649 AD. In
725 Junayad, the Arab governor of Sind sent his armies to destroy the second temple. The
Pratihara king Nagabhata II constructed the third temple in 815 AD, a large structure of red
sandstone. Mahmud of Ghazni attacked this temple in 1025 AD, and looted it of gems and
precious stones. He then massacred the worshippers and had the temple burnt. It was then that
the famous Shiva lingam of the temple was entirely destroyed. The temple and citadel were
sacked, and most of its defenders massacred; Mahmud personally hammered the temple‘s gilded
lingam to pieces and the stone fragments were carted back to Ghazni, where they were
incorporated into the steps of the city‘s new Jamiah Masjid.

The Indian invasions of Muhammad Ghazni produced some immediate and longterm effects.
Firstly through his conquests the weakness of the Rajputs was excposed. Secondly Punjab
became a part of the empire of Ghazni. Thirdly Mahmud‘s conquests paved the way for the
Muslim conquest of India. More over India‘s enormous wealth was plundered and taken away to
Ghazni. The invasions gave a severe blow to the art of India as several important temples were
destroyed by the invaders. Mahmud‘s invasion played an important role in the spread of Islam in
India. The frequent invasions further weakened the political stability. In every invasion India lost
thousands of soldiers.

2.3.3 Impact of Arab Conquests in Sind

The Arab conquest of Sindh is quite significant in the history of India as well as an
Arabia undoubtedly it did not help in the future establishment of Muslim empire in India.
According to Stanley Lane-Poole, "The Arabs had conquered Sindh but the conquest was only an
episode in the History of India and of Islam, a triumph without results."
According to Sir Wolseley Haig, "Of the Arab conquest of Sindh, there is nothing more
to be said. It was a mere episode in the History of India and affected only a small portion of the
fringe of that vast country. It introduced into one frontier tract the religion which was destined to
dominate the greater part of India for nearly five centuries, but it had none of the far-reaching
effects attributed to it by Tod in the Annals of Rajasthan.
Mohammad-bin-Quasim never penetrated to Chitor in the heart of Rajputana; the Caliph
Walid First did not 'render tributary all that part of India on this side of the Ganges'; the invader
was never on the eve of carrying the war against Raja Harchund of Kanauj much less did he
actually prosecute it; If Harun-ur-Rashid gave to his second son, al-Ma'-mun, 'Khorasan,
Zabullisthan, Cabulisthan, Sindh and Hindusthan', he bestowed on him at least one country
which was not his to give; nor was the whole of Northern India, as Tod maintains, convulsed by
the invasion of the Arabs.
When the Arabs settled in Sindh, they were dazzled by the ability of the Indians. Instead
of influencing them, they were themselves influenced by them. The Arab scholars sat at the feet
of the Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and learnt from them philosophy, astronomy,
mathematics, medicine, chemistry, etc., and later on transmitted the same to Europe. It is
contended that the numerical figures which the Europeans learnt from the Arabs were originally
learnt from the Indians.
 The Arabic name for figure, Hindsa, points out to its Indian origin. During the Khilafat of
Mansur in the 8th century A.D., Arab scholars went from India to Baghdad and they carried with
them the Brahma Sidhanta and Khanda-Khandvaka of Brahma Gupta and those were translated
into Arabic with the help of Indian scholars.
The Arabs also learnt from them the first principles of scientific astronomy. Hindu
learning also was encouraged by the ministerial family of Barmaks during the Khilafat of Harun
from 786 to 808 A.D. They invited Hindu scholars to Baghdad and asked them to translate
Sanskrit books on medicine, philosophy, astrology etc., into Arabic. They also put the Hindu
physicians in charge of their hospitals.
According to Havell, from a political point of view, Arab conquest of Sindh was a
comparatively insignificant event but its importance on account of its effect upon the whole
culture of Islam was great. For the first time, the Nomads of the Arabian Desert found
themselves in the holy land of the Aryans in close contact with Indo-Aiyan civilization, which
from all points of view politically, economically and intellectually had reached a far higher plane
than their own.
To the poetic imagination of the Arab tribesmen, India seemed a land of wonders. In all
the arts of peace, India then stood at the pinnacle of the greatness. The Arabs were charmed by
the skill of the Indian musicians and the cunning of the Hindu painter. The dome of the temple
Mandapam became the dome of the Muslim mosque and tomb. The simplified symbolism of
Muslim ritual was all borrowed from India. The pointed arc of the prayer carpet and mihrab was
a symbolic arc of the Buddhist and Hindu shrines.
The cathedral mosques of the Muslim royalty were like the Vishnu temple. The entrances
of the mosque corresponded to the temple Gopuram and gates of the Indian villages. The Minars
of the Mosques were adaptations of the Indian towers of victory. Havell points out that in Sindh,
the Arab Shaikhs had their first practical lessons in Indo-Aryan statecraft under the guidance of
their Brahman officials. They learnt to adapt their own primitive patriarchal policy to the
complicated problems of the highly organised systematic government evolved by centuries of
Aryan's imperial rule.
The court language, etiquette and literary accomplishments were borrowed from the
Iranian branch of Aryan civilisation. All these scientific elements which made the Arabs famous
in Europe were borrowed directly from India. Islam was able to tap the inexhaustible resources
of India, spiritual and material and became the agent for their distribution over the whole of
Europe. The Indian Pandits brought to Baghdad the works of Brahmputra and those were
translated into Arabic. In the palmy days of the great Harun, the influence of Indian scholars was
supreme at the Baghdad court.
Hindu physicians were brought to Baghdad to organise hospitals and medical schools.
Hindu scholars translated Sanskrit works into Arabic. The Arabs also went to Indian universities
for acquiring knowledge. Havell points out that it was India and not Greece that taught Islam in
the impression able years of its youth formed its philosophy and esoteric religious ideals and
inspired its most characteristic expression in literature, art and architecture. The Arabs never won
for themselves a permanent political footing in India nor did the Western School of Islam ever
take any strong hold upon the mentality or religious feeling of the Indian Muslims.
It is wrong to maintain that the Arab conquest of Sindh had absolutely no effect on India.
It cannot be denied that the Arab conquest of Sindh showed the seed of Islam in India. A large
number of persons in Sindh were converted to Islam. The footing got by Islam in Sindh proved
to be permanent. The legacy of the Arab conquest of Sindh lies in the "debris of ancient
buildings which proclaimed to the world the vandalism of the destroyer or a few settlements of a
few Muslim families in Sindh as the memorial to Arab conquest of Sindh."_
A question has been raised whether the Arab invasion of Sindh was inspired by religion
or not. The view of Dr. Tarachand is that it was not. In support of his view, he points out that a
number of prominent and influential Hindus favoured Quasim. Among them were Sisakar, the
Minister of Dahir, Moka Bisaya, chief of a tribe, Ladi, Dahir's queen, who married Quasim after
her husband's death and actually induced the besieged Hindus of Bahmanabad to surrender. On
the other side, Allafi, an Arab Commander of Arab horsemen, fought on the side of Dahir and
was his advisor. No Hindu rule came forward to help Dahir against the Arabs. His son also
appealed for help to his brother and nephews and not to the Hindu chiefs of the country.
The Hindu cheifs surrendered in many cases without resistance merely on the assurance
that they will be treated kindly. The Hindu defenders submitted and were not molested. The only
exceptions were men bearing arms. Quasim took Sisakar into his confidence and told him all his
secrets. He relied upon Moka Bisaya to lead foraging parties against Jaisiya. He appointed
Kaksa, a cousin of Dahir, as his Vazier with precedence over all Muslim nobles and army
commanders. All these facts show that the invasion of Sindh was not a religious crusade.
 The history of Sindh shows that the factor of religion has been exaggerated. It is stated in
Chach Namah and Futuh at Buldan of ATBH adhuri that Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq, who had
dispatched Quasim had a balance sheet of the war prepared which showed that 60,000 silver
Dirhems was the expenditure and 120,000 Dirhems was the income from the campaign. The
expedition was as much a business enterprise as a venture for the expansion of the empire.
2.4 Sultanate of Delhi

The period from 1206 to 1526 is the period of the Sultanate. Except the Lodis all other
dynasties belonged to Turkish origin. The Lodis were Afghans. The period from 1206 to 1290
was the period of the Slave Dynasty. There were five dynasties under the Delhi Sultanate. The
following are the founders of these dynasties: (a) Slave dynasty- Qutb-ud-din- Aibak (b) Khilji
dynasty- Jalal-ud-din- Khilji (c) Tughlaq dynasty- Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq (d) Sayyid dynasty-
Khizir Khan Sayyid (e) Lodi dynasty- Bahlol Lodi.

All the rulers of the slave dynasty were either slaves or the descendents of slves once in their
life. That is why their dynasty was called Slave dynasty. But none of them were slaves at the
time of their accession to the throne. So they were called Mameluk sultans of Delhi. Mameluk
was a slave who was born of free parents. The Arabic meaning of the word Mamluk is ―owned‖.
Mamluk dynasty (1206–90)
First ruler of Mamluk dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-1211). He reigned only for
four years and died in 1210 due to falling from horse while playing Chaugan. He was
called Lakha Baksh Sultan due to his generosity. He laid the foundation of Qutub Minar, named
after Sufi saint Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki and also built Quvvat-ul-Islam mosque.
Second ruler of Mamluk dynasty was Iltutmish (1211-1236), a son-in-law of Qutub-ud-
din. He belonged to Ilabari tribe so some people called Slave dynasty as Ilabari dynasty also. He
did some experiments in Indian Administration. During his reign, the Ilabari elite
called Chahalgani or Chalisa remained dominant in administration. Some of the notable points
about his reign are as follows:
During Iltutumish reign, Mongols attacked under Chengez Khan. His eyes were set on
west, so he returned quickly from Punjab towards Sindh and Multan. He built Hauz Shamshi in
Delhi, completed the Qutub Minar works and also built India‘s first Islamic Mausoleum Sultan
Garhi in Delhi to bury his son Nasiru’d-Din Mahmud. He organized iqta system of land revenue
on salary basis. This system underwent changes in later times, which we would discuss later.He
introduced two coins viz. Silver Tanka and Copper Jital. The Silver Tanka was weighing 175
grams. Later Balban issued Gold Tankas of same weight. Prior to these, the invaders had issued
cons engraved with Sanskrit characters. For example, Mohammad Ghori issued coins with seated
Lakshmi in imitation to the Gahadwals. Iltutmish became the first ruler to issue Arabic coins in
India. He was also the first Sultan to receive the investiture of ―Sovereign Sultan of Delhi‖ from
the Caliph of Baghdad. This investiture legitimized his rule.
The third ruler of Maluk dynasty was Raziya Sultan, the military trained daughter of
Iltutmish. By that time, the Chalagani had become very dominant and she could hold for only
three and half years. She lost her life to Jats of modern Haryana.
The fourth ruler was Balban (1266-1287) who took the advantage of feebleness of
successors of Iltutmish and become top noble of the Chahalgani. However, once he became
Sultan, he mercilessly executed the other nobles thus putting an end to the Chahalgani
dominance. He also subdued the Mewatis by clearing forests and executing lakhs of Mewatis. He
also subdued the dacoits of Doab. He ruled for 21 years as per the practical requirements of 13th
century India.
The successor of Balban was his grandson Kaikubad, a young boy of 17 years, who
debauched himself soon. He was killed by Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji aka Malik Firuz. Thus slave
dynasty was put to an end and Delhi slipped in hands of Khilji dynasty.
The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)
The founder of this dynasty was Jalauddin Khilji aka. Malik Firuz, a general of the
Slaves. Kaikubad had appointed him at Baran but when he knew about the debauchery of
Kaikubad, he marched to Delhi and got the sultan and also his three years old son killed. He sat
on throne of Delhi at the age of 70 years. During his time, Mongol invaders Halaku and Ulugh
Khan invaded but the old sultan avoided war with them. He made peace with Ulugh Khan by
giving him his daughter.
Jalauddin was assassinated by his nephew Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316) who became the
second Sultan of Khilji dynasty. He was illiterate but a great commander who became the first
Muslim invader to cross Vindhyas, Satpuras and Narmada River to conquer Deccan. Alauddin
faced most frequent Mongol attacks (under Duwa Khan, Saldi, Kutlugh Khwaja, Targhi khan
etc.). He was able to deter the Mongols. He built Siri fort his capital to save himself from
Mongols. Due to the repeated invasions, horde of nomadic Mongols started staying near Delhi
and accepted Islam. They were called New Muslims. The sultan sensed a conspiracy in New
Muslims and ordered to eliminate all of them in one day. This led to massacre of 40,000 Mongol
mans in one day. The women and children were thrown into slavery. Alauddin also sent a strong
army to Kandhar, Ghazni and Kabul to teach lesson to Mongols. After this, no Mongol happened
during his life time. He conquered the Ranthambore in 1301 with the help of a Rajput traitor
Ranmal and seized Chittor in 1303. Seize of Chittor was followed by self-immolation by its
queen Padmini and other ladies of the fort. Chittor was renamed as Khijrabad after Alauddin‘s
son Khijra Khan. He sent Malik Kafur to win over Deccan. Malik Kafur was able to march up to
Rameshwaram and build a mosque there.
Alauddin died in 1316 and was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah. Like his father, he
also had a beautiful Pariah from Gujarat called Khusru Khan, a Hindu castrato and covert.
Mubarak Shah and entire Khilji dynasty was eliminated by Khusru Khan, who sat on the throne
as Sultan Nasiruddin. He in turn was killed by Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq, thus Delhi slipped into
hands of Tughlaq dynasty.
Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413)
The first ruler of Tughlaq dynasty was Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq (1321-1325) aka Ghazi
Malik. He was succeeded by Mohammad Bin Tughlaq in 1325. He was a man of ideas and
famous for his foolish adventures. His expeditions to Khurasan and China failed and reduced
him to penury. To raise the revenues, he increased taxes in doab region which in turn reduced
farmers to beggars. His idea to shift capital to Daultabad to keep control over wealthy Deccan
backfired. When his wisdom strikes back, he abolished all the oppressive taxes and sets up a
Department of Agriculture (Diwan-i-Kohi) and established a Famine Code to relive victims of
famine.
To improve monetary conditions, he took the idea of paper money issued in China and
allowed Copper and Brass coins at par with Silver Tanka. However, this experiment also
backfired because of great coin piracy by artisans. The result was the public become rich and
government became poor. Ultimately, he repealed the edict of these token coins and gave order
to bring copper coins to treasury and exchange them with silver / gold. Due to these experiments
of Sultan, the discontent grew among people and revolts started appearing in sultanate.
 In 1351 Mohammad bin Tughlaq died and was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah
Tughlaq, who ruled as third Tughlaq Sultan from 1351 to 1388 AD. Firozshah Tughlaq was half
Muslim {his mother was a Hindu}. To prove himself equal to pure Muslims, he ruled strictly as
per Shariat. He abolished all taxes {such as Octroi} which were not as per Shariat; and imposed
Jaziya on Hindus. He pulled down the temples, burnt a Brahmin alive for resisting to embrace
Islam, and imposed water tax on agricultural land irrigated from state canals.
His reign is also known for plenty of public works. He established cities such as
Firuzshah Kotla (Delhi), Hisar, Jaunpur (West Bengal), Fatahabad, Firozabad etc. He moved one
of the Asokan pillars from its original place and erected it in Delhi. To support Hissar,
he constructed a Double System of Canals from Yamuna to Sutlej (called rajwahas in the Indo-
Persian historical texts). This canal was later repaired during times of Akbar. Firuzshah did close
to 845 public works during his regime.
Firuzshah was gentle towards peasantry. He had destroyed all records of farmer debts
ceremoniously to give clean chit to farmers. This was one of the major reasons that he saw no
major revolt in 32 years of reign. Death of Firuzshah brought an end to Turkish Sultans of Delhi.
His successors were killed one by one and none could sustain the throne.
In 1398, Timur attacked India and returned with thousands of slaves and 90 elephants laden with
treasure. Delhi lost its ascendency and charm for many decades thereafter.
Sayyid dynasty (1414–51)
After a series of successions, the Tughlaq dynasty ended. In 1414, Khijr Khan founded
Sayyid dynasty by taking over Delhi as a deputy of Timur in India. Four kings of this dynasty
remained in perpetual struggle to retain control. The last ruler of this dynasty Alauddin Alam
Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne in favour of Bahlol Lodi. The Timur invasion, followed by
confusion in Delhi over control and absence of a strong ruler resulted in loss of hegemony of
Delhi Sultanate over other parts of India during entire 15th century. India was disintegrated into
small states and petty rulers, some of which were not larger than 20 or 30 miles. This was time of
rise of Rajput chieftains in Rajputana, Bahmani Kingdom, Vijaynagar Kingdom in Karnataka
etc.
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)
Lodi Afghans tried to gain the old power and pomp of Delhi but could not succeed. The
first ruler of this dynasty was Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). He was leader of the Lodi Afghan tribes
holding the fiefdom at Sirhind. He was invited by last Sayyid ruler Alauddin Alam Shah to take
the throne and control the fighting nobles. After this, Alauddin Alam Shah retired to Badun to
die in peace. Bahlol Lodhi was succeeded in 1489 by his son Sikandar Lodi who was again a half
Muslim like Firuzshah Tughlaq. He launched campaigns to regain the old supremacy of Delhi
and subdued the Rajas of Bihar, Bengal, Dholpur, Chanderi, Gwalior, Awadh, Tirhut,
Bundelkhand etc. In 1503, he established city of Agra and transferred his capital there. His
religious policy was akin to Firuzshah Tughalq, partly due to his compulsion to prove that he
was equal to pure Muslims. He pulled down Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot, burnt Hindus alive
to terrorise them to adopt Islam, and imposed Jaziya on infidels.
Sikandar died in 1517 and was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi, who was the last
Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. Ibrahim (1517-1526) did not know how to win friends. He was so
much obsessed with royal prerogative that he forced his nobles to stand motionless with folded
hands in his court. When discontent grew, he tried to subdue it by killing some of the nobles.
One of his uncles Daulat Khan Lodi fled to Kabul and invited Babur to invade India. In Mewar, a
new power under Rana Sanga was on its zenith. Under these circumstances Babur attacked India
and closed the chapter of Delhi Sultanate.
2.4.1 Sultanate Polity
Administration of the Delhi Sultanate was based on the following of the laws of the
Shariat or the laws of Islam. All Muslim rulers were governed by it and had to obey its laws.
Therefore the policy of the Delhi Sultanate was largely influenced by their religion.
Idea of Kingship
The Turkish Sultans in India declared themselves Lieutenant of the faithfuli.e. of the
Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad and included his name in Khutba, it did not mean that the Caliph
became the legal ruler. The Caliph had only a moral position. Political, legal and military
authorities were vested in the Sultan. He was responsible for administration and was also the
commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law
and justice. No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus, military strength
was the main factor in succession to the throne. With the exceptions Alauddin Khalji and
Mubarak Shah Khalji, all other sultans styled themselves as duputies of Caliph with the title such
as Nasir-i-amir Ur Momin -Assistant of the leader of the faithful or Yamin- ul -Khalifa i.e. the
Right hand man of Caliph.
Central Administration
The sultanate of Delhi was a police state, whose strength or weakness depended exclusively on
the military powers and personality of its depostic sultan. The sultan was assisted in the
discharge of his function by a number of dignitaries. To begin with the sultans of the slave
dynasty constituted four ministers at the top level.
The central administration of the Delhi Sultanate consisted of the office of the Sultan and
ministers like the naib, the vazir, Diwani-i-risalat, Dabir-i-khas, Ariz-i-mumalik, Sadr-us-Sudur,
Qazi-ul-quzat and Barid-i-mumalika. The sultan was the chief law-giver and the final court of
appeal. He was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He had a council of trusted
advisers, called majlis-i-khaiwat which he consulted on important occasions but he was not
bound to accept its decision.
The vazir was the Prime Minister of the state and headed the financial department. Ariz-i-
mumalik was the head of the department of military. Diwani-i-risalat was the minister of foreign
affairs and Sadr-us-Sudur was the head of the religious department.
Provincial Administration
The Empire was divided into provinces. They were called Iqtas. The head of the Iqta was
addressed by various names such as Naib Sultan, Nazim, Muqti or Wali. The number of Iqtas
was not fixed and there was no uniformity in their administration. The Iqtas were divided into
smaller units called shiqqs, which were put under shiqqdars. The shiqqs were further divided into
parganas. The chaudhari was the head of a pargana. The village was the smallest unit of
administration.
The sultanate was military dictatorship; it owed its genesis to the military victory of the
Turks over the Indian rulers in the 12th and 13th centuries and its strength and stability depended
primarily on its strong and efficient army. The army organization of the sultans was based on
feudal principles which carried all the inherent defects of the system with it. Local administration
was vague and undefined and basically traditional system.
Local administration was vague and undefined and basically traditional system. The
provinces were divided into 6 parts headed by shiqdars with main functions to maintain law and
order and protect people against oppression of zamindars and had to perform military obligation.
The shiqs were further divided into parganas and had different officials.
Sultanate Society
During the reign of the Delhi Sultanate, the society was divided into different sections.
After the advent of the Muslims, the society constituted of the foreign Muslims, the Indian
Muslims and the Hindus. Among them, foreign Muslims constituted the ruling class. The Hindus
also formed the part of the society at that period and were divided among themselves on the basis
of castes. The caste-system of the Hindus affected the Muslims, especially the Indian Muslims.
They continued to maintain divisions among themselves on the basis of their previous castes.
The slave system was prevalent among the Muslims and the Hindus and slaves were sold and
purchased in open market. The slaves were treated well though their property and lives were the
property of their masters. The slaves of the Muslims were better off as compared to the slaves of
the Hindus.
The Sultans and nobles kept slaves in huge numbers, provided education and gave them
training and opportunity to rise in their lives so that many of them rose to the position of
prominence in the state. The women in the Hindu society enjoyed respect in the family and
participated in the religious ceremonies. They received education and many of them had acquired
scholarly fame. Yet, in general their status had deteriorated in the society and they suffered from
many social evils. There was no widow remarriage. Sati system existed. The Purdah system and
child marriages adversely affected the education and position of women in the society. Devadasi
system was another social evil which was prevalent among the Hindus. Muslim women did not
enjoy a respectable status in the society. Polygamy was extensively prevalent among the
Muslims.
Generally the Hindus were vegetarians and the Muslims were non vegetarians. Among
the Muslims, the Sufis, or the people who were under their influence avoided eating meat.There
was a marked progress in the use of clothing and ornaments. The people engaged themselves in
all sorts of entertainments. Different sports such as hunting, duels among men, fighting among
animals, horse-polo etc. were their usual entertainments. Fairs and religious festivals were also
common among both Hindus and the Muslims.
2.4.2 Sultanate Economy
Economic condition of India was affluent under the reign of the Delhi Sultanate. In fact
the enormous wealth tempted Mahmud of Ghazni to invade India several times and each time he
got immense treasure from here. Malik Kafur, during the reign of Ala -ud -din Khilji, brought so
much wealth in plunder from south India that the value of currency fell down in the north. The
Sultans, the rulers of the independent provincial kingdoms and the nobles possessed vast wealth
and lived a life of luxury and pleasure. There are many beautiful mosques, palaces, forts and
monuments which were built during this period and this could not have been possible without the
economic prosperity of the country.
Iqta System
Iqtadari System was a combined mechanism of exploring tax and distribution of these
revenues to the ruling class. The term Iqtadari system was coined by Nizamul Mulk to maintain
smooth administration of the Abbassid Empire. The sultans of Delhi Sultanate like Balban,
Iltutmish, Allauddin Khilji etc effectively used the Iqtadari system for their centralization of
power. The Iqtadari system did not confer any ownership in land and it was subject to transfer.
The iqtadar had two functions (a) to collect the revenues and distribution among the soldiers (b)
It was a unique blend of expansion and consolidation.
The Iqtas were of 4 types:
1. Iqta- It was administrative cum military grants
2. Iqta-i-Tamlik- Iqta for collection of revenue
3. Iqta-i-Istighatal-An Iqta of stipends
4. Iqta-i-Waqf-Iqta for charitable purposes.
The iqta was a territorial assignment and its holder was called the muqti or the wali. The
muqti was entitled to collect in proper manner t& land tax and other taxes due to the Sultan; he
had no further claims on the person, women and children, land or other possessions of the
cultivators. The muqti had certain obligations to the Sultan the chief being the maintenance of
troops and furnishing them at call to the Sultan. The iqta was a transferable charge and the
transfers of iqtas were frequent.
Revenue system
The territory whose revenues were directly collected for the Sultan's own treasury was
designated as khaIisa. lltutmish is credited for standardizing the coinage of the Delhi Sultanate.
The main coins were tanka and jital but some smaller currencies were also in circulation.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a coin of copper and brass alloy and reckoned it at the value
of a silver tanka. These coins for the first time carried an inscription in Persian.
Hindus occupied an important role in foreign, as in domestic, trade, although foreign
Muslim merchants, known as khurasani, also had a large share of it. An organized class of
brokers handled the business on the coast and inside the country. The imports consisted mainly
of certain luxury items for the upper classes, and a general supply of all kinds of horses and
mules, in which India was deficient.
The exports included large quantities of food-grains and cloth. Among the agricultural
products were wheat, millet, rice, pulses, oilseeds, scents, medicinal herbs, and sugar. Cotton
cloth and other textiles were especially important items of export, particularly to Southeast Asia
and East Africa, although some reached Europe.
Many industries of considerable size and importance developed during this period, the
most important of which were textiles, various items of metal work, sugar, indigo, and in certain
localities, paper.
These industries were mainly privately owned, but the government equipped and
managed large-scale karkhanas, or factories, for supplying its requirements. The royal factories
at Delhi sometimes employed as many as four thousand weavers for silk alone.
Some major towns mentioned in the contemporary sources are Delhi, Multan, Anhilwara
(Patan), Cambay, Kara, Lakhnauti and Daulatabad. Lahore was a big town but decayed after the
Mongol invasion in the 13th century. Two types of merchants are mentioned in the sources of the
Delhi Sultanate: the Karwanis or nayaks and Multanis.
Economic Reforms of Alauddin Khilji (Market Reforms)
His economic reforms were hailed as the marvel of medieval times. The external danger
from Mongols and the internal danger of rebellions compelled him to initiate reforms. Firstly he
analysed the causes of the dangers as (a) neglect of state affairs by the Sultan(b) excessive use of
wine (c) intimate relations among nobles (d) abundance of wealth.
The economic measures adopted by him include the following: (a) He attacked private
property. Endowments and inams were confiscated (b) He employed an efficient body of spies to
report to him all state matters( c) the use of liquor was prohibited (d) The Sultan forbade the
social gatherings of the nobles. He created a new department known as Diwan-i-Mustakhraj to
enquire into the revenue arears and to collect them. The two aspects of Alauddin's economic
reforms were: (a) Reorganization of the land-revenue system and (b) Control of the market price
of the articles of daily use.
Alauddin's land-revenue reforms aimed at establishing direct relationship between state
and the peasants. Also he strove (tried) for increasing the income of the state. The steps taken by
him are the following: (a) regulated the prices of grain cloth other necessities of life. (b) fixed
the prices of these basic commodities far below the usual market rates (c) fought inflation and
reduced the cost of living. The Reasons for market regulations are the following: (a) maintenance
of huge permanent army without unduly straining the resources of the state. (b) to cheapen the
cost of the maintenance of his powerful military establishment (c) to achieve the economic
stability to get rid of social injustice.
The steps taken by him are the following: (a) raised large stocks of grain by collecting its
revenue in kind from khalisah lands and from the territories held by vassals (b) restriction on
purchase of grain from the tillers of soil except for few permitted merchants (c) all merchants in
delhi were required to register themselves in the office of shana-i-mandi (d) advances were
given to those merchants who did not possess enough capital of their own (e ) the merchants had
to sell all commodities at the fixed rates and no deviation was permitted and stood for the
elimination of dalal/middle man.
The strict rules imposed by him for ensuring the success of market reforms are the following:
(a) all kinds of speculation and black marketing were rigorously put down (b) merchants were
not to hoard grains or other articles, but must sell them at demand (c) notable persons, nobles,
officers and other well to do people had to get permits from the officer of sahan-i-mandi, before
purchasing costly articles from market (d) if merchant failed to carry out orders and sold
commodity underweight, the same amount of flesh was cut off from his body.
The strict rules imposed by him for ensuring the success of market reforms are the following:
(a) all kinds of speculation and black marketing were rigorously put down (b) merchants were
not to hoard grains or other articles, but must sell them at demand (c) notable persons, nobles,
officers and other well to do people had to get permits from the officer of sahan-i-mandi, before
purchasing costly articles from market (d) if merchant failed to carry out orders and sold
commodity underweight, the same amount of flesh was cut off from his body.
 The following are the results of the market regulations: (a) corn, cloth and other things
became very cheap (b) prices of horses, cattle, maid servants and slaves fell considerably (c) the
cost of living remained cheap and almost constant (d) the prices fixed for once were never
altered during his rule of 14 years.
Agriculture
Agriculture was a major occupation at that time. Land was the source of production. Produce
was generally sufficient. The village was a self-sufficient unit. The husbandman took to the
tilling and harvesting of crops, the women folk lend their hands to various functions like taking
care of the animals; the carpenters made implements; the blacksmiths supplied the iron parts of
the implements; the potters made the household utensils; the cobblers mended or made the shoes
and the plough harness and the priest performed the marriage rites and other ceremonies. There
were subsidiary functions of the money-lender, the washerman, the sweeper, the cow-herd and
the barber. Land was the pivot around which the whole village life revolved. The chief crops
were pulses, wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute and cotton and many more. Medicinal herbs, spices
were also grown and exported to a certain extent. Some new crops like tobacco, tea and coffee
were also introduced. Among the fruits there were grapes, dates, plantains, apples, oranges, and
jack-fruits. Production was for local consumption. Some people lived on the income derived
from industries for which raw materials could be imported. The towns served as centers of
distribution of agricultural products and industrial goods. The state took a large share of the
produce in kind.
Industries
There were village and cottage industries. The labour employed was the family members; the
technique was conservative. There were industries of sugar, scents and spirits. Weaving and
spinning of cotton were the cottage industries during that period. A small-arm making industry
was also working in full swing that time. There were also goldsmiths and silversmiths. There
were no factories or big enterprises. The Sultans took a hand in building up big enterprises
known as the 'Karkhanas.' Craftsmen were employed under the direct supervision of officials to
manufacture fashionable articles. Textile industry was the biggest industry at that time. The
textiles included cotton cloth, woollen and silks. Allied industries of embroidery, gold thread
work and dyeing were also there. Some quantities were exported by Bengal and Gujarat. The
famous centers of cloth manufacture were Deogir and Maha Devanagari in the Deccan, Delhi in
the North, Sonargaon and Dacca in Bengal.
Trade and Commerce
Inland and foreign trade flourished. As for the internal trade we had the various classes of
merchants and shop-keepers. The Gujaratis of the North, the Chettis of the South and the
Banjaras of Rajputana were the main traders. Bigger deals in commodities were made in
'mandis.' The Banjaras carried on the business of conveying agricultural and other products from
one part of the country to another. The native bankers used to give loans and receive deposits.
The chief articles of import were silks, velvets, embroidered stuff, horses, guns, gun-powder, and
some precious metals. The chief items of export were grain, cotton, precious stones, indigo,
hides, opium, spices and sugar. The countries affected by India in commerce were Iraq, Persia,
Egypt, East Africa, Malaya, Java, Sumatra, China, Central Asia and Afghanistan.
Tax system
The Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate collected five categories of taxes which fall under the
economic system of the empire. The taxes are Ushr, Kharaj, Khams, Jizya and Zakat. Besides,
there were also other taxes. The main items of expenditure were expenses on the maintenance of
the army, salaries of the civil officers and the personal expenditure of the Sultan and his palace.
 Module-4
Deccan and South India in the Medieval Period

Deccan & the South: (a) Bhakti movement (b) Chola imperialism – Local self government (c)
Bahmani & Vijayanagar – Polity—Society-- Economy (d) Major temples – (e) Temple
Architecture – Pallavas, Chalukyas, Cholas.

4.1 Introduction

Contemporary to the history of North India that witnessed several dynasties invasions
reorganization and the consolidation there existed beyond the Vindhyas and the Deccan Plateau the
home land of the Dravidians or Dakshinapath. This part of the country also witnessed the rule by
various dynasties many of whom ventured into the northern boundaries thus resulting in the study
of the Indian history without a study of the South Indian dynasties.
The term South India refers to that parts of India South of the Narmada beyond the
Vindhya and Satpura. An extensive forest called Mahankantra lay between the two parts of the
mainland and was less ventured into by Early Aryans. The first Aryan establishment is credited to
Sage Agasthya who is said to have spread the Aryan religion, language. This was followed by
migrations to Dandkaranya (Maharashtra) Vidarbh (Berar) and indeed this affected other parts of
the South. The Andhras had established a strong kingdom in the Deccan. After the decline of the
Andhras petty kingdom was under the influence of the Guptas. This was under the influence of the
Guptas. Chal;ukyas, Vakatakas, Rashtrakutas, Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras, the empire of
Bahmanis and the Vijayanagar empire are the principal dynasties of medieval South India.
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Medieval Bhakti Movement
It would appear that the Hindu religious leaders were apprehensive of the growing
popularity of the Jains and the Buddhists. This led to the intemperate language and the
determined propagandist methods adopted by the leaders of the Bhakti movements. Though the
early Alvars of the 6th century, as the Vaishnavite men of the religion were called, were more
tolerant, from the 7th century onwards both the Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava alvars
adopted an attitude of stern hostility towards Jainism and Buddhism.
The Bhakti Movement was essentially founded in South India and later spread to the
North during the late medieval period. This Movement itself is a historical-spiritual phenomenon
that crystallized in South India during Late Antiquity. It was spearheaded by devotional mystics
(later revered as Hindu saints) who extolled devotion and love to God as the chief means of
spiritual perfection. The Bhakti movement in South India was spearheaded by the sixty-three
Nayanars (Shaivite devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavaite devotees), who disregarded
the austerities preached by Jainism and Buddhism but instead preached personal devotion to God
as a means of salvation. These saints, some of whom were also women, spoke and wrote in local
languages like Tamil and Telugu and travelled widely to spread their message of love and
devotion to everyone, irrespective of caste, colour and creed.
South India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti is the twelve Alvars (also, Aazhvaars, Aazhwaars)
and sixty-three Nayanmars (also Nayanars, Naayanars, Naayanmaars). They were all great
devotees of the Lord most of whom came from the Tamil region. Of these Appar, Sambandar
and Sundarar were authors of the Tevaram, a collection of standard Saivite canonical literature.
Manikkavachakar of the 9th and perhaps early 10th century was the fourth of this illustratious
group of Saiva bhakti-ites. Kannappa nayanar karaikkal ammai, kochchenger cholan and few
others listed among the Saiva saints belonged to pre 6th century while the rest lived between then
and the late 8th century.
Among the Vaishnavites there were twelve Alvars of whom Pey, Bhudam and Poygai
called Mudal Alvars lived in the 6th century and are supposed to have been contemporaries.
Nammalvar considered by Vaishnavas, as the greatest among the Alvars was a great and true
mystic and the author of a thousand verses collectively called Tirywaymozhi; he was Velala
saint. His hymns are treated as equal in spiritual merit to the Vedic hymns. Of the alvars
perialvar andak and kulasekhara of kerala were among the latest chronologically. Tirumangai
mannan, a robber chief turned devotee, composed the largest number of verses in the
Nalayariram i.e, the collection of 4000 devotional hymns sung by the twelve Alvars.
The Bhakti movement especially its Saivite wing set out to achieve two purposes and
they were equally onerous. The first was to stem a heretical tide of the mass popularity of
Jainism and Buddhism and to reclaim the people to sort of Hindu orthodoxy. The second was to
convert the kalamukhas kapalikas pasupatas and a variety of other primitive sects, which exulted
in violent orgies and indulged in barbarous superstition, which did not exclude a belief in and
practice of human sacrifice and dealing in crematorial relics. The Mattavilasa Prahansana of
Mahendravaramna I and some allusions in the periyapurnama of Sekkilar point to this situation.
So the twin concerns of the Bhakti-ites were to prevent external heresy and internal religious
disorders so that a reformation and Counter Reformation were simultaneously undertaken. By
the end of the 9th century at least by the time of andal of srivilliputtur and Manikavachakar the
famous author of the reputed tiruvachakam , the situation has been completely redeemed i.e.
from the point of view of Bhakti leaders; this qualification is needed because we know that
primitive Saivism though deprived of its more objectionable features was still popular in some
quarters, and this is shown by its prevalence as late as the reign of Rajendra I (Chola) in
Tiruvorriyur and other religious centres. The followers of the Saktha religion (worship of Shakti
female of generative energy) at time degenerated. But Shaktism of a sort has persisted even in
high quaters like a Adi Sankara himself.
In the development of religion in the Tamil country in particular the following tendency
is noticeable and is to be remembered. A considerable segment of this development may be
described as an attempt on the part of continuously reforming Hinduism to adjust itself to the
changing situation created by the Jainas and Buddhist- popularity that waxed and waned by
turns.
The Hindu bhakti movement reached its culmination with the collection and editus of the
Vaishnava and Saiva hymns by Nathamuni and Nambiander Nambi respectively in the late 10th
and 11th centuries. The standardization of the canonical texts was followed by other texts being
added to the corpus as part of the total. But the Bhakti movement, which obviously was a
departure from the sacrificial Vedic religion, or the intellectual Upanishadic pursuits,
embarrassed the Hindu revivalists and so it became incumbent on their part to link the devotional
hymns to the Vedic tradition. Hence Ramanuja in his Sri Bhasya and Madhva in his commentary
on the Brahmasutras compromised Bhakti with Vedas and created Vaishnavite theism. Sankara
of kaladi in Kerala, who lived earlier in the 8th century (788 to be precise) along with Kumarila
Bhatta recreated the ancient Vedic brahmanical thought and established Smartaism to which all
the non Vaishnava Brahmins are now affiliated. He preached a philosophical monism. He
promotes the great doctrine of maya or illusion which to the Hindu mind was so alluring. There
were two major streams to Tamil bhakti -- the Alvars and Nayanars -- who expressed their
devotion to Vishnu and Shiva respectively. Tradition tells us about the names and careers of
some important saints.
In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new
orientation to Hinduism. His doctrine of Advaita or Monism was too abstract to appeal to the
common man. Moreover, there was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman
(God without attributes) with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).
In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai,
preached Visishtadvaita. According to RamanujaGod is Sagunabrahman. The creative process
and all the objects in creation are real but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya. Therefore,
God, soul, matter are real. But God is inner substance and the rest are his attributes. He also
advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God. He invited the downtrodden to
Vaishnavism. In the thirteenth century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or
dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma. According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but
a reality. God, soul, matter are unique in nature. Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya were also other
preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region.
The Alvars
The term 'Alvar' means ‗one who is immersed in God‘. The bhakti of the first three
Alvars -- Poykai, Putam and Pey -- was a simple devotion, a rendering of divine grace after they
experienced Vishnu‘s presence while sheltering from a storm. Later, they came to be worshipped
as amshas or incarnations of Vishnu. Periyalvar was born as Vishnuchittan, an untutored
brahmana who served Vishnu‘s temple at Puduvai. Legend has it, that transformed by divine
grace, he was able to prove the superiority of Vishnu in a philosophical dispute at the Pandya
court. Tirumangai, a petty chieftain and highway robber, was converted to the path of Vishnu by
the woman he loved. Representations show him carrying a spear and accompanied by his wife
Kumudavalli. Nammalvar was a lower caste saint who spent his life in fasting and meditation.
He compiled four series of verses to provide poetry to the ordinary people. For this reason, he is
called Nam-Alvar, ‗Our‘ Alvar. The Vaishnavites consider his four works equivalent to the four
Vedas.
The Nayanars
There were 63 Nayanars or Shaivite saints. The term ‗Nayanar‘ means a ‗leader', in the
sense of God‘s chosen apostle. While the early Nayanars led a life absorbed in Shiva, later saints
began to propagate Shaiva bhakti, bringing them into conflict with the Buddhists and Jains.
Among the 63, the Muvar or ‗the three great hymnists‘ - Appar, Sundarar and Sambandar - are
given prominence. Their hymns constitute the major part of the Shaivite canon. Although Appar
was born into an orthodox Shaivite family, he left to join a Jaina monastery at Pataliputra
(modern Patna). But when cured of a painful stomach ailment by his sister, he returned once
more to Shiva‘s path. The memory of his betrayal filled his poems with penitence and humility.
For the rest of his days, he travelled across South India, singing the praises of Shiva.Sambandar
was born into a brahmana family in the Tanjavur district. Invited by queen Mangaiyarkkarasai to
the Pandyan court, he defeated the Jainas through miracles and debates and converted the
kingdom to Shaivism. His hymns speak of the worship of Shiva not through religious
observances but through an emotion that fills the heart and mind.
4.4 Chola Imperialism
Cholas were the most civilised race of the south. It is believed that this dynasty was
founded by Karikala. Chola Empire was called Cholamandalam. It included in itself
Trichnopoly, Tanjore and some districts of Mysore and Madras (Now Chennai). Kaveripattam
was its capital.
The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the
Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850. By the end of the ninth century, Vijayalaya's successor,
Aditya I Chola, wiped out the Pallavas of Kanchi and weakened the Pandyas, thus bringing the
southern Tamil country under his control. In the beginning, the Cholas were hard put to defend
their position against the Rashtrakutas, but towards the end of the tenth century Chola power
rapidly rose. Parantaka I (907-955) captured Madurai but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler,
Krishna III, at the battle of Takkolam, and he lost Tondaimandalam. But his grandson, Sundara-
Chola, overcame the Rashtrakuta ruler and wrested Tondaimandalam from him.
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985-1014) and his son, Rajendra 1(1014-1044).
Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Thiruvanandapuram, and attacked Quilon. He then captured
the Pandy~ capital Madurai, and also annexed the-northern part of Sri- Lanka. One of his naval
exploits was the conquest of the Maldive islands. In the north, he annexed the north-western
parts of the Ganga region in north-west Kamataka and overran Vengi. His son and successor,
Rajendra I, continued with the annexationist policy by completely overrunning the Pandya and
Chera kingdoms and including them in his empire. He also annexed the rest of Sri Lanka which
remained under Chola rule for another 50 years. Rajendra I also sent an expedition against
Bengal through Kalinga; his armies crossed the Ganga and defeated the Pala king, Mihipala, of
Bengal and Bihar.
In commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta, he assumed the title Gangaikonda, and
founded a capital-Gangaikonda Cholapuram. An even more remarkable exploit in his reign was
the naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) empire; the expedition led to the
conquest of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the Malay Peninsula and
Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area for some time.
The Chola rulers fought constantly with the later Chalukyas (of Kalyani), who had
succeeded the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, for the overlordship of Vengi (Rayalaseema), the
Tungabhadra doab and the Ganga country in north-west Karnataka. Neither side was able to gain
a decisive victory nor did it ultimately exhaust both the empires. However, up to 1115, the'
extent of the Chola empire remained undiminished under Kulottunga I, except for the loss of
Ceylon, and included the entire region south of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra extending at
least up to the Godavari on the east coast. But after this the empire began to shrink. By 1118, the
Chola empire was confined to the Tamil region and a relatively small area of the adjoining
Telugu districts. Kulottunga III (1178-1210) was the last great Chola monarch, who remained
involved in the Pandyan wars of succession and sacked the Pandya capital in 1205.
4.4.1 Local Self Government under the Cholas
The most important feature of the Chola administration lies in the running of autonomous
institutions. There was a great deal of local self-government in the villages in the Chola Empire.
Each village had its own general assembly which administered control over all the affairs of the
village and was free from the control of the Central Government. It enjoyed all powers regarding
the village administration. There were two types of institutions working at village level.
Ur
Ur was the general assembly of the village. The Ur consisted of all the taxpaying
residents of an ordinary village. The Alunganattar was the executive committee and the ruling
group of the Ur. The Ur was open to all the adult men but was dominated by the older member of
the village. The members of the executive committee of ‗Ur‘ were called ‘Shashak Gana’ or
‗Ganam’. Exact number of the committee members or the procedure adopted for their election is
not known.
Mahasabha
This was a gathering of the adult men in the Brahmana villages which were
called agraharas. These were villages settled by the Brahmanas in which most of the land was
rent free. Sabha managed most of its affairs by an executive committee called variyam to which
educated persons owning property were elected. Reporters appointed by the sabha were
called Variyar. Generally, Variyar was assigned some or other special task. Sabha could settle
new lands, and executive ownership rights over them. It could also raise loans for the village and
levy taxes. Villages were divided among sheries, roads and blocks. Each shery constituted a
community. Shery was assigned many tasks for the welfare of the village Each shery had its
representation in the managing committee of the village.
The following are some of the committees of the Chola local self government
institutions: (a) Samvatsaravariyam- Annual Committee (b) Thotta Variyam- Garden Committee
(c) Eri Variyam- tank Committee (d) Panchavara Variyam- Standing Committee (e) Pon
Variyam- Gold committee (f) Nyayattar- Judicial committee. Annual committee and garden
committee consisted of 12 members. Tank committee consisted of 6 members. The following are
the qualifications to become a member of the Mahasabha (a) ownership of about an acre and a
half of land (b) residents in a house built on one‘s own site (c) age between 35 and 70 (d)
knowledge of one veda and sastra Assembly of the nadu was called Nattar. The assembly of the
nagaram was called nagarattar. Uttaramerur inscription of Parantaka Chola give details about the
Chola local self government institutions.
4.5 Bahmani Kingdom
The Bahmani kingdom (also Bahamani Kingdom, Bahmani Sultanate) of Deccan (South India)
was founded by Alauddin Bahman Shah. It was an Islamic state. The Bahmani kingdom came
into existence when Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was the ruler of Delhi. The kingdom emerged as a
challenge to his authoritarian rule. The eccentric policy of the Sultan of Delhi drove the nobles of
Deccan into rebellion who occupied the city of Daulatabad and one of them an Afghan chief—
Ismail Mukh became the King of Deccan. He assumed the title Nasir-ud-din Shah. Nasir-ud-din
Shah was an old man and hence he resigned from the post and the nobles nominated Hasan
Gangu or Zafar Khan as the new chief under the title Abul Muzaffar Alauddin Bahman Shah.
Bahman Shah: Alauddin Bahman Shah (also Hasan Gangu, Zafar Khan) became the founder of
Bahmani Kingdom. King Bahman Shah ascended the throne and made Gulbarg his
Capital. Gulbarg was renamed as Ahsanabad. He was earlier working
Alauddin Bahman Shah was a powerful ruler. He was an empire builder and through incessant
warfare extended his domain from Daulatabad in the west to Bhongir in the east. He was a good
and efficient administrator and divided his kingdom into four provinces namely Gulbarg,
Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar. Each of these provinces was placed under a governor who
maintained an army and made appointments in all civil and military posts under him.
Alauddin Bahman Shah (Hasan) died in 1358 but before his death he established peace and
prosperity in his kingdom.
Muhammad Shah I: The successor of Alauddin Bahman Shah (Hasan) and son Muhammad
Shah I ruled from 1358 to 1375 A.D. There was constant conflict between the Bahmani Sultanate
and the Vijayanagar Empire. Muhammad Shah I organized his government properly and
thoroughly but had to fight with the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar and Telangana or
Warangal throughout his reign. He defeated the rulers of these states and made them to pay huge
war indemnity.
Mujahid Shah: After the death of Muhammad Shah I, his son Mujahid Shah became the ruler
after his father‘s death and marched towards Vijayanagar Kingdom. In spite of besieging the
country he failed to capture it and hence a peace was concluded between him and the Hindu Raja
of Vijayanagar. But he was killed in a conspiracy and his relative Daud Khan became the new
king, who was soon killed and the new king Sultan Muhammad Shah II ascended the throne.
Muhammad Shah II was the ardent lover of peace and learning. His reign was a peaceful one
and as such he could build mosques, establish free schools for orphans and also invited the
learned men from all parts of the Asia. But the intrigues of his two sons Ghiyas-ud-din and
Shams-ud-din Daud had embittered his last days and thus he died in 1397 A.D. But none of his
sons could rule successfully for any length of time and eventually the throne was seized by Firoz,
a grandson of Alauddin Bahman Shah who assumed the title ―Taj ud-din Firuz Shah‖.
Taj ud-din Firuz Shah was a brave ruler and defeated the armies of Vijayanagar kingdom twice
and compelled the king to pay tribute to him. However, towards the close of his reign he was
badly defeated by the Vijayanagar king‘s army at Pangul and lost much of his territory. He was a
lover of building and built his capital Gulbarg a beautiful one. On his death, he was succeeded by
his son to the throne assuming the title Ahmed Shah.
Ahmed Shah transferred his capital from Gulbarg to Bidar in about 1425 A.D. and also carried a
terrible war against Vijayanagar Kingdom to avenge the losses sustained by the Bahmani troops.
Vijayanagar was seized by Bahmani troops and ultimately the Raja had to conclude peace by
paying a huge war indemnity. In 1424-25 he also conquered Warangal and killed its ruler.
Warangal became a part of Bahmani Kingdom. He also annexed Malwa and made an
unsuccessful attempt to conquer Gujarat, however he conquered Konkan. Bidar the Capital of
Ahmed Shah was indeed a beautiful city. Ahmed Shah was not a learned man but he encouraged
learning. The great poet Shaikh Azari in his court. Another famous poet was Maulana Sharfuddin
Mazandarani. Of course, during his reign, there was a perpetual feud between the Deccan nobles
with their allies on one side and the foreign nobles composed of the Turks, the Arabs, the
Persians and the Mughals on the other. Religious differences also added to political rivalry. The
Deccan nobles were Sunnis and most of the foreign nobler were Shias. As a result of this feud
the administration became very much weakened. The son of Ahmed Shah, Alauddin II,
suppressed some of the rebellion. The chiefs of Konkan were also suppressed.
The Bahmani sultanate originated as a result of revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. There
was good development of art and architecture during this period. However, the constant struggles
with Vijayanagar Empire caused pain to the subjects of both the kingdoms.
Achievements of Muhammad Gawan
Mahmud Gawan served with a great distinction as Prime Minister of three Bahamni Sultans for
about twenty three years from 1458 to 1481 A.D. On account of his contribution to the Bahamni
in making rapid progress in different fields, Ferishta described Gawan as a fruit of the royal
garden and wrote an eulogy of him in about 40 lines. It has been rightly remarked about him,
―By virtue of his conspicuous ability, skilful diplomacy and successful military campaigns, he
brought the dominion of the Bahamnis to an extent ever achieved by former sovereigns.‖
Military achievements:
Gawan led a successful expedition against the combined armies of Orissa and Khandesh. He
occupied the fertile areas of Bidar, Daultabad and Berar.With the help of Sultan of Gujarat, he
defeated the ruler of Malwa. He established Bahamni control over the western coast as far as
Dabhol and Goa. The possession of these two ports had two-fold advantage. First, it led to
increase sea trade of the Kingdom with Iran and Iraq. Internal trade also increased. Second, it
weakened the power of its arch-enemy Vijayanagare Kingdom.
Diplomatic skill:
Very diplomatically, Gawan secured the help of the Sultans of Jaunpur, Bengal and Gujarat to
subdue the powerful ruler of Malwa. Ultimately peace was restored between Malwa and
Bahamni Kingdoms.
Administrative reforms:
Gawan introduced the following administrative reforms:
(i) The existing four provinces were divided into two each and created eight ‗Tarafs‘.
(ii) He reduced the powers of the governors of these ‗Tarafs‘ (Provinces).
(iii) In each of these eight ‗Tarafs‘ some areas were kept reserve for the control of the Central
Government and for their administrative control, officials were appointed by the Centre.
(iv) Orders were issued by him for placing one fort in each province under the charge of the
governor and others under the control of military commanders appointed by the Sultan.
(v) He put a check on the powers of the nobles.
(vi) He introduced a fair system of justice.
Development of agriculture:
The entire agricultural land was surveyed and land revenue fixed. He exercised strict control
over local officials to ensure that they took interest in the development of agriculture and do not
charge more than the fixed revenue,
Public education:
He took several measures to spread education. He opened a ‗Madrasa‘ an institution of higher
learning at Bidar. The building was of three storeys and was made beautiful with the use of
lovely red titles. Several scholars for this ‗Madrasa‘ were invited from Iran and Iraq. Free board
and lodging were provided. A library containing about 3000 books was established.
Military reforms:
Service conditions of the soldiers were improved. Better discipline was enforced in the army.
Personal accomplishments:
Although he was at the helm of affairs of the state, he lived a very simple life. He cooked food in
earthen vessels and slept on mattress. He was a great scholar and wrote two books. He loved the
company of scholars. On every Friday night, he used to visit various places of worship of the
Muslims. He gave help to the poor and the needy.
Dark side:
However, there was a blot on the character of this saintly person. He was very enthusiastic in the
persecution of Non-Muslims. He ordered the destruction of several temples.
Sad end of Gawan:
Achievements of Gawan, invited the jealousy of the Indian Muslim nobles and through a
conspiracy against him they succeeded in getting death orders for him from the Sultan when he
was drunk. When the Sultan came to know about the real truth, he was deeply grieved and died
within a year of the murder of his faithful Prime Minister. With the death of Gawan, all the
cohesion and the power of the Bahamni Kingdom began to disappear.
4.6 Vijayanagar Empire

The rise of Vijayanagar Empire was a very significant event in the history of India. For
three centuries it stood as the bulwark of Hinduism and protected the Hindu religion and culture
from the onslaught of the Muslim invasions. The Vijayanagar empire reached its climax under
the efficient leadership of the emperor Krishnadevaraya.
Two brothers Harihara (Hakka) I and Bukka Raya laid the foundation of the Vijaynagar
city, which was on the South bank of TungabhadraRiver near Anegudi Fortress. They were also
known as Sangama brothers. Vijaynagar Empire consolidated under Harihara I and began to
expand and prosper under Bukka Raya which was more defensible and secure for its location
between 14th and 16th century. It is said that a sage Madhav Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana
were the inspirational source for this empire.
After the departure of Muhammad bin Tughlak from the Deccan, Harihara declared
independence. He and his brother Bukka I under the guidance of famous Hindu saint and the
head of Sringeri Math, Vidyaranyasvami, who is also identified with the distinguished jurist
Madhav Mantri, established the mighty Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar (the City of Victory) in
1336 AD.
The history of Vijayanagar begins in the reign of Alauddin Khilji, when his famous
general, Malik Kafur, attacked Warangal, a Hindhu kingdom in South India. Two brothers,
Harihara and Bukka, laid the foundation of the new state in 1336 A.D Harihara became its first
ruler, and on his death ware succeeded by Bukka. The kingdom grew rapidly in wealth and
power. Within a short period, it expanded into an empire, which spread over the greater part of
Southern India.
Several foreign visitors who came to Vijayanagar during its long history of over two
hundred years have left behind glowing descriptions of the splendor of the city and the greatness
of its rules. In 1442 the city was visited by an envoy from Central Asia. This is what we wrote
about the place: ―there I saw a city exceedingly large and populous, and a king of great power
and dominion, whose kingdom extended from Bengal to Malibar. The country is for the most
part well cultivated and fertile, and about three hundred good seaports belong to it. There are
more than 1,000 elephants, lofty as the hills and gigantic as demons.
The most famous of the Vijayanagar kings was Krishna Deva Raya who came to the
throne in the beginning of the sixteenth century. He was a great warrior, a patron of literature and
a kind, gentle and generous king. He not only added new territories to the empire but also
constructed a large number of roads and buildings, temples and gateways, aqueducts and
irrigation channels for the benefit of his subjects. A Portuguese traveler who visited the capital
during his reign described him as ―the most feared and perfect king that could possibly be,‖ and
―a great ruler and a man of much justice.‖
Vijayanagar had from the very beginning a powerful enemy in the Bahamani Kingdom of
Guibarga which had arisen about the same time in the north of the Deccan. The two new
Kingdoms, one Hindu and the other Muslim, had constant wars with each other. They fought
many bitter battles, but without any decisive result. Then came a period when the Bahamani
Kingdom, torn by internal conflicts, was broken up into five separate states, among which was
the important state of Bijapur. In 1520, Krishna Deva Raya led his armies against the king of
Bijapur and besieged the fortress of Raichur. In the battle that followed, he gained a great
victory, which finally established the supreme power of Vijayanagar over the whole of South
India.
But the decline and fall of Vijayanagar began soon after Krishna Deva Ray‘s death. The
states in the north of the Deccan decided to sink their differences and join forces in a combined
attack on the southern kingdom. The power behind the Vijayanagar throne at this time was the
old and proud minister Rama Raya, who raised a vast army to meet the enemy. But the invading
forces were too strong and powerful. In the famous battle that took place at Talikotta in 1665,
Rama Raya suffered a crushing a crushing defeat. The next day the city of Vijayanagar was
sacked and all the beautiful temples and palaces in it were destroyed. The work of destruction
was carried out with fire and sword, with crow-bars and axes, till within a very short time this
wonderful city was reduced to a heap of ruins.
 Thus ended the mighty empire of Vijayanagar, which flourished in south India for more
than two centuries. When we look at the ruins of that empire at Hampi today, we are filled with
awe and wonder and, at the same, with a feeling of profound sadness.
4.6.1 Vijayanagar Society

The different aspects of social life of the people of Vijayanagar Empire are contained in
narratives of foreign travelers, inscriptions, and literature. The instances of the active part
women, who generally occupied a high position in society, took in political, social and literary
life of the country are certainly not rare. Apart from being trained in handling swards and shield,
wrestling, music and other fine arts, some of them, without any doubt, got fair amount of literary
education.

Having more than one wife was a recognized practice, especially among the wealthy classes.
Child marriage was an usual custom. The evil practice of taking excessive dowries was prevalent
at large-scale among the people who were well placed in their lives.The State, generally, did not
interfere in social issue or affairs to settle disputes among various communities. The Sati
Pratha¸freely sanctioned by Brahmanas, was very common in Vijayanagar Empire.

Brahmanas, held in high esteem by the rulers, exercised a Supreme influence not merely in social
and religious matters but also in the political affairs of the State.In the matters of diet there were
no strict restrictions in the Vijayanagar Empire. Apart from fruits, vegetables and oil, meat of all
kind (except that of oxen or cows since people had great veneration for them), was taken by the
general population. However, Brahmanas never killed or ate any ―living thing‖. Nunin, in his
narrative, describes the diet of the Vijayanagar kings: ―These kings eat all sorts of things, but not
the flesh of oxen or cows, which they never kill because they worship them. They eat mutton,
pork, vension, partridges, hares, doves, quail, and all kinds of birds; even sparrows and rats, and
cats, and Lizards……‖

On this Dr. Smith remarks that if the statement of Numiz is true, then it was ―a curious dietary
for princes and people, who in the time of Krishnadeva Raja and Achutya Raja were zealous
Hindus with a special devotion to certain forms of Vishnu‖. It is most probable that rats, cats and
Lizards were eaten by the lower section of the people who constituted the non-Aryan element in
the Vijayanagar population.
4.6.2 Vijayanagar Economy

It has been firmly established from foreign accounts and other sources as well that in the
Vijayanagar Empire prevailed unbounded prosperity. In different parts of the Empire agriculture
flourished and States pursued a well thought over irrigation policy. The principal industries
comprised of textiles, mining and metallurgy. Perfumery was the most important among the
minor industries. In the economic life of the kingdom craftsmen‘s and merchants‘ guilds played
a very important part.

The most remarkable characteristics in the economic condition of the kingdom was commerce,
inland, coasting and overseas. According to Abdur Razzaq the Empire ―possessed 300 seaports‖.
Calicut, on the Malabar Coast, was the most important port. It had commercial relations with the
islands in the Indian Ocean. The principle articles of export were cloth, iron, rice, sugar,
saltpeter, and spices. The items of imports include elephants, horses, copper, pearls, coral,
mercury, china silks and velvet. Some of the epigraphic evidences prove that the rulers of the
Vijayanagar Empire maintained fleets and people, there, were familiar with the art of
shipbuilding even before the advent of the Portuguese.

The Cheap means for transport for inland trade were Kavadis, head loads, pack-horse, pack-
bullocks, carts and asses. Both gold and copper types of coinage were prevalent in Vijayanagar
Empire. There is only one specimen of silver coin. The coins had on them the emblems of
different gods and animals that varied with the religious faith of the rulers.

The narratives of foreign travelers illustrate that the people of upper classes had a high standard
of living; however, the inscriptions of the time tell that the common people ‗groaned under the
weight of heavy taxation that was collated with rigour by the local Governors.

4.6.3 Development of Language and Literature

Kannada languages, Telugu and Tamil were used in their respective areas of influence.
Have recovered more than 7,000 total entries (Shasana) including 300 sheets of copper
(Tamarashasana) in kannada (about half), Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit. The bilingual inscriptions
no longer used at the end of the fourteenth century. In the earliest examples is represented
Hanuman and Garuda (Eagle God), the vehicle of the god Vishnu. The archaeological research
agency official Indian government has recovered and deciphered inscriptions on Kannan and
Telugu.
The Vijayanagar Kings patronised Sanskrit, Telungu, Kannada and Tamil languages.
According to tradition, the empire itself was founded under the auspices of a great Saint and
scholar Vidyaranya. Sayana, the famous commentator of the Vedas and his brother Madhava
flourished during the early days of the Vijayanagar rule.Important Tamil literary figures were
Maikandar, Arunandi, Swarupananda Desikar and Tattuvarayar. Notable Telungu literary figures
were Nannaya, Timmanna and Prabanda Parameswara. Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished
scholar, musician and poet. He honoured the scholars with precious gifts. The court of
Krishnadevaraya was known as Bhuvanavijayam which was adorned by eight famous literary
figures together called Ashtadiggagas.
According to tradition they were Allasari Peddana, Nandi Timmanna, rama Bhadriya,
Durjati, Mallana, Tennali Ramalinga,Bhushana and Surana.Krishnadevaraya was a well known
writer in Sanskrit and Telungu languages. He wrote two sanskrit plays Ushaparinayam and
Jambavati Kalyanam and one Telungu song Amukta malyada. He was often called Andra Bhoja.
Allasari Pedanna was known as Adra Kavita Pitamaha or the Grand father of Telungu poetry.He
wrote Manucharitam. Other notable literary works- (1)Parijatapaharanam written by Nandi
Timmanna(2) Rajasekharacharitam by Madayya(3) Kalahasti Mahatmyam by Dhurjati and
(4)Pandurangamahatmyam by Tennali Ramalinga. Krishnadevaraya‘s reign was known as
Augustan Age of Telungu literature. Kannada language was chiefly patronised by Jain writers.
The two well known writers are Mallanaraya and Sarvanjanamurthi.Nandi Timmanna transilated
Mahabharata into Kannada Bhagavata Purana was translated into kannada by Vithalanada.
Purandaradasa composed many devotional songs in Kannada language.
Vijaya Nagar period registered high level of development in Tamil language and
literature. Tamil Scholars of Saivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism were encouraged. Meykandar
wrote Sivagnana Bodham. Velliyambala Tambiran wrote Gnanapuranavilakkam,
Alagiyadesikar‘s Sethupuranam, Kachiappassivachariar‘ s Kandapuranam were important Tamil
literary works. Villiputhurar translated Viyasar‘s Bharatam in Tamil. Chidambarapuranam and
Chokkanatharula were written by Thirumalainathar. Haridasars wrote lrusamaya vilakkam.
Nalavenba, is famous Tamil work of that period. Commentaries were written on Tholkappiayam
and Silappathiharam and also on many vaishnavite religious texts. Nallurveerakavirayar‘s
Harichandrapuranam and saint Pavanandhi‘s Nanool were important works written during Vijaya
Nagar period.
4.6.4 Art and Architecture

The rulers of Vijayanagar were the inheritors of the rich traditions in art and architecture
of the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Hoysalas. Nicolo Conti, an Italian traveller, Abdul Razzaq, an
ambassador from Shah Rukh of Persia and Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller have given a
vivid account of the magnificent buildings which adorned the city of Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar
has been described as large as Rome or any biggest town in the western world at that time.
The city was surrounded by seven fortifications. The space in between was used for
various purposes such as laying gardens and growing vegetables etc. The total area of the city
was estimated at 64 square miles. There were beautiful lakes, open gardens, broad and well-laid
roads and buildings. The Tungabhadra river had a dam which provided water for the 40
kilometer long canal of the city.
The palace was the most impressive building in Vijayanagar. There were halls of public
and private audiences. The halls were decorated with beautiful painted pictures. Usually the
walls and pillars were ornamented with sculptures made of stone or wood. Unfortunately, most
of the city of Vijayanagar is now in ruins, represented by the well-known site Hampi which is
dotted with little hills of granite and where not a blade of grass grows.
Temple architecture received a new impetus and reached to new heights under the
patronage of the Vijayanagar rulers. About the architecture of the period, Prof. S.K. Saraswati
has observed, ―The most frequent design is one in which the shaft becomes either a central core
or background for a group of statuary, of substantial proportion and carved practically on the
ground. Important features of Vijayanagar style of temple and architecture were: monolithic
pillars, ornate brackets, decoration on exterior side of the walls, etc.
A large number of temples were built during this period. Krishnadevaraya built a temple
dedicated to Lord Krishna. He renovated several temples. The most important was the temple of
Hazara Rama. The royal family worshipped there. Its most interesting features were the four
finely polished black stone pillars which support the ‗Mandapa‘. They have beautiful sculptures
carved on them. The deities on the pillars represent Vishnu, Lakshminarayana, Krishna, Brahma
and others. Scenes from the lipics are depicted on the outer walls of the shrine. A number of
temples were built during the medieval period in the South cities of Vellore, Kumbhakonam,
Kalahsti, Srirangam, Conjeevam and Virinchipuram were dotted with magnificent temples. The
temples of Vithala and Pattabhirama also deserve mention. The most important features of the
temple of Vithala are the ‗Mahamandappa‘ and the ‗garbhagriha‘. The Mahamandappa has 56
pillars. The ceilings above these pillars are highly ornamented. Likewise ‗garbhagriha‘ is highly
ornated.
Vijayanagar period is well known for temple architecture. Temple architecture was
mainly based on Dravida style.. The horse was the most common animal depicted on pillars. The
most important temples built during the time of Krishnadevaraya was the Hasararamaswamy
temple, Vithalaswamy temple and Krishnaswamy temple. Krishnadevaraya built the famous city
of Nagalapuram and named it after his mother Nagaladevi. He erected the famous monolithic
statue of Narasimha. The last phase of the Vijayanagara architecture is represented by Mathura
style. The Virupaksha temple and Lotus mahal were two notable examples. The art of painting
was patronised by the rulers. Both Krishnadevaraya and Ramaraya were proficient in music. A
good number of works on music was written during this period.
4.7 Temple Architecture under Pallavas, Chalukyas and Cholas

4.7.1 Chola Temples and Temple Architecture

The Great Living Chola Temples are situated in the southern state of Tamil Nadu that
were built during the Chola rule in the south of India. The Cholas were great patrons of art,
during their reign; as a result, the most magnificent temples and exquisite bronze icons were
created in South India. This site also comprises of the three great 11th and 12th century Chola
Temples: the Brihadisvara temples of Thanjavur, the Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, and
the Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram. The Brihadisvara Temple was declared by UNESCO as
a World Heritage Site in 1987; the Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara
Temple at Darasuram were added as extensions to the site in 2004. These three Chola temples of
Southern India represent an outstanding creative achievement in the architectural conception of
the pure form of the Dravida type of temple. Together these temples are now known as the
"Great Living Chola Temples".
Brihadisvara Temple: This temple is a creation of the Chola emperor Rajaraja (AD 985-
1012), designed by the famous architect Sama Varma between 1003 and 1010 AD. Made from
blocks of granite and, in part, from bricks, this temple is crowned by a pyramidal 65-m vimana, a
sanctum tower. The temple stands within a fort, whose walls are later additions built in the 16th
century. The towering vimanam is about 200 feet in height and is referred to as Dakshina Meru.
Surrounded by two rectangular enclosures, the Brihadisvara Temple is crowned with a pyramidal
13-storey tower, the vimana, standing 61 m high and topped with a bulb-shaped monolith. It is
within a spacious inner prakara of 240.90m long (east-west) and 122m broad (north-south), with
a gopura at the east and three other ordinary torana entrances on at each lateral side and the third
at rear. The gopurams are flanked by two huge guardian figures, and various Shiva legends are
represented in the carvings. The inner gopuram is the Brihadeeswarar temple, encircled by sea
monster heads and topped by a protective monster mask. The prakara is surrounded by a double-
storeyed malika and parivaralayas. The sikhara, a cupola dome, is octagonal and rests on a single
block of granite, a square of 7.8m weighing 80 tons. The majestic upapitha and adhishthana is
common to all the axially placed entities like the ardhamaha and mukha-mandapas and linked to
the main sanctum but approached through a north-south transept across the ardha-mandapa,
which is marked by lofty sopanas. Its royal builder extensively engraves the molded plinth with
inscriptions. The Nandi, which dates back to the Nayak period, is housed in its own mandapam
and it matches up to the grandeur and size of the temple. It is a monolithic Nandi weighing about
25 tonnes, and is about 12 feet high and 20 feet long. The brihad-linga within the sanctum is
8.7m high, representing the main deity worshipped at the temple, Shiva, also known as
Brihadeeswarar. The grace and grandeur of this temple has been matched by very few and within
the temple are many amazing sculptures, bronzes, and frescos; all being excellent examples of
the art and history of the Chola period. Worth noting are three large Shiva sculptures - one
dancing, one holding a spear, and one holding a trident, as well as many murals of Shiva in his
various manifestations. One good example being Tripurantakamurti, which shows Shiva as the
destroyer of three cities. The other life-size iconographic representations, with rich sculptural
decorations on the wall niches and inner passages include Durga, Lakshmi, Sarasvati and
Bhikshatana, Virabhadra, Kalantaka, Natesa, Ardhanarisvara and Alingana forms of Siva.
Another remarkable feature of the temple is the great Nandi (bull). Thus, the walls house
long pillared corridors, which abound in murals, Shiva Lingams and Nandis. The Nandi found at
the mandaman (hall) near the temple entrance is immense in size, and the ceiling of its enclosure
is decorated with frescoes in the typical painting style of Thanjavur. The Nandi weighs 27
tonnes, and measuers roughly 4 m by 6 m by 2.5 m, making it one of the largest Nandi sculptures
in the world. It is said to have been installed later in the 16th Century. A story is told that the
Nandi continued to grow and grow, until finally a nail was driven into its back and the growth
was stopped. The temple also contains several smaller shrines, with the shrine of Sri Subramanya
being of notable mention due to it being an excellent example of decorative architecture, with
nearly every inch covered in sculptural detail. Several other small shrines dot the courtyard, and
around the its entirety is a pillared cloister, containing several small shrines in which can be
found many lingam, frescos and sculptures. The mural paintings on the walls of the lower
ambulatory inside are finest examples of Chola and later periods. The walls of the vimana are
also inscribed with 100 paragraphs detailing the gifts given by the king and his family toward the
creation of the temple. From these paragraphs we know that the temple was finished 25 years
and 275 days after Rajaraja took power in 975 A D. Upon completion of the temple, Rajaraja
gave the gift of a golden kalasam, or finial, to top the vimana.
Gangaikondacholisvaram Temple: The second Brihadisvara temple complex built by
Rajendra I, the son and successor of Rajaraja I, was completed in 1035. The temple of
Gangaikondacholisvaram is approached through the northern entrance from the road. The
passage passes through the enclosure wall and leads on to the inner court. Its 53-m vimana has
recessed corners and a graceful upward curving movement, contrasting with the straight and
severe tower at Thanjavur. As it rises to a height of 160 feet and is shorter than the Tanjavur
tower, it is often described as the feminine counterpart of the Tanjavur temple. The small shire of
Chandikesvara is near the steps in the north. In the northeast are a shire housing Durga, a well
called lion-well (simhakeni) with a lion figure guarding its steps and a late mandapa housing the
office. Nandi is in the east facing the main shrine. In the same direction is the ruined gopura, the
entrance tower. The main tower surrounded by little shrines truly presents the appearance of a
great Chakravarti (emperor) surrounded by chieftains and vassals.
Airavatesvara Temple: This is a Hindu temple located in the town of Darasuram, near
Kumbakonam in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The Airavatesvara temple complex is
dedicated to Lord Shiva and the latter is known as Airavateshwara, because he was worshipped
by Airavata and is built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram. It has six pairs of massive, monolithic
dvarapalas statues guarding the entrances and bronzes of remarkable beauty inside. The
Airavatesvara temple complex at Darasuram, built by Rajaraja II, features a 24-m vimana and a
stone image of Shiva. The temples testify to the Cholas brilliant achievements in architecture,
sculpture, painting, and bronze casting. The main deity`s consort Periya Nayaki Amman temple
is situated adjacent to Airavateshwarar temple. The temples testify to the Cholas brilliant
achievements in architecture, sculpture, painting, and bronze casting. It is said that the King of
Death, Yama also worshipped Shiva here. Myth has it that Yama, who was suffering under a
Rishi`s curse from a burning sensation all over the body, was cured by the presiding deity
Airavateswarar. Yama took bath in the sacred tank and got rid of the burning sensation. Since
then the tank has been known as Yamateertham. This temple is a storehouse of art and
architecture and has some exquisite stone carvings. The front mandapam is in the form of a huge
chariot drawn by horses. Although this temple is much smaller than the other temples, it is more
exquisite in detail, since it been built with nitya-vinoda, "perpetual entertainment", in mind.
4.7.2 Pallava Temples and Temple Architecture

Four distinct stages of architecture can be gleaned from the Pallava temples. The first is
the Mahendra style. The influence of the cave style of architecture is to be seen in an ancient
pillar engraved in the Ekambaranatha (Kanchipuram) temple. The second is the Mamalla style.
The seven Pagodas are small temples, each of which is hewn out of a single rock boulder. They
lie near Mahabalipura Mahabalipuram, founded by Narasimhavarman. These monolithic temples
are complete with all the details of an ordinary temples and stand as an undying testimony to the
superb quality of the Pallava art. The third is the Rajasimha style. The most famous temple of
this style is the kailasha style. The most famous temple of this style is the Kailasha temple of
kanchi. It has a pyramidal tower; a flat-roofed mandapam and a series of cells surround it
resembling rathas. This style is a very elaborate one foreshadowing the ornate Chola
architecuture. The fourth is the Aparajita style. This is more ornate resembling the Chola
architecture. A few temples built in the style are found at Dalavanur. The note worthy feature of
some shrines is that they are aborned by beautiful life-like images of Pallava kings and their
queens. All told they are unique in the history of temple architecture.Pallava sculpture owed
more to the Buddhist tradition.
On the whole it is more monumental and linear in form, thus avoiding the typical
ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The free standing temples at Aithole and Badami in the
Deccan and the Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram in the Tamil country, provided a better
background for sculpture than the rock-cut temples. And the Pallava sculpture was monumental
and linear in form resembling the Gupta sculpture. Although the basic form was derived from the
older tradition, the end result clearly reflected its local genius.Now for literature it has been
recently proved that Bharavi and Dandinlived in the Pallava court. Bharavi's Kiratarjuniyam and
Dandin's Dashakumaracharita were the two masterpieces. One of Dandin's poems was written
with such skill that when read normally it gives the story of the Ramayana; and whe read in
reverse, the study of Mahabharata. Dandin was the author of a standard work on poetics. Till the
eight century Pallava influence was predominant in Cambodia. Saivism was the of ficial form of
worship. And the Pallava type of sikhara is to be found in the temples of Java, Cambodia and
Annam. This dissemination of Hindu culture proves that it was dynamic till 1,000 A.D. in
southern India.
Thus, the Pallavas rendered invaluable service to the country both within and without as
they were one of the torch bearers of Hindu civilization to south-east Asia. Far more singular is
their contribution to architecture-transforming the architecture and suculpture from wood to
stone. Smith opines that this grat disparimmense length of the course of Indian history, and the
extreme slowness with which changes have been effeated.
4.7.3 Chalukya Temples and Temple Architecture

The Badami Chalukya era (7th and 8th century) was an important period in the
development of South Indian architecture. Their style of architecture is called ―Chalukyan
architecture‖ or ―Karnata Dravida architecture‖. Nearly a hundred monuments built by them,
rock cut (cave) as well as structural, and are found in the Malaprabha river basin in modern
Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka. The building material they used was reddish-golden
Sandstone found locally. Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops
concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the
Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.
Badami Cave Temples
Badami cave temples are located at Badami. The red sandstone cliffs of Badami offered a
spectacular setting for the excavation of four caves, three Brahmanical and one Jaina
(Parshwavanath). The largest and most impressive of these is Cave 3, dedicated to Vishnu. An
inscription next to a Varaha depiction states that Mangalesa, a brother of King Kirtivarman,
dedicated the cave in A.D. 578. Members of the royal family of Chalukyas patronized many
Chalukyan monuments. All of them were created in sixth and 7th century. The architecture is a
mixture of the Nagara style and Dravida style. Apart from the above four, there is a fifth natural
Buddhist cave in Badami.
Virupaksha Temple, Hampi
Virupaksha Temple is located in Hampi in Karnataka on the banks of the Tungabhadra
river. Virupaksha Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and was created by the Chalukyas of
Badami initially in 8th century. The temple was improvised in Vijaynagar Empire. It is in the
Virupaksha temple at Hampi that full glory of the Early Chalukyan art can be seen. This temple
was built in 735 AD by a queen of Vikramaditya II to celebrate the victory over the Pallavas of
Kanchipuram.
Ladkhan Temple, Aihole
The Ladkhan temple is the earliest temple of Aihole, which dates back to 5thcentury AD.
An inscription on this temple says that it was dedicated to Durga. There is a Shiva ling out there.
The temple is known as Lad Khan after its owner (in most recent times) at a place used as cattle
sheds or houses. This temple has a large porch and is made in a Panchayat hall kind of design
with 12 pillars. This was earliest experiment for a pillar based structures in the temple
architecture.
Navbhramha Group of Temples, Alampur
The Navabrahma Group of temples is located at Alampur in Andhra Pradesh. There are
total 9 temples and present a marvelous piece of art of the Chalukyas of Badami outside
Karnataka. These temple are based upon the Nagara style and do not reflect the Dravidian style
of temple architecture (8 out of 9 are clearly Nagara style). The Alampur temples are the finest
example of the Chalukyas of Badami Art. The Nava Bhramma temples are Taraka Bhramma,
Swarga Bhramma, Padma Bhramma, Bala Bhramma, Garuda Bhramma, Kumara Bhramma,
Arka Bhramma, Vira Bhramma and the Vishwa Bhramma. These temples are all enclosed in a
courtyard on the left bank of the river Tungabhadra.
Temples at Pattadakal
Numerous temples at Pattadakal on the bank of river Malprabha, some kilometers from
Aihole mark the return of the Chalukya patronage to Karnataka after several years of activity in
the Andhra Pradesh. The first temple is Galagnatha Temple which is in Nagara style similar to
the Alampur temple.
4.8 Review Questions
 Module-5
MUGHAL EMPIRE

Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Nature of Mughal State
5.4 Mughal Administrative System
5.5 Mansabdari System
5.6 Mughal Economy
5.7 Mughal Art and Architecture
5.1 Introduction
The history of the Mughals from 1526-1707 was a colorful and splendid period which
brought about immense prestige to India. The Mughals were responsible for the beautification of
Delhi. They were also credited for the development.of administrative apparatus. The Mughal
state was started purely as a military state but gradually gained the acceptance of the people
which assumed national character under Akbar but was reversed by Aurangzeeb.
The empire was founded by the Mongol leader Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim
Lodi, the last of the Afghan Lodi Sultans at the First Battle of Panipat, where they used
gunpowder for the first time in India. The Mughal Empire is known as a “gunpowder empire.”
The word "Mughal" is the Indo-Aryan version of "Mongol." The religion of Moghals was Islam.
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Nature of Mughal State & Sovereignty
It was a military rule and was necessarily a centralized despotism. To the Muslims King
was the head of govt.and church. To the non-Muslims King was only their temporal head.
Success of administration depended upon the personality of the King. Mughals were indepted to
Shershah and the Persin rulers for administration. The main sources for understanding the nature
of Mughal rule includes the Ain-I-Akbari of Abul Fazl, official handbooks or Dastur-ul-Amals,
Iqbal Namah of Muhammad Khan,Padshah Namah of Abdul Hamid Lahauri,Tabqat-I-Akbari of
Nizam-ud-din and Mundtakhab-ul-Tavarikh of Badauni and foreign accounts and factory
records.
The Mughal Administrative System was in the nature of a Military Rule and was
necessarily a centralised depotism. So far as the Muslims were concerned, the King was the head
of the State and the Church. As regards the non-Muslims, he was only their temporal head. The
government did not interfere very much with the life of the people. Much of it was left
undisturbed by the government. The Mughal Administrative System took its colour from the
ways and creed of its sovereigns. They were foreigners who came from outside. They were
accustomed to a certain system of administration and when they came to India, they transplanted
the same in this country.
The Mughal Administration presented a combination of Indian and extra- Indian
elements; or, more correctly, it was the Perso-Arabic System in Indian setting. The principles of
the Government, their church policies, their rules and taxation, their departmental arrangement
and their very titles of the officials were imported readymade from outside India.
 But a compromise was affected with the older native system already in possession of the
field and familiar to the people governed. The details of the imported system were modified for
the local needs. The existing Indian practice and the customary law were respected as far as it did
not run counter to the root principles of all Islamic Government; and generally speaking in
village administration and the lower rungs of the official ladder the Indian usage was allowed to
prevail while the foreign swayed almost exclusively the court and the higher official circles."
The Mughal Government was military in its origin and though in time it became rooted to the
soil, it retained its military character to the last. All the civil servants were Mansabdars or
members of the army. Their names were arranged in the gradation list of the army as they were
paid by the Bakshi.
Strictly speaking, there was no civil treasury at all. The Land Revenue System of the
Mughals was based on the old Hindu System prevailing in the country. The old Hindu Revenue
Officials were employed by the Mughal Government and ordinarily were not interfered with. In
the Mughal Period, the state was the largest manufacturer or the only manufacturer on a large
scale. The state had to manufacture to satisfy its own needs which were very great. The Emperor
gave robes of honour or Khilats to his Mansabdars. Such a things happened on many occasions.
Many things were required for the use of the Emperor. Thus, sheer necessity forced the Mughal
Kings to manufacture on a large scale.
The Mughal Government was a highly centralized autocracy. The Crown was the pivot of
the entire administrative machinery. As the government was absolute and highly centralized, the
written records multiplied. No wonder, the Mughal Government was called a Kaghzi Raj or
paper government. A large number of books had to be maintained, e.g., copies of
correspondence, nominal rolls, descriptive rolls, history of the services of the officers, news-
letters and dispatches, etc. The attitude of the Mughal Government towards law and justice was
opposed to modern conceptions. It was the weakest in this matter. The Government did not
perform its responsibility of maintaining peace and security in the rural areas. The villagers were
made responsible not only for the safety of their own property but also of the travelers on the
neighbouring roads. The existence of the office of the Faujdar is not denied, but the area within
his jurisdiction was so large that it was out of question for any individual to perform his duties
satisfactorily.
 The Mughal Government was despotism of a peculiar brand." Its absolute authority was
never so interpreted by its rulers. The Emperors left alone quite a large part of their subjects.
They did not concern themselves with the religious beliefs of their people. Jahangir and Shah
Jahan left even the religious practices of their subjects largely uncared for. When Aurangzeb
stood forth as the champion of Sunni beliefs, he put down unorthodox practices without in any
way trying to open windows into the souls of his subjects. Theoretically and to a large extent in
practice, the judiciary was independent in a sense of its own in Mughal Indian. The
administration of justice through Hindu Pundits and Qazis owed nothing to the king. The Mughal
Rulers made a few laws of their own, but did not claim the right to do so. Aurangzeb had the
Muslim law codified for the guidance of his Qazis.
Fatwa-i-Almigri is a digest of Muslim Law as understood by classical writers and is not
inspired by its being edited in the time of Aurangzeb. The commentaries of Mitra Misra and
Raghunandan on Hindu Law influenced its contemporary interpretation to a larger extent than
the Fatwa-i-Alamgiri. Raghunandan and Mitra Misra did not write to the imperial orders and
owed nothing to imperial favour.
The rulers were certainly Muslims, latitudinarian, indifferent or zealous. However, it
cannot be said that their public administration was inspired by even the current ideas of Muslims
Polity. The organisation of the Government, the ceremonies and the procedure in the Mughal
Court, the method of raising revenue and recruiting public servants owed more too Indian
traditions than to Islam. The vast majority of their subjects were non-Muslims and the Muslim
Rulers in India realised the impossibility of converting all of them to Islam. Hence, the Hindus
were largely left in the enjoyment of their institutions. In certain respects, the public law of the
country was left alone, but the same was invaded in certain other respects.
The religious policy of Babur, Humayun and Aurangzeb were certainly inspired by the
current notions of Muslim Public Law but Akbar, Jahangir and to some extent, Shah Jahan, were
otherwise inspired in their religious policy. The Mughal Government comprehended both the
varieties. The views of Aurangzeb were not shared by most of his subjects. On the whole, it
cannot be said that the Mughal Rule was based on Islamic Principles.
5.4 Mughal Administration
Central Government
The King was the pivot of all administrative machinery. The power of the King depended
upon the strength of the army under his command. There was no accepted law of succession.The
rulers did not recognize any Khalifa as a superior overlord. The Kings except a few were
hardworking in nature. Vakil or Prime Minister was the most important minister. Important
Vakils under Akbar were Bairam Khan and Sadullah Khan. Diva-I-Ala or Finance Minister-
Muzafar Khan,Todarmal and Shah Manzur. Mir Bakshi or Minister of army. Sadr-i-Sadar or
Religious Minister. Other ministers include Muhtasib (Public Morals),Qasi-ul-Qazat(Chif
Justice)and Daroga-I-Chauki(Intelligence Department).
Provincial Administration
Empire was divided into Provinces or Subas. Under Akbar there were 12 Subas. The
number of provinces was increased to 17 under Jahangir. Under Aurangzeb it increased to 21.
Each Province was under a Governor known as Sbedar or Nizam. The Provincial Governors
were transferred. Below the Subedar there was the Diwan who looked after the income and
expenditure of the Province.
Below the Diwan there was Sadr or Qazi who was in charge of lands granted for religious
and charitable purposes. Bakshi or Wakya Navis was another officer who was in charge of
recruitment, organisation and discipline of the Provincial army. Kotwal was the Supt. Of Police
in the Provinces
District Administration
Provinces were divided into districts or Sarkars under Faujdar. He maintained law and
order and controlled revolts. Amal Guzar was in charge of revenue collection. Bitikachi assisted
Amal Guzar.
Village Administration
Village was the lowest unit of administration. Each Village had Council of Panchayats.
The Village Panchayat was divided into six committees. The Panchayats functioned for
sanitation, elementary education,irrigation,medical relief,moral and religious welfare of the
people and dispensation of justice.
Administration of Justice
Mughal rulers were very particular about the dispensation of Justice. Tabal-I-Adal or
special drum of justice of Humayun. Bell of Justice of Jahangir was very famous in the field of
administration of justice. . Emperor was the fountain head of Justice. There were courts of Sadr-
us-Sadr(religious cases) and Qazi-ul-Qazat (secular cases). Chief Qazi was the chief Judicial
officer. Separate officials were there to dispense justice in the Provinces and villages.
Military Organisation
The Mughals maintained the Chaturanga forces. There were mansabdary troups subjected
to the regulations of Dagh and Chera. The mughals had no navy. Mansabdary system was a
special feature of Mughal period. Foreign elements were also there in the Mughal army. There
were six categories of cavalry and seven categories of elephants.
Land Revenue System
Babur and Humayun followed the Jagirdary System. Jagir was a unit of land whose
revenue was assigned to a Mansabdar in lieu of his salary. Under the Jagirdary system the whole
land was divided into Jagirs and assigned to the Jagirdars for the collection of revenue. The
cultivators suffered a lot in this system. Akbar improved the Land Revenue system of Shersha.
Akbar was assisted in his land revenue system by experts like Muzafar Khan, Itimad Khan and
Raja Todarmal. Akbar‘s revenue system has been referred under various names like Zabti system
and Dahasala system. The whole of the cultivable land was measured by using a standard yard
known as Jarib. The officers were given strict instructions on measurement of land. For the
purpose of revenue collection land was divided into four categories on the basis of cultivation.
The classifications were Polaj (Land always cultivated), Parauti (land which was left
uncultivated for more than two years), Chachar (Land which was left fallow for three or four
years)and Banjar (Land which was left uncultivated for five or more years). The state share of
the land revenue was fixed on the basis of the fertility of the soil. The tax was collected on two
occasions-rabi and Kharif seasons. The land revenue system introduced by Akbar continued
through out the Mughal period.
5.5 Mansabdary and Jagirdary System
Mansabdari System
The mansab and Jagir system under the Mughals in India evolved through the time.
Mansabdari was a unique system devised by the Mughals in India. The mansabdari system,
evolved by Akbar with certain changes and modifications, was the basis of civil and military
administrations under the Mughals. The word mansab means a place or position. The mansab
awarded to an individual fixed both his status in the official hierarchy and also his salary. It also
fixed the number of armed retainers the holders of mansab was to maintain. The system was
formulated to streamline rank of the nobles, fix their salary and specify the number of cavalry to
be maintained by them. Under the mansab system ranks were expressed in numerical terms. Abul
Fazl states that Akbar had established 66 grades of Mansabdars ranging from commanders of 10
horsemen to 10,000 horsemen, although only 33 grades have been mentioned by him. Initially a
single number represented the rank, personal pay and the size of the contingent of the
mansabdar. Later the rank of mansabdar came to be denoted by two numbers - Zat and-Sawar.
The Zat denoted personal rank of an official and the Sawar indicated the size of contingents
maintained by the mansabdars. Depending on the strength of contingent Mansabdars were placed
in three categories. Let us take the example of a mansabdar who had a rank of 7000 zat and 7000
sawar (7000/7000). In the first Zat and Sawar ranks were equal (7000/7000). In the second,
Sawar rank was lower than the Zat but stopped at half, or fifty percent, of the Zat rank
(7000/4000). In the third, Sawar rank was lower than fifty percent of the Zat rank (7000/3000).
Thus the Sawar rank was either equal or less than the Zat. Even if the Sawar rank was higher, the
mansabdar‘s position in the official hierarchy would not be affected. It will be decided by the Zat
rank. For example, a mansabdar with 4000 Zat and 2000 Sawar was higher in rank than a
Mansabdar of 3000 Zat and 3000 Sawar. But there were exceptions to this rule particularly when
the mansabdar was serving in a difficult terrian amidst the rebels. In such cases the state often
increased the Sawar rank without altering the Zat rank. Some times Sawar rank was also
increased for a temporary period to meet emergency situations. Jahangir introduced a new
provision in the Sawar rank. According to it a part of Sawar rank was termed du-aspa sih-aspa in
case of select mansabdars. For this part additional payment at the same rate 8,000 dams per
Sawar was sanctioned. Thus if the Sawar rank was 4000 out of which 1000 was du-aspa sih-aspa,
salary for this Sawar was calculated as 3,000 × 8,000 + (1,000 × 8,000‘ × 2) = 40,000,000 dams.
Without du-aspa sih-aspa, salary for the 4,000 Sawar would have stood at (4,000 × 8,000) =
32,000,000 dams. Thus the mansabdar was to maintain double number of Sawars for the du-aspa
sih-aspa category and was paid for it. Jahangir probably introduced this provision to promote
nobles of his confidence and strengthen them militarily. By this provision he could increase the
military strength of his nobles without effecting any change in their Zat rank. Any increase in
their Zat rank would not only have led to jealously among other nobles but also an additional
burden on the treasury. Shahjahan introduced the month-scale in the, mansabdari system to
compensate the gap between Jama (estimated income) and hasil (actual realisation). The
mansabaars were generally paid through revenue assignments Jagirs. The biggest problem was
that calculation was made on the basis of the expected income (Jama) from the Jagir during one
year. It was noticed that the actual revenue collection (hasil) always fellshort of the estimated
income. In such a situation, the mansabdar‘s salary was fixed by a method called month-scale.
Thus, if a Jagir yielded only half of the Jama, it was called Shashmaha (six monthly), if it
yielded only one fourth, it was called Sihmaha (three monthly). The month scale was applied to
cash salaries also. There were deductions from the sanctioned pay also. During the reign of
Shahjahan the mansabdars were allowed to maintain 1/5 to 1/3 of the sanctioned strength of the
Sawar rank without any accompanying reduction in their claim on the maintenance amount for
the Sawar rank. Aurangzeb continued with all these changes and created an additional rank
called Mashrut (conditional). This was an attempt to increase the sawar rank of the mansabdar
temporarily. Aurangzeb added one another deduction called Khurak-idawwab, towards meeting
the cost for feed of animals in the imperial stables.
Jagirdary System
The system of assignment of revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their
services to the state continued under the Mughals also. Under the Mughals, the areas assigned
were generally called Jagir and its holders Jagirdars. The Jagirdari system was an integral part
of the mansabdari system which developed under Akbar and underwent certain changes during
the reign of his successors. During Akbar‘s period all the territory was broadly divided into two:
Khalisa and Jagir. The revenue from the first went to imperial treasury, and that from Jagir was
assigned to Jagirdars in lieu of their cash salary. Salary entitlements of mansabdars were
calculated on the basis of their Zat and Sawar ranks. The salary was paid either in cash (in that
case they were called Naqdi) or through the assignment of a Jagir, the latter being the preferable
mode. In case the payment was made through the assignment of a Jagir, the office of the central
Diwan would identify parganas the sum total of whose Jama was equal to the salary claim of the
mansabdars. In case the recorded Jama was in excess of salary claim the assignee was required to
deposit the balance with the central treasury. On the other hand, if it was less than the salary
claim the short fall was paid from the treasury. However, none of the assignments was
permanent or hereditary. The Emperor could shift part or the entire Jagir from one part of the
imperial territory to another at any time. The ratio between Jagir and Khalisa kept fluctuating
during the Mughal rule. During Akbar‘s period Khalisa was only 5% of total revenue, under
Jahangir it was 10%, under Shahjahan it fluctuated between 9 to 15%. In the latter part of
Aurangzeb‘s reign there was a great pressure on the Khalisa as the number of claimants for Jagir
increased with the increase in the number of mansabdars. The jagirdars were also transferred
from one Jagir to another (but in certain cases they were allowed to keep their Jagir in one
locality for longer period of time). The system of transfer checked the Jagirdars from developing
local roots. At the same time, its disadvantage was that it discouraged the Jagirdars from taking
long term measures for the development of their areas. There were various types of Jagirs.
Tankha Jagirs were given in lieu of salaries, Mashrut Jagirs were given on certain conditions,
Watan Jagirs were assigned to Zamindar or rajas in their local dominions. Altamgha Jagirs were
given to Muslim nobles in their family towns or place of birth. Tankha Jagirs were transferable
every three to four years. Watan Jagirs were hereditary and non transferable. When a Zamindar
was made a mansabdar, he was given Tankha Jagir apart from his watan Jagir at another place,
if the salary of his rank was more than the income from his watan Jagir. The Jagirdars were
allowed to collect only authorized revenue in accordance with the imperial regulations. The
jagirdars employed their own officials like amil etc. The imperial office kept watch on the
Jagirdars. The Diwan of the suba was supposedto prevent the oppression of the peasants by the
Jagirdars. Amin was posted in each suba to see that Jagirdars were following imperial
regulations. Faujdar used to help the Jagirdas if they faced any difficulty in the collection of
revenue.
Mughal coinage
The Mughals attached a great importance to the coinage as Akbar started to practice of
issuing coins and established royal mint with Abdus Samad the famous painter being the head of
it. The Mughal coinage was mainly based on the rupee and dam issued by Sher Shah Suri.The
rupee was the most famous of all Mughal coins. Muhar was the standard gold coin of about 170-
175 grain and it was very popular. Jalali was a silver coin in square shape issued by Akbar.
Nisar, Nur Afshan and Khair qasul were the smaller silver coins issued by Jahangir. Daun was
the copper coin used by the common people in day to day transactions. The copper Daun was
known as falus, sikah falus, Nisfi, damra and damri.
5.6 Mughal economy
India under the Mughals was famous for its wealth and prosperity. The Mughals' military
and cultural achievements were possible because of the affluence that stemmed from
agriculture, manufacturing, and overland and maritime trade. Despite the sometimes
extortionate demands that the Mughal state made, the establishment of a structure of systematic
government and a level of security stimulated trade and manufactures. There was an uneven
distribution of wealth among the various classes. How ever the general economic condition of
the people was satisfactory.
Agriculture
Major products were rice, wheat,barley,jawar and millets. Cash crops like cotton and
sugarcane were known as Jinas-I-Kamil and Jinas-I-Ala. Cultivated medicinal herbs, spices and
indigo
Agricultural products were exported. Government provided irrigation and other facilities
for the development of agriculture. Tobacco and chilies were introduced by the Portuguese.
Rice was cultivated mainly in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Gujarat and Kashmir. Wheat and
Barley- cultivated principally at Panjab,Madhya Pradesh and Agra where as Jawar at Dipalpur,
Millets at Ajmir,Gujarat and Khandesh, Cotton at Khandesh and Bengal and Sugar and Indigo at
Bengal and Sindh.
Industries
Cottage, small scale and large scale industries promulgated. Cotton and silk weaving,
dyeing, shawl and carpet making were the major industries. Cotton textile was the principal
industry. Silk and Saltpeter was produced in plenty. Paper manufacturing and shipping industry
promulgated. Principal crafts were the manufacture of furniture,boxes and stools,leather
goods,pottery and metal work. Perfection was attained in wood designing and ivory carving and
working of metals and precious stones. Many artisans worked for the state in the Imperial work
shops or Karkanas. They were located at Lahore,Agra,Fatehpur Sikri and Ahmedabad. The items
produced by the Karkanas for Royal consumption included caps,shoes,curtains etc.
Trade and Commerce
Internal and foreign trade promulgated much. Roads were fairly secure and contributed to
the growth of trade. Mercantile traffic passed through roads and rivers. Munim Khan built a
bridge at Jaunpur under Akbar. Ravi canal was repaired under Shajahan in 1639. Prices of daily
use were very cheap. Virji Vora of Surat was the richest man who lived under the Mughals.
Foreign trade developed with different countries of Europe and Asia. The principal land route in
th enorth west, one from Lahore to Kabul and the other from Multan to Khandhar. European
powers like Prtuguese and English were permitted to establish factories. The chief ports were
Surat, Broach, Cambey, Bassain, Chaul, Bhatkal, Calicut, Nagapatnam, Masulipatnam and
Sonargaon. Surat was the emporium of western trade. The main items of export were
textiles,luxury goods,pepper,indigo,opium and saltpeter. The chief imports were wines,Persian
carpets,Arabian horses and African slaves. Akbar and Jahangir took great interest in the foreign
sea born trade. It is interesting to note that the Mughal emperors imported dogs from Europe.
There were 26 varieties of gold coins circulated by the Mughals. The Imperial Mint was at Delhi.
Mints functioned in Bengal, Lahore, Jaunur, Ahmadabad and Patna. Shajahan kept a mint at
Surat
Growth of Fort Cities
Forts played an important part during the Mughal period. Important forts were those at
Allahabad,Kalinjar,Chunar,Rohtas,Ajmir,Gwalior,Delhi,Lahore,Ranthambor,Qandhar,Kabul,Asi
garh,Daulatabad,Aurangabad,Bijapur and Golkonda. Foodgrains, ammunitions etc.were stored in
these forts. Forts were used for offensive as well as defensive purposes. Political prisoners were
put in the forts. Accounts of foreign travellers reveal that a number of industries flourished under
the Mughals. India was a rich manufacturing nation under the Mughals. Manufacturing was a
rural activity under the Mughals. Textiles, silk, diamond, and woolen were the most important
large scale industries. Export promulgated under the Mughals. Foreign travelers mentioned that
nearly 160 varieties of textiles were exported to various parts of Asia and Europe. Diamond
mining associated with Golconda was an important industry. Iron mining and copper mining
developed in Singbum and Khetri in Rajastan. River transport was largely used for exports.
Brahmaputra, Ganga and Kavery basin were largely utilized. Lahore and Multan were large trade
centres. Bengal played a crucial role for trade to Peru and Malaaca. Trade significantly
developed with the emergence of the Europeans.
5.7 Art and Architecture uner the Mughals
It was in the domain of architecture that the Mughals made their impressive contribution to
Indian Culture. Indian architecture entered a new phase under the Mughals. It shows a good
blending of Indian and Persian art. All the Mughal emperors except Aurangzeb were great
builders. Babur constructed buildings at Agra, Sikri,Gwalior, Dholpur and Bayana. But only the
Mosque at Kabulibagh at Paniput and Jama Masjid at sambal exist today. Humayun raised some
buildings like Din Panah, a palace in Delhi and Mosques in Fatehbad in the Hissar district of
Panjab. Akbar had a great passion for buildings and he constructed many marvels in this art. The
Humayun‘s Tomb at Delhi was constructed in the year 1569.He built the Agra Fort on the banks
of river Yamuna. The main gate of this building is popularly known as Delhi Gate. The most
important building in the Agra Fort is Jahangiri Mahal.The city of fatehpur Sikri was built by
Akbar in 1569.The most important buildings in this city were the House of Birbal,the Panch
Mahal,the Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas. Akbar erected the Buland Darwasa in the Fatehpur
Sikri to commemorate the victory at Deccan.He also constructed the Jama Masjid,the Ibadat
Khana and the Tomb of Salim Chishti. Jahangir built the Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra.He
also built the Tomb of Itimd-ud-Daulah in memory of his Nur Jahan‘s father.It was built at Agra.
The art of India reached its zenith under Shajahan. He was called the Engineer King and the
Prince of Builders. In Delhi he built the most important buildings like Jama Masjid and Red
Fort.Some of the prominent biuldings within the Red Fort were Diwan-i-Am,Diwan-i-Khas and
Rang Mahal.He built the famous Moti Masjid at Agra.The famous Taj Mahal was built by him in
memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.It is called the Dream in Marble.. The period of Aurangzeb
witnessed the decay of Mughal architecture.
 MODULE 6
IMPACT OF ISLAM ON INDIAN SOCIETY & CULTURE

Contents

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Sufism in India
6.4 Bhakti Movement
6.5 Arabic & Persian Literature
6.6 Indo-Saracenic Art &Architecture
6.7 Mughal painting.
6.1 Introduction
Islam had a great and lasting effect on Indian subcontinent in terms of society, art,
religion etc. Islam influenced the Hindu society in two ways. Firstly, the missionary zeal of Islam
which aimed at conversion of the maximum number of Hindus to Islam gave rise to con-
servatism. The Hindu leaders thought that they could save their religion and culture only by
adopting more orthodox outlook. The Bhakti movement was to a large extent influenced by
Islam and the Hindu reformers preached fundamental equality of all religions and the unity of
God. Sufism exercised considerable influence on the Hindu society and the Sufi saints attracted
the attention of the, Hindus. The influence of Isdlam was also noticed in economy, society,
language and literature and art and architecture.
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Sufism in India
The Sufi movement was a socio-religious movement of fourteenth to sixteenth century. The
exponents of this movement were unorthodox Muslim saints who had a deep study of vedantic
philosophy and Buddhism of India. They had gone through various religious text of India and
had come in contact with great sages and seers of India. They could see the Indian religion from
very near and realized its inner values. Accordingly they developed Islamic Philosophy which at
last gave birth to the Sufi Movement.
The Sufi movement therefore was the result of the Hindu influence on Islam. This movement
influenced both the Muslims and Hindus and thus, provided a common platform for the
two.Though the Sufis were devout Muslims, yet they differed from the orthodox Muslims. While
the former believed in inner purity, the latter believed in external conduct. The union of the
human soul with God through love and devotion was the essence of the teachings of the Sufi
Saints. The method of their realizing God was the renunciation of the World and Worldly
pleasures. They lived a secluded life.

They were called Sufis as they wore garments of Wool (suf) as their budge of poverty. Thus the
name ‗Sufi‘ is derived from the word Suf. They consider love to be the only means of reaching
God. Historian Tara Chand says, ―Sufism indeed was a religion of intense devotion, love was its
passion; poetry, song and dance, its worship and passing away in God its ideal‖.

The Sufis did not attach importance to namaz, hajj and celibacy. That is why they were
misunderstood by orthodox muslims. They regarded Singing and dancing as methods of inducing
a state of ecstasy which brought one nearer to realisation of God. There were some leading Sufi
saints like Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-ud-din Auliya etc.

6.3.1 Sufi Saints

Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti (1143-1234):

Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti was a great Sufi Saint of India. The Chisti order was established in
India by him. He was born in 1143 A.D. in Seistan in Persia. He came to India around 1192 A.D.
shortly before the defeat and death of Prithvi Raj Chauhan and settled on at Ajmer. It is said that
some of the Hindu families influenced Prithviraj to drive out Muinuddin Chisti from his state.

Accordingly Prithvi Raj sent the chief priest of Ajmer, Rama Deo, with an order to Muinuddin to
leave his state. But Rama Deo was so much impressed and fascinated with the personality of
Chisti that he became his disciple and remained with him. In this way he attracted everyone who
came in contact with him. He had a large number of followers.

By leading a very simple ascetic way of life and spreading the message of love and equality, he
had tried to wipe out ill- feelings from the minds of the people of two communities i.e. Hindus
and Muslims. Of course no authentic record of his activities is available. He did not write any
book but his fame rose with the fame of his successors. However living for a long period of more
than ninety years and spreading the message of love and universal brotherhood he breathed his
last in 1234 A.D.

Farid-ud-din Ganj-i-Shakar (1176-1268):

Farid-ud-din Ganj-i-Shakar was another great Sufi Saint of India. He was popularly known as
Baba Farid. He was a great disciple of Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti. He spent most of his time in
Hansi and Ajodhan (in modern Haryana and the Punjab, respectively). He was deeply respected
in Delhi. He was surrounded by a large number of people whenever he visited Delhi.

His outlook was so broad and humane that some of his verses are later found quoted in the Adi-
Granth of the Sikhs. He avoided the company of the Sultan and the Amirs. He used to say,
―Every darvesh who makes friends with the nobles will end badly‖. Baba Farid raised the chisti
order of the Sufis to the status of an all India organisation by his high mysticism and the religions
activities. He breathed his last in 1268 A.D.

Nizam-ud-din Auliya (1235-1325):

Nizam-ud-din Auliya was the most famous of the Chisti Saints. He was the disciple of Baba
Farid. He came to Delhi in 1258 and settled in the Village Chiaspur near Delhi. In his life time
seven Sultans ruled over Delhi, but he did not go to any of them. When the Sultan Ala-ud-din
Khilizi once expressed his desire to meet him, he said, ―I have two doors in my home. If the
Sultan would enter through one door I would go out through the other.‖

Nizam-ud-din‘s strong personality and mystic ideology made him most popular. He laid much
emphasis on love which leads one to the realization of God. He also said that love of God means
love of humanity. Thus he spread the message of universal love and brotherhood. He said that
those who love god for the sake of human beings and those who love human beings for the sake
of God are favorite to God. This is the best way to love and adore God. However, preaching his
teachings for a long period he breathed his last in 1325 A.D. After him, the Chistis did not stay
around Delhi; they dispersed and extended their message to the eastern and southern parts of
India.
6.3.2 Sufi Orders or Silsilahs

The ChishtiSilsilah
The Chisti Order was established in India by MuinuddinChishti who moved to India after
the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori and subsequently to Ajmer in 1206. The fame of
KhwajaMuinuddin grew after his death in 1235. His grave was visited by Muhammad Tughlaq
after which the mosque and dome were erected by Mahmud Khalji of Malwa in the fifteenth
century. The patronage of this dargah peaked after the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.

The Chishtis believed in love as the bond between God and individual soul and tolerance
between people of different faiths.They accepted disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs.
They associated with Hindu and Jain yogi‘s, and used simple language. The Chishti presence in
Delhi was established by QutbuddinBakhtiyar Kaki who settled in Delhi from his homeland in
Trans-oxiana in 1221. This was at the time of the Mongol invasions when there was a steady
flow of people from central Asia fleeing from the Mongols. QutbuddinBakhtiyar Kaki presence
in Delhi was a threat to the Suhrawardis who sought to force him to leave by leveling charges
against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish, dismissed these attempts eventually forcing the
Suhrawardis to relent. The Chishtipirs laid great emphasis on the simplicity of life, poverty,
humility and selfless devotion to God. The renunciation of worldly possessions was regarded by
them as necessary for the control of the senses that was necessary to maintain a spiritual life.
KhwajaMuinuddinChishti argued that highest form of devotion to God was to redress the misery
of those in distress, fulfilling the need of the helpless and to feed the hungry.Chisti‘s refused to
accept any grant for their maintenance from the Sultans. The other important Chishti Baba
FariduddinGanj-i-Shakar, established himself at Hansi (in Haryana) on the route between Multan
and Lahore. Nizamuddin Auliya, was the best known Chishti saint of the Sultanate period. He
lived in the fourteenth century, during a period of political change and turmoil. During his
lifetime he was witness to the establishment of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban and
subsequently the establishment of the Tughlaq‘s.

There are numerous stories surrounding the life of NizamuddinAuliya, famous among
them were stories of his confrontations with the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said to have
maintained a strict policy of not involving himself with the various groups and factions of the
Sultan‘s court in Delhi earning him the respect of many. NasiruddinChiragh Dehlvi was another
of the Chishti saint of Delhi. He played an active role in the political affairs of the period. In the
13th century the Chishti Order was established in the Deccan by Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib.
Between the 14th and 16th centuries many Chishti Sufis migrated to Gulbarga. This was
accompanied with a change where some of the Chishtis began accepting grants and patronage
from the ruling establishment.Muhammad Banda Nawaz was among the famous pirs in the
region.The Deccan city of Bijapur emerged as an important centre for Sufi activity.

The Suhrawardi Silsilah

This Silsilah was founded by ShihabuddinSuhrawardi in Baghdad. It was established in India
by Bahauddin Zakariya who founded the Suhrawardi Order, based in Mutan, which was under the
control of Qubacha. BahauddinZakariya was critical of Qubacha and openly favored Iltutmish over
his rival. BahauddinZakariya‘s ways were different from that of the Chishtis.
The Suhrawardis, unlike the Chishtis, accepted, maintenance grants from the Sultans. They believed
that a Sufi should possess the three attributes of property, knowledge and hal or mystical
enlightenment.Suhrawardi saints argued that this was necessary to ensure that they served the poor
better. BahauddinZakariya stressed on the observance or external forms of religious belief and
advocated a combination of ilm (scholarship) with mysticism. Practices like bowing before the
sheikh, presenting water to visitors and tonsuring the head at the time of initiation into the Order that
the Chishtis had adopted were rejected. After his death the silsilah continued to play an important
role in Punjab and Sindh.

Naqshbandi Silsilah
In India this order was established by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi. From the
beginning the mystics of this Order stressed on the observance of the Shariat and denounced all
innovations or biddat. Sheikh BaqiBillah the successor to KhawajaBahauddinNaqshbandi settled
near Delhi, and his successor Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi attempted to purge Islam from all liberal
and what he believed were ‗un-Islamic‘ practices. He opposed the listening of sama (religious
music) and the practice of pilgrimage to the tombs of saints. He opposed interaction with Hindus
and Shias. He criticised the new status accorded by Akbar to many non-Muslims, the
withdrawal of the Jizyah and the ban on cow slaughter. He believed that he was the mujaddid
(renewer) of the first millennium of Islam. He maintained that the relationship between man and
God was that between the slave and the master and not the relation of a lover and beloved.
He emphasized the individual‘s unique relation of faith and responsibility to God as creator. He
tried to harmonize the doctrines of mysticism and the teachings of orthodox Islam.

The QadriSilsilah
The Quadiriyyasilsilah was popular in Punjab. Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons were
supporters of the Mughals under Akbar. The pirs of this Order supported the concept of Wahdat
al Wajud. Among the famous Sufis of this order was Miyan Mir who had enrolled the Mughal
princess Jahanara and her brother Dara as disciples. The influence of the sheikh‘s teachings is
evident in the works of the prince Dara. Shah Badakhshani another pir of this silsilah while
dismissing orthodox elements, declared that, the infidel who had perceived reality and
recognised it was a believer and that a believer who did not recognise reality was an infidel.
During medieval period there was constant tension between the liberal and orthodox views in
Islam. The sufis featured on both sides, while there were those like the Chishtis who held a
liberal view and argued in favour of assimilation of local traditions there were others like Sheikh
Abdul Haqq of the Qadiriyyasilsilah who held the view that the purity of Islam was being
diluted. This Orthodox view was represented by the ulema that argued from the perspective of
being upholders of the Shariat. The liberal opinion found its voice among many sufis who argued
against the narrow definition of Islamic laws by the ulema.
6.4 Medieval Bhakti Movement

Bhakti means personal devotion to God. It stresses the Union of the individual with God.
Bhakti movement originated in South India between the 7th and the 12th centuries A..D. The
Nayanmars, who worshipped Siva, and the Alwars, who worshipped Vishnu, preached the idea
of Bhakti. They carried their message of love and devotion to various parts of South India
through the medium of the local language. They preached among common people. It made some
of the followers of the Vedic faith to revive the old Vedic religion. Saints like Sankara,
Ramanuja and Madhwa gave their concepts of God and the individual soul.

The Bhakti movement in North India gained momentum due to the Muslim conquest.
The saints of the Bhakti Movement were men and women of humble origin. They came from all
castes and classes. They had visited from place to place singing devotional songs. They had also
preached the Unity of God and brotherhood of man. They had stressed tolerance among various
religious groups. Their preaching was simple.

The main principles of Bhakti movement were : (1) God is one, (2) To worship God man
should serve humanity, (3) All men are equal, (4) Worshipping God with devotion is better than
performing religious ceremonies and going on pilgrimages, and (5) Caste distinctions and
superstitious practices are to be given up. The Hindu saints of the Bhakti Movement and the
Muslim saints of the Sufi movement became more liberal in their outlook. They wanted to get
rid of the evils which had crept into their religions. There were a number of such saints from the
8th to 16th century A.D. We shall deal with some of them here.

Ramanuja : Ramanuja was one of the earliest reformers. Born in the South, he made a
pilgrimage to some of the holy places in Northern India. He considered God as an Ocean of
Love and beauty. His teachings were based on the Upanishads and Bhagwad Gita. Whatever he
taught, he had taught in the language of the common man. Soon a large number of people
became his followers. Ramanand was his disciple. He took his message to Northern parts of
India.

Ramananda : Ramananda was the first reformer to preach in Hindi, the main language
spoken by the people of the North. He was educated at Benaras. He preached that there is
nothing high or low. All 109 men are equal in the eyes of God. He was an ardent worshipper of
Rama. He welcomed people of all castes and status to follow his teachings. He had twelve chief
disciples. One of them was a barber, another was a weaver, the third one was a cobbler and the
other was the famous saint Kabir and the fifth one was a woman named Padmavathi. He
considered God as a loving father. He lived in the 14th century A.D.

Kabir : Kabir was an ardent disciple of Ramananda. It is said that he was the son of a
Brahmin widow who had left him near a tank at Varanasi. A Muslim couple Niru and his wife
who were weavers brought up the child. Later he became a weaver but he was attracted by the
teachings of Swami Ramananda. He wanted unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. He
preached that both the Hindus and the Muslims are the children of a single God. He had no faith
in idol worship, religious rituals and ceremonies. He taught that Allah and Eswar, Ram and
Rahim are one and the same. They are present everywhere. The devotees of Kabir were known
as Kabir Panthis. What Kabir said about God? I am neither in temple nor in Mosque, neither in
Kaaba nor in Kailash; I am not in any ritual or rite nor in yoga or in renunciation; If thou be a
true seeker, thou shall find me in a moment. He also said: ―To the East is Hari, to the West
Allah‘s abode, search thy heart, within the inner core, Ram and Rahim live there. Thousands of
people, both Hindus and Muslims became Kabir‘s followers.‖ He probably lived in the fifteenth
century A.D. Namdeva : Namdeva was a waterman by birth. He hailed from Maharashtra. He
composed beautiful hymns in Marathi. They are full of intense devotion to God. He worshipped
Vishnu in the form of Lord Vithoba. Some of his verses are included in the Guru Granth Sahib,
the holy book of the Sikhs. A large number of people from different castes became his followers.

Guru Nanak. (A.D.1469 - A.D.1538): Guru Nanak was the founder of the Sikh religion.
From his childhood, he did not show any interest in worldly affairs. At the age of 29, he left his
home and became a Sadhu. He went to Mecca and Medina. He had travelled far and wide to
spread his teachings. Guru Nanak had finally settled at Karthpur. He laid emphasis on pure and
simple living. He preached the Unity of God and condemned idolatry. He was against the caste
system. Guru Nanak‘s followers are called the Sikhs. He started the Langer or the common
kitchen, where people belonging to all castes or religions could have their meals together.
Nanak‘s teachings were in the form of verses. They were collected in a book called the Adi
Granth. Later Adi Grantham was written in a script called Gurmukhi. The holy book of the Sikhs
is popularly known as ‗Grantha Sahib‘. It contains verses from Kabir, Namdeva and
other Bhakti and Sufi saints.

Chaitanya (A.D.1485 - A.D.1533) : Chaitanya, a great devotee of Lord Krishna, was a

saint from Bengal. From his very childhood, he had showed great interest in education and
studied Sanskrit. He married the daughter of a Saintly person. Later at the age of 24, he
renounced the worldly life and became a sanyasin. He travelled all over the Deccan,Bihar,
Bengal and Orissa. His followers regarded him as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. He helped the
old and the needy. He was opposed to the inequalities of the caste system. He emphasised the
need for tolerance, humanity and love. He spread the message of Bhakti in Bengal. He
popularised ‗Sankritan‘or public singing of God‘s name. His songs are still very popular in
Bengal. He was addressed `Mahaprabhu‘ by his followers. Tulsi Das : Goswamy Tulsidas was a
devotee of Rama. His work gives the story of Rama in Hindi. He was the foremost in
popularising Rama cult. His other works in Hindi are Janaki Mangal and Parvathi Mangal. In his
writtings he insists the duty of a son to his parent, duty of a student to his teacher and duty of a
king to his people. Rama was a dear son to his parents, devoted student to his teacher and a
desirable king to his subjects.

Meerabai : Meerabai was a Rajput princess. She married the Rana of Mewar. She was a
pious devotee of Lord Krishna. She has written many songs in praise of Krishna, her favourite
God, in Rajastani. Her songs or hymns are even today sung all over India. Her palace was kept
open to people of all castes to join her Bhajans of Lord Krishna. She had visited all places
connected with the life of Lord Krishna. She had lived for the most part of her life in Mathura,
the birth place of Krishna and Vrindaban. There is a temple dedicated to Meerabai in Chittor, the
capital of Mewar.
 Guru Ramdas: Ramdas was a famous teacher. He was born in A.D. 1608. Chatrapati
Shivaji, the great Maratha ruler, was a follower of Ramdas. He stressed upon the equality of all
men before God. He said that anyone could attain God‘s favour by means of Bhakti. Guru
Ramdas was not merely a religious preacher but also a Nation Builder.

Tukaram: Tukaram was a saint who lived in Maharashtra. He composed a large number
of verses called Abhangas or devotional songs in praise of Panduranga or Krishna. He believed
in one God who was kind, merciful and protective. He wrote all his abhangas in Marathi.

Jnaneshwar: He is one of the greatest saints of Maharashtra. He worshipped Vishnu in

the form of Vithoba or Krishna. At the age of 112 fourteen, he translated the Bhagawad Gita into
the Marathi language. This book is called Jnaneshwari.

Nayanmars: In South India, the Nayanmars and Alwars were the noted saints of the
Bhakti movement. The Nayanmars, the devotees of Siva, were sixty three in number. The most
famous among them were Appar, Sundarar, Thirugnana Sambandar and Manickavachakar.
These saints composed many verses in praise of Lord Siva. A saint named Nambiandar Nambi
collected the devotional songs of Nayanmars. Appar, Sundarar and Thirugnana Sambandar
composed the Thevaram hymns. Manickvachakar‘s songs are known as Tiruvachakam.
Periyapuranam, written by Sekhizhar, tells us the life stories of the Nayanmars.

Alwars: The Alwars were the worshippers of Lord Vishnu who were twelve in number.
Among them Nammalwar, Tirumangai Alwar, Andal and Perialwar were famous. The songs of
the Alwars were compiled in a book called Nalayira Divya Prabandham by Nadamuni. The
devotional song of Andal is called Thiruppavai. Thirupavai songs are famous in Tamilnadu.
These songs are even now sung during the Tamil month of margazhi (December - January).

Basava: Basava lived in Karnataka. He founded the Virasaiva or Lingayat sect.

According to Basava, Siva was the supreme God. Basava opposed child marriage and idol
worship.

The sacred book of the Sikhs, the followers of Guru Nanak is the ―Adi Granth‖, in which
―Janam Sakhi‖ forms the part of it. Adi Granth was compiled at the time of Guru Arjun, fifty
years after the death of Guru Nanak. Afterwards, Guru Tegh Bahadur incorporated the writings
of the Gurus before himself to Adi Granth and formed the ―Guru Granth Sahib‖. The later Sikhs
behave with the Guru Granth as a lived Guru.

Dadu Dayal (1544-1603 AD). He was a disciple of Kabir, who supports Hindu-Muslim
unity. His followers were known as Dadu Panthis. Chaitanya was a devotee of lord Krishna, the
founder of Vaishnavism in Bengal and popularized Kirtan. Mirabai was a devotee of lord
Krishna, composed a number of songs and poems in honor of Krishna. Tulsidas depicted Rama
as the incarnation. He wrote ―Ramcharitmanas‖. Tukaram was a devotee of Vithal, founded the
Varhan sect. His teachings are contained in Abhangas. He was a contemporary of Maratha king
Shivaji. Ram Das is the author of ―Dasabodh‖. His teachings inspired Shivaji to establish an
independent kingdom in Maharashtra.

6.5 Arabic & Persian Literature

The Sultans and the rulers of provincial dynasties gave huge importance to literature. They
provided shelter to different scholars who produced historical, religious literature in other fields
of knowledge. Literature was produced not only in Persian and Sanskrit but also in other
religious languages. Books were written in the form of prose, drama and poetry. The saints of
Bhakti movements also participated in the literatures of the regional languages. The Sultans of
Delhi were interested in the progress of Persian literature. Al-beruni, who visited India in the
company of Mahmud of Ghazni, was a great scholar. Most Sultans of Delhi led protection to
scholars of Persian at their court which help-i he growth of Persian literature. Khwaja Abu Nasr,
poetically called Naisiri, Abu Bakar bin Muhammad Ruhani, Taj-ud-din and Nur-ud-din
Muhammad Awfi were famous scholars in the court of Sultan Iltutmish. Many Muslim scholars
from Persia and Central Asia fled away from there because of the Mongols and found shelter at
the courts of Sultan Balban and Ala-ud-din Khilji. Prince Muhammad the eldest son of Sultan
Balban was a patron of scholars and provided protection to two greatest scholars of his times,
that is, Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. Amir Khusrau has been regarded as the greatest Persian
poet of his age and is said to have written more than four lakhs of couplets. He wrote a number
of prose books also, most famous of them being the Khazain-ul-Fatuh, Tughlaq -nama, and the
Tarikh-i- Alai. A large number of scholars flourished at the courts of provincial rulers as well.
Sayyid Muin- ul- haq was famous in Sindh, Ibrahim Farukhi flourished in Bihar and Fazlullah
Zain-ul-Abidin was a scholar of Gujarat. Translation of certain Sanskrit books was also done in
Persian language during this period. The Hindu rulers, particularly those of Warangal and the
Vijayanagara Empire provided encouragement to Sanskrit literature. Different types of works
such as poetry, drama etc. were produced in Sanskrit and good works on philosophy and
religious commentaries were written by various scholars. Hammir Deva, Kumbha Karna,
Prataprudra Deva, Basantraja, Vemabhubhala, Katya Vem, Virupakaya, Narsingh,
Krisnadevaraya, Bhupal, and many other alike rulers patronised Sanskrit scholars and
encouraged their writings and a few of them were themselves scholars. The one novelty of this
period in literary field was the beginning of literature in different regional languages of India.
The Khariboli and Brajbhasa mostly spoken in western Uttar Pradesh provided the base for the
growth of Hindi literature. Amir Khusrau was regarded as a writer of both Hindi and Urdu.
Vidyapati Thakur who wrote works in Sanskrit, Hindi and Maithili encouraged the foundation of
Maithili literature towards the end of the fourteenth century. The saints of Bhakti movement who
gave their messages in the languages of the people also helped in the expansion of different
regional languages and thereby their literatures. This period, thus, witnessed the beginning of the
growth of nearly all regional languages of India like Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi,
Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Malayalam etc. This period witnessed the growth of literature in
different literature and different languages and was remarkable at least from two points of view.
One was that historical texts were prepared during this period because of the Muslim court
writers which was mostly neglected by the Hindus; and, secondly, it marked the beginning of
literatures of different Indian regional languages.

Mughal Literature

The Mughal period saw great developments in the field of literature. Many Mughal
emperors and members of the royal family were great men of letters. Babar the first Mughal
emperor was one of the pioneers of Turkish poetry and also the author of a very valuable
autobiography in Turkish BabarNama which was later translated into Persian.Gulbadan Begum
sister of Humayun wrote the Humayun Nama.Jahangir the great connoisseur of painting wrote
his autobiography the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri.Aurangzeb also was a prolific writer and the last
Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable Urdu poet.
 Hindi literature made significant progress during Akbar‘s reign.Tulsidas and the Surdas
wrote in this period.Keshavdas a great poet wrote on themes of love.Rahim‘s dohas or couplets
are extremely popular. It was also in Akbar‘s time that the great Sanskrit work on styles of
writing, the Alankarashekhara by Keshava Misra appeared. This was the period of many notable
writings in the Persian language.Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.Abul Fazl‘s
brother Faizi was a great poet of Persian and was responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit
works into Persian.Akbar had started a whole dept for translation of works like Mahabharata, the
Ramayana, the Atharva –Veda, the Bhagvad Gita and the Panchatantra.

Many important historical works were produced under the emperors after Akbar.Some of
the important historians were Abdul Hamid Lahori,Khafi Khan,Muhammad Kazim and Sujan
Rai Bhandari.Literature in modern Indian languages also continued to grow. The famous book of
Bihari called the Satsai in Hindi belongs to this period. One of the most significant developments
during the medieval period was the birth of the Urdu language. This new language soon
developed one of the richest literatures as a modern Indian language. It produced great poets like
Wali, Mir Dard, Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib. Many original prose
works in Urdu were written like Muhammad Hussain Azad‘s Darbar-i-Akbari.The Urdu novel
was one of the earliest developments in the Indian languages. Urdu became the language of the
urban people of northern India and the Deccan.

6.6 Indo-Saracenic Art &Architecture

Architectural activity under the Sultanate commenced of immediately with the
establishment of the Muslim empire. The foundation of the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi and
the other mosque known as Delhi ka Johupran were laid down by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak spent
most of his brief reign at Lahore. The adornment of Muslim capital was essentially the work of
Iltutmish. He doubled the size of the Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque and built ―Qutb Minar.‖Fergusan
said, ―As the most perfect example of the tower known to exist anywhere‖. He also built
Nasiriya Madrassa and Hauz-i-Shams.
Khilji rulers also built many beautiful edifices. Ala-ud-Din Khilji was a great builder. He
made many beautiful additions in Qwat-ul-Islam Mosque and constructed a tower known as
―Hauz-i-Ala‖ Madrasa Ala, Ala Darwaza and Jamat Khana Mosque, were constructed by him at
the Dargah of Nizam-ul-Din Auliya. Fort of Siri, Fort of Hazor-Piller and Hauz Khas are other
building built by him.
Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq laid the foundation of a town namely Tughlaqabad near Dehli. Its
simplicity is clearly visible though Muhammad Tughlaq was the patron of art and learning yet he
could not pay concentration to both sides. However, he built the city of Jahanpanah and fort of
Adilabad. Firoz Tughlaq founded Firozabad, Hisar Firoza, Fatehabad and Jaurpur.
Owing to Tamur‘s invasion in 1398 A.D., the resources of the country on the whole
suffered a great setback. However, the tombs of Mubarak Shah and Muhammad Shah were built
during the reign of Sayed‘s dynasty and tomb of Sikander Lodi in Lodi period. Other buildings
are the tomb of Bare Khan, Chhote Khan, Bare Gunbad, etc.
The buildings at Delhi, where foreign Muslim builders were available in the largest
numbers, display the traditional characteristics of the Muslims at its highest. Here Hindu craft
ship had only a limited play. At Juanpur and Deccan, the local style enjoyed greater ascendancy.
At Bengal, the conquerors not only adopted the established fashion of buildings but also adorned
their structures imitated by the Hindu prototypes. Before the arrival of the Muslims, concrete had
been in little use in India and was scarcely used. But the Mohammedans employed the same as
freely as the Romans. Even in Delhi, the style varied with different periods when Muslim
architects and supervisors were not available. The true Islamic architecture can be seen in
Iltutmish period with Ala-ud-Din when the Muslim tradition became firmly established and
ornamentation became an integral part. The Tughlaq introduced a new and austere phase, ―a
severe and puritanical simplicity‖. In the Tughlaq architecture, the Hindu influence not only
reduced to minimum but suffered from serious faults. Under the Lodhies, there reemerged a
vigorous and catholic spirit of design, replete with creative energy and imagination and almost
reminiscent of the Khilji period.
Mughal Art and Architecture
The splendor of Mughal art always appeals to the aesthetic spirit of a art lover. The
subtlety of the finesse and the dazzle of the aura associated with the artistic achievements calls
for a keen interest in the subject. Under the Mughals(1526-1858) India grew into a prolific centre
of cultural cultivation ,literary pursuit and architectural marvel,comparable to the Iran under the
Safavids. A fundamental feature of Mughal art was manuscipt-illumination. A noteworthy
example is Persian miniature painting. One of such painting shows a small figure of Akbar,
holding a flower and carrying a sword by his side. The presence of the flower and the sword is
very symbolic.Flower represents calmness and peace-loving attributes of Akbar, while the sword
speaks for his royal origin, blue-blood and inherent bravery. These Mughul paintings were
usually invested with rich imagery and profound meanings. During Humayun`s rule, the intricate
illustration of Amir Hamza, a fabulous narrative produced 1400 paintings on cloth were
conducted by expert Persian painters. Building style flourished under the Mughal emperors from
the mid 16th to the 17th century. The Mughal period marked a striking revial of Islamic
architecture in northern India, where persian, Indian and vaiuor provincial styles were fused to
produce works of great refinement. White marble and red sandstone were favoured material. The
mausoleum built to commemorate Humayun was probably the first great Mughal architecture.
The tomb is laid down in a garden with octagonal chambers linked to an exquisite archway and
with kiosks,cupolas and pinnacles affixed to it. The eminent Persian architect, Mirza Miyak
Ghiyas, gave shape to it. The use of double dome, arecessed archway inside a rectanglar fronton
(arena), and parklike surroundings are typical of the Shah Jahan period, when Mughal design
reached its zenith. The Fatehpur Sikhri, built in 1571, is a wonderful manifestation of a beautiful
blend of Christain, Hindu, Persian, Buddhist and Jain architectural influences, besides being an
Islamic artistry. The building reflects Akbar`s design of making it a House of Worship, for the
syncretic religion "Din-i -illahi". The Panch Mahal, the tallest tower in the premises of the
Mughal Palace, and the Diwan-i-Khas are elegant architectural constructions. Akbar promoted
the writings of literary figures like Abul Fazl composing informative texts like Ain-I-Akbari and
Akbarnama. The "Lilabati", an enlightening work on mathematics by Faizi,casts light on the
Mughals` indepth knowledge of the discipline. Even the "Memoirs"of Babur,a comprehensive
literature of human history received its Persian version from the famous Abdur Rahim Khan is
anh important literary development of Akbar`s regime. Jahangir prioritized the potraiture of
events from his own life, scientific study of the flora and the fauna above manuscript-
illumination. Mansur and Manohar were his favourite painters.The fascination for nature`s
beauty is demonstrated in the creation of the gorgeous Shalimar Bagh, one of his most beautiful
gardens, on the heavenly banks of the Dal Lake in Kashmir. Architectural excellences like the
five-tiered tomb of his father,Akbar, the white marble magic in Ajmer and other opulent marble
formations soothes the eye. The acme of perfection of Mughal architecture is the Taj Mahal
(made from 1628-1658), set on the banks of the river Yamuna. This romantic structure, all the
more divine-looking in a moonlit night, is vocal of the emotional intensity in the perpetual
perennial love of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz. In 1638, Shah Jahan declared Delhi as the capital, and
authenticated his decision with the foundation of the historic Red Fort in Delhi. Another
testimony of artistic grandeur is the ravishing peacock throne, which is itself beauty personified.
Artistic ventures started experiencing decline since the orthodox rule of Aurangzeb.
Nevertheless, the coming up of the Lahore Masjhid is a ray of hope in the depressing darkness.
However, the Mughals never perish into the void of oblivion .Their artistic richness continues to
enchant admirers forever.
6.7 Mughal painting
Like art and architecture the Mughal painting represented the happy mingling of Indian as well
as Muslim elements. The origin,nature and development of Mughal painting is similar to Mughal
architecture. Though there were influence of Persian and Chinese art,the Mughal painting in
course of time had been completely Indianised. The Mughal pictures were small in size and
hence they were known as ―Miniature Painting‖. Remarkable achievement was made by the
Mughal School in portrait painting
Painting under Babur
As a great lover of beauty,art and nature,he patronised painting. He employed court
painters and in the paintings known as Alwar Manuscript we can find the representation of his
memoirs. When he came to India he brought with him the best painters of his mother country.

Painting under Humayun

Humayun developed a taste for painting while he was in exile in Persia. He brought to India two
master painters- Khwaja Abdul Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali. These painters prepared an
ellustrated copy of Hamza Nama in 12 volumes. Mir Sayyid Ali was often called as ―Raphael of
the East‖
Painting under Akbar
The walls of Akbar,s new capital at Fatehpur Sikri were embellished with master pieces of
paintings. He set up a separate department of painting under Khwaja Abdur Samad. He extended
patronage to Hindu and Muslim painters. Some of the leading painters under Akbar were Abdus
Samad, Sayyid Ali, Faruq Beg, Dazwant,Baswan,Sanwal Das,Tara Chand and Jaga Nath. Of the
17 artists under Akbar, 13 were Hindus and the most important among them were Bhagwan Lal
and Mukund. Akbar encouraged pictorial art in spite of the Islamic injuction forbidding the
representation of living forms. His period was also known for the development of Fresco
painting like that of Ajanta. Themes from Ramayana and several other famous works were
painted under his orders
Painting under Jahangir
Jahangir was himself skilled in handling brush. He employed a number of painters in Allahabad.
He was interested in the paintings of small objects and naturally the miniature painting reached
its climax during his period. Sir Thomas Roe who visited Mughal court during the time of
Jahangir testifies the development of painting during this period. The great painters of Jahangir‘s
time were Farruk Beg, Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad. Other notable painters were
Aqua Riza, Uatad Manzur, Bishan Das,Manohar,Madhav and Tulsi. The art of painting became
essentially Indian during the time of Jahangir. European painting was introduced by the
Portuguese during this period
Painting under Shajahan
Shajahan was more interested in architecture than painting. How ever Azaf Khan and Prince
Dara possessed good taste in painting. Some of the important painters of the period of Shajahan
were Mir Hassan,Anup Chitra,Chitramani and Faqirullah
Painting under Aurangzeb
The art of painting received a great set back under Aurangzeb. He ordered to destroy the
paintings of Bijapur and Golconda and whitewashed the paintings in the Akbar‘s Mausoleum at
Sikandra.

MODULE 7
 Marathas and Sikhs

Contents
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Rise of Marathas
7.4 Maratha Administration
7.5 Growth of Sikhism

7.1 Introduction
 The Marathas' rise to power was a dramatic turning point that accelerated the demise of
Muslim dominance in India. Maratha chieftains were originally in the service of Bijapur sultans
in the western Deccan, which was under siege by the Mughals. Shivaji Bhonsle (1630-80 A.D) is
recognized as the "father of the Maratha nation." Rooted in the bhakti movements that swept
across North India during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Sikh religion appealed to the
hard-working peasants. Guru Nanak Dev born in 1469 was the first Sikh guru. The
Sikh khalsa (army of the pure) under tenth Guru - Guru Gobind Singhrose up against the
economic and political repressions in Punjab toward the end of Aurangzeb's rule. By the 1770s,
Sikh hegemony extended from the Indus in the west to the Yamuna in the east, from Multan in
the south to Jammu in the north.
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Rise of Marathas
7.3.1 Factors for the rise of Maratha power
The rise of the Marathas in the seventeen century is an important and fascinating event in
the history of India.
This rise is primarily due to Shivaji and the circumstances that shaped his character and
that of his followers. Shivaji welded the Marathas into a superb mobile fighting force. The
Marathas fought for the defence of their religion and territory against Mughal rulers.
Following were the important factors responsible for the phenomenal rise of the Marathas:
1. Inspirational influence of religious and social leaders:
Several prominent leaders in the religious and social fields of Maharashtra inspired the
people to unite by preaching faith and Bhakti in one God and by condemning the caste system
which had divided the society. The most famous of these reformers were: Tuka Ram, Ram Das,
Vaman Pandit and Eknath. Guru Ram Das exercised a tremendous influence by underlying the
philosophy of ‗Karma‘ (action) in his famous book ‗Das Bodh.
2. Love for the motherland:
Swami Ram Das‘s message to the Marathas was, ―Mother and mother country are dearer
than heaven itself. Gods and cows, Brahmans and the faith, these are to be protected. Therefore,
God has raised you up; when faith is dead, death is better than life: why live when religion has
vanished? Gather ye, therefore, the Marathas together; make the dharma live again! For
otherwise our forefathers will laugh at us from heaven.‖
3. Character of the Marathas:
Elphinstone has observed in this regard. ―They (Marathas) are all active, laboriousy hardy
and preserving. If they have none of the pride and dignity of the Rajput‘s, they have none of their
indolence or want of worldly wisdom too. And all these traits were due to the peculiar physical
features of their country.‖ Shivaji made the best use of these characteristics of the Marathas.
4. Ready-made and easily defensible rock forts:
The broken ranges of the hills provided natural forts and the people were inspired to regard these
forts as their mother-the seats of their protection.
5. Influence of language and literature:
Eknath taught the Marathas to take pride in their mother tongue which helped in bringing about a
sense of commonness and unity among the Marathas. As remarked by J.N. Sarkar, ―A
remarkable community of language, creed and life was attained in Maharashtra in the 17th
century even before political unity was conferred by Shivaji‖.
6. The geographical conditions:
The location of Maharashtra and its physical features helped in the rise of Maratha power. The
large part of Maratha land is a plateau where the Marathas had to struggle hard for their
existence. This made the Marathas courageous and hard working.
7. Economic equality:
The Marathas did not suffer much from economic inequality, as there were not many people to
be accepted as rich. There was no class of economic exploiters. This gave the Marathas a spirit
of self-respect and unity.
8. Guerilla warfare:
The mountainous areas made it possible for the Marathas to adopt guerilla warfare very
successfully. The scattered areas in the villages provided provision for soldiers. The invaders
were prone to sudden attacks from forts located on the tops of hills. Means of communications
for the large armies to move freely were not easily available. This obstructed the deployment of
large armies by the outside rulers.
9. Training in the art of administration:
Even prior to the rise of Shivaji, the Marathas had acquired experience and training in the art of
administration. There were a number of Marathas employed in various departments and
especially in the revenue department of the Muslim rulers of the Deccan. The Maratha Jagirdars
were playing an important role in the political affairs of the states of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Berar
and Golkunda etc. Several departments were virtually controlled by Maratha statesmen and
warriors.
10. Unstable political condition of the South:
The Muslim kingdoms in the South were in the process of disintegration. The political situation
was quite favourable for the rise of the Marathas.
11. Charismatic personality of Shivaji:
J.N. Sarkar has described the influence of Shivaji in the rise of the Marathas in these
words, ―Before his rise, the Maratha race was scattered like atoms through many Deccan
kingdoms. He welded them into a mighty nation and he achieved this in the teeth of the
opposition of four mighty powers like Mughal empire, Bijapur, Portuguese India and the
Abyssinians of Janjira. No other Hindu has shown such capacity in modern times. He was not
only the maker of the Maratha nation, but also the greatest constructive genius of medieval India
and the memory of a true hero as king like Shivaji remains imperishable historical legacy for the
human race.‖
Chatrapati Shivaji
Shivaji was born on 19th February 1630, to Sahaji and his wife, Jijabai, in the Shivneri Fort,
situated almost 60 km to the north of Pune. He was named as Shiva, after the local Goddess
Shivai, to whom his mother Jijabai had prayed for a son. After being defeated by the combined
forces of the Mughals and Adil Shah, Sahaji was offered a jagir near the present-day Bangalore.
However, he was allowed to keep his holdings in Pune. So, Sahaji left his son Shivaji to manage
the Pune holdings, under the care of his mother Jijabai.
With a small council of ministers, Shivaji began managing his estate. His ministers included
Shamrao Nilkanth as Peshwa, Balkrishna Pant as Muzumdar, Raghunath Ballal as Sabnis and
Sonopant as Dabir. At the same time, Kanhoji Jedhe and Baji Pasalkar were appointed to look
after Shivaji's training. In the year 1644, Shivaji undertook full administrative responsibilities of
his estate. Thus was started his career as an independent young prince of a small kingdom. His
mother, Jijabai, was instrumental in instilling in Shivaji's mind a love for independence and
distaste for external political domination. The first aggression in the life of Shivaji came at the
age of sixteen, when he seized the Torna fort of Bijapur kingdom. By 1647, he had gained
control over Kondana and Rajgad forts, with complete power of the Pune region. With time,
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj secured the forts in the Western Ghats as well as those along the
Konkan coast. Shivaji also fought against the army of Adilshah at Purandhar. In November 1659,
he fought the battle of Pratapgarh and defeated Afzal Khan. Immediately after this success, King
Shivaji occupied the area stretching upto the Panhala fort.
The battle of Kolhapur took place in December 1659. In the battle, Shivaji crushed the army of
Bijapuri general, Rustemjaman. In 1660, Siddi Johar's huge and daunting army attacked him at
Panhala fort. Shivaji managed to escape from the fort. However, he soon launched an attack on
Siddi Johar. The result was the surrender of Panhala and a truce between Shivaji and Adilshah.
After the death of Adilshah, Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur. Shivaji used guerilla-
style tactics and captured more and more of the Bijapuri and Mughal territories. However, by
1663, he had lost most of his conquests to the Mughal army.
In the next few years, Shivaji again started seizing forts belonging to both Mughals as well as
those of Bijapur. Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh, his Hindu general, to capture Shivaji. Shivaji
surrendered to Jai Singh at Purander in 1665 and agreed becoming a Mughal vassal. In 1666, he
managed to escape form his house arrest in Agra and lay low for the next few years. However, in
January 1670, Shivaji launched an attack on Mughal garrisons in Maharashtra. Within a period
of six months, he won back most of his lost empire. The period of 1670 to 1674 was spent by
Shivaji Maharaj in expanding his empire at the cost of the Mughals.
In 1670, Shivaji launched an assault, under his General - Tanaji Malusare, to capture Kondana
fort on the outskirts of Pune. The battle was won but he lost Tanaji. In the honor of Tanaji, the
Kondana fort was renamed as Sinhagad. Shivaji was formally crowned as Chatrapati (meaning
the Chief, Head or King of Kshatriyas) in June 1674 at the Raigad fort. He was given the title of
Kshatriya Kulavantas Simhasanadheeshwar Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The end of 1676 saw
Shivaji commencing attacks in the southern parts of India.
Achievements of Shivaji
It is true that Shivaji contributed a lot towards the rise and growth of Maratha power in India, but
it is equally true that at the time when he appeared on the scene, the ground had already been
prepared for him. The rise of Maratha under Shivaji is an event of great significance in the
History of India. Shivaji organised the Marathas into a nation.
Shivaji was born in 1627 in the Hill fort of Shivner. His father Sahaji Bhonsale was serving
under the Sultan of Bijapur. He came to join his jagir with his second wife Sahaji left his son.
Shivaji and his mother Jijabai came under the care of Dadaji Kondadev. Jijabai was extremely
religious. She inspired her son Shivaji with noble and partriotic ideas by narrating him stories
from Ramayana and Mahabharat. Dadaji Kondadev trained Shivaji in the art of horse riding and
on military exploits.
He also encouraged Shivaji to defend the Hindu religion. Shivaji spent his early career in the
Maval country. The hill men of the Western Ghat region or the Mavalis turned out to be his best
soldiers during the subsequent years.In 1644 Shivaji was assigned with the Jagir of Poona by his
father. He chose an independent career. With his hill man he began his career of conquest. In
1646 he occupied the hill frort of Torna.He also occupid the forts of Chakan, Kondana and
Purandhar. He built the fort of Raigarh five mile east of Torna.
The Sultan of Bijapur put his father under arrest to force Shivaji to suspend his military
enterprises. So Shivaji was forced to suspend his military activities for some years. In 1646 the
Bijapur Sultan released his father.Shivaji occupied the Maratha principality of Javali in 1656. He
also became the master of the Maval country which was the recruiting ground of his army.He
took full advantage of the war between Aurangzeb the viceroy of the Deccan and the Sultan of
Bijapur. He captured Kalyan, Bhiwandi and Mahuli. The Sultan of Bijapur after making peace
with the Mughal decided to take action against Shivaji.
1659 the Sultan Bijapur sent a powerful army under Afzal Khan to bring Shivaji dead or alive.
Shivaji was at Pratapagarh.Afzal Khan resorted to treachry and sent a Brahmin envoy named
Krishnaji Bhaskar to Shivaji inviting him for a friendly meeting. But Shivaji could not know the
real intention of Afzal Khan and proceeded to meet him apparently unarmed but with concealed
weapons.
At the place of meeting Afzal Khan attempted to kill Shivaji but Shivaji killed Afzal Khan with
his Baghnakha of gloves with claws. The Bijipur army was completely routed Shivaji occupied
Konkan and Kolhapur district.Aurangzeb the Mughal emperor sent his maternal uncle Shaista
Khan as the victory for Deccan and asked him to curb the power of Shivaji Shaista Khan
occupied Poona and Konkan region and encamped himself at Poona. But Shivaji entered Poona
in the disguise of marriage party and made surprise night attack upon Shaista Khan.
There was confusion in the Mughal camp and Shaista Khan narrowly escaped his death. In 1664
Shivaji sacked Surat. Mughal emperor Aurangzeb sent Raja Jaisingh of Amber to subdue
Shivaji. The Mughal army ravaged the Maratha country and besieged the fort of
Purandhar.Finally Shivaji was forced to conclude the Treaty of Purandhar with Jaisingh in June
1665. He surrendered 23 forts to the Mughals and retained only twelve forts.
He also agreed to visit the imperial court Shivaji along with Shambhuji started for Agra and
arrived there in May 1666. But he felt humiliated at the Mughal court. So he made his dramatic
escape from the Mughal court and reached Poona.He renewed his war with the Mughals. In 1670
he asked Surat. He occupied Kondana, Purandhar and Kalyan. He captural Jiji and Jellore in
1672.Shivaji celebrated his coronation ceremony on 13th June 1674. He assumed the title of
Chhatrapati. He died in 1680.
The Maratha kingdom of Shivaji extended along the coast of Ramnagar in the North to Karwar
in the South. It extended from Baglana up to Kolahpur. Shivaji was an able administrator. He
was a benevolent ruler. In the work of administration he was helped by a council of eight
ministers known as Astha-Pradhana.The Prime Minister was known as the Peshua. He had
divided his kingdom into a number of Pranta which were against subdivided into Praganas. The
villages were the lowest unit administration.The peasants used to pay thirty percent of the total
production as revenue to the state. Shivaji maintained a regular army.Shivaji was a great
organiser. He wielded the scattered Maratha race into a nation. He was tolerent in the matter of
religion. He patronised Hindu religion and learning.
7.4 Maratha Administration
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was an able administrator who established a government that
included modern concepts such as cabinet (Ashtapradhan mandal), foreign affairs(Dabir) and
internal intelligence. Shivaji established an effective civil and military administration. He also
built a powerful navy. Maynak Bhandari was one of the first chiefs of the Maratha Navy under
Shivaji, and helped in both building the Maratha Navy and safeguarding the coastline of the
emerging Maratha Empire. He built new forts like Sindhudurg and strengthened old ones like
Vijaydurg on the west coast. The Maratha navy held its own against the British, Portuguese and
Dutch.
Shivaji is well known for his benevolent attitude towards his subjects. He believed that
there was a close bond between the state and the citizens. He encouraged all accomplished and
competent individuals to participate in the ongoing political/military struggle. He is remembered
as a just and welfare-minded king. He brought revolutionary changes in military organisation,
fort architecture, society and politics.
 Shivaji was the first king of the medieval world to undertake the revolutionary idea of
abolishing the feudal system, 150 years before its worldwide recognition in the French
revolution. For a span of about 50 years, there were no feudals in his kingdom. After the fall of
Raigad in 1689, Raja Ram started giving land grants to maratha chieftains to fight against the
Mughals in the War of 27 years.
The Maratha Kingdom was the achievement of one single man-Shivaji. Like Bismark he
unified the scattered States into a well knit Kingdom. There were territories under the direct
control of the King known as Swaraj. There were also territories over which the Maratha
suzerainty extended known as Mughlai. Chauth(One fourth of the revenue) and
Sardeshmughi(One tenth of the revenue) were collected from these areas.
Central Government
The King was the head of the entire administration. But Shivaji was an enlightened Despot
because he always cared very much for the welfare and betterment of his subjects. In the
discharge of his duties Shivaji was assisted by a council of eight Ministers known as
―Ashtapradhan‖. It was only an advisory body. Each minister had a portfolio and he was directly
responsible to the King. The members of Ashtapradhan are the following:
1. The Prime Minister or Peshwa officially known as Mukhya Pradhan. He was
responsible for the general administration and welfare of the kingdom, and, therefore, his
main duties were to control other officers and promote harmony in the administration. He
represented the king in his absence and put his seal below the king‘s to all royal letters and
dispatches.
2. The Auditor or Majumdar. His duty was to check all the accounts of income and
expenditure and to countersign all statements of accounts, whether of the kingdom as a
whole or of the particular districts.
3. The Foreign Secretary or Dabir or Sumant. His duty was to advise the king on matters
relating to foreign states and on questions of war and peace. He had also to receive foreign
ambassadors and envoys and to keep in touch with the activities of other powers.
4. The Commander-in-Chief or Senapati. He was in charge of the recruitment,
organization and discipline of the army. He had also to arrange for the disposition of the
troops on the fields of battle.
 5. The Spritual Head or Pandit Rao. His main duties were to fix dates for religious
ceremonies, to punish heresy and to disburse among the Brahmans large sums of money
set apart by the king for charity. He was the judge of canon law, royal Almanac and
Censor of Public Morals.
6. The Chief Justice or Nyayadhish. He was the highest judge in the kingdom and
responsible for civil and military justice and for endorsing judicial decisions regarding
rights of lands, village headship, etc.
7. The Chronicler or Mantri. He was in charge of compiling a daily record of the king‘s
activities and to watch over his invitation lists, meals, etc., so as to guard against plots.
8. The Superintendent or Shuru-Nawis or Sachiv. His duty was to see that all royal letters
and dispatches were drafted in the proper style. He had to revise the letters and dispatches.
One of his duties was to check the accounts of the parganas.
Provincial administration
For administrative convenience Shivaji divided his empire into three Pranths or
provinces. Each province was administered by a Viceroy who also had a cabinet of eighteen
ministers to help him. Each province was divided into a number of districts or Parganas. The
lowest unit of administration was Village. It was administered by Village Panchayat and the
Panchayat Officer was known as Patel.
Local Government
Shivaji divided his kingdom into four provinces and a Viceroy was appointed for each.
The provinces were divided into a number of Prants. The system of granting Jagirs was abolished
and Shivaji started the system of paying the officers in cahs. Even when the revenues of a
particular place were assigned to any official, his only concern was with the money and he had
no control over the people. It was laid down that no office was to be hereditary.

Military administration
Shivaji was a military genius and no wonder he took pains to put the army on an efficient
footing. It was the practice of the Marathas to work for half the year upon their field and to spend
the dry season in the saddle on active service. Such a system was considered to be defective by
Shivaji and he introduced the system of keeping a regular standing army. During the rainy
season, it was provided with quarters and the soldiers were given regular salaries for the whole
year. Regular grades were fixed up. In the case of cavalry, the unit was formed by 25 troopers.
Over 25 troopers was placed one Havaldar. Over 5 Havaldars was placed one Jumladar and over
10 Jumladars was placed one Hazari. Other higher ranks were the Five Hazari and the Sari
Naubat of cavalry or Supreme Commander. For every 25 troopers, there was a water-carrier and
a farrier. The cavalry was divided into two classes: the Bargirs and the Shiledars. The Bargirs
were supplied with horses and arms by the state and the Shiledars had to find their own
equipment.
The infantry was divided into regiments, brigades and divisions. The smallest unit was
formed by 9 soldiers who were under a Naik. Over 5 Naiks was placed a Havaldar and over two
or three Havaldars was placed a Jumladar. Over 10 Jumladars was placed a Hazari and over 7
Hazaris was placed a Sari Naubat.
Both Hindus and Muslims were recruited in the army without any distinction. Soldiers
were paid in cash and had full confidence in their leaders. Those soldiers, who showed bravery,
were rewarded. Shivaji was able to attract a large number of persons from different parts of the
country on account of his appreciation of worth.
Forts played a very important role in the military organisation. Garrisons of forts were
carefully selected.Great care was taken to keep the troops disiplined. Every fort was placed under
three officers of equal status, viz., the Havaldar, the Sabnis and the Sari Naubat.
Shivaji built a considerable fleet which was stationed at Kolaba. He checked the power of the
Abyssinian Pirates of Janjira. It also plundered the rich Mughal Ships.
Shivaji was very anxious to maintain discipline in the army. Women were not allowed to
go with the army. The baggage was restricted to the minimum. The following were some of the
regulations of the army: "The army should return to cantonments in the home territory during the
rainy season. Grain, fodder and medicines were to be stored for the horses and thatched huts for
the troopers. Soon after Dashehra the army marched out of the cantonments and for eight months
it subsisted in foreign territories.
No women, female slaves or dancing girls should be permitted. Any one breaking the rule
should be put to death. Women and children of the enemy should be protected. Brahmins were to
be let alone and should not be accepted as sureties, when contributions were levied from
conquered country. Precious articles seized by the troops during their sojourn abroad should be
sent to the treasury. Those who kept back anything should be severely dealt with."
According to Khafi Khan, Shivaji "laid down the rule that whenever a place was plundered the
goods of poor people, pulsiyah (copper money) and vessels of brass and copper, should belong to
the man who found them; that other articles, gold and silver, coined or uncoiled jems, valuable
stuffs and jewels, were not to belong to the finder, but were to be given up without the smallest
deduction to the officers and to be paid over by them to Shivaji's Government." It is stated that
on the occasion of the sack of Surat, the Marathas did not touch cloth, copper utensils and other
insignificant articles.
Fiscal System
Shivaji abolished the system of taxing of farmers. A direct arrangement was made by the
Government with cultivators. According to J.N. Sarkar, "The Ryots were not subject to the
authority of the Zamindars, Deshmukhs and Desais who had no right to exercise the powers of a
political superior or harass the Ryots. The land was carefully surveyed with the help of a
measuring rod or Kathi.
The share of the state was fixed at 30% of the produce but later on it was increased to
40% when other taxes were abolished. The cultivator was allowed to pay in cash or in king
according to his sweet will. The amount of money to be paid was fixed and consequently there
was not much chance of their oppression. The state encouraged agriculture. We are told that in
time of famine, the Government advanced money and grain to the cultivators which were to be
paid back in installments later on. Fryer has condemned the revenue system of Shivaji and
according to him there was oppression of the peasants.
"The great fish prey on the little and even Bijapur rule was milder than that of Shivaji." It
is admitted that Shivaji was very strict in the matter of realisation of land revenue so that much
discretion may not be left in the hands of the officers for oppression or favouritism. It is admitted
on all hands that shivaji's system was humane and beneficent and according to Grant Duff,
Shivaji's claim to "a high rank in the page of history must be admitted."
Shivaji started the system of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. According to Justice, Mahadev
Govind Ranade, the Chauth was not a military contribution without any moral or legal
obligation. It was a payment in lieu of protection against the invasion of a third power.
 Mahadev Govind Ranade compared the system of Chauth with the system of subsidiary
alliances of Wellesley and added that "the demand for Chauth was subsequently added with the
consent of the powers whose protection was undertaken against foreign aggression on payment
of fixed sums for the troops maintained for such services. This was the original idea as worked
out by Shivaji and it was the same idea which in Marquis or Wellesley's hands bore such fruit a
hundred and twenty years later."
Sir J.N. Sarkar holds a different opinion. According to him, "The payment of the Chauth
merely saved a place from the unwelcome presence of the Maratha Soldiers and civil| underlings,
but did not impose on Shivaji any corresponding obligation to guard the district from foreign
invasion or any internal disorder.
The Marathas looked only to their own gain and not to the fate of their prey after they had
left. The Chauth was only a means of buying off one robber, and not a subsidiary system for the
maintenance of peace and order against all enemies. The lands subject to the Chauth cannot,
therefore, be rightly called spheres of influence."
According to GS. Sardesai, the Great Maratha Historian, "the Chauth was a tribute
realised from hostile or rival territories. Such a system prevailed in Western India even before
the advent of Shivaji. Shivaji got Chauth from the countries invaded by him with the promise
that he would protect them from other foreign invaders."
According to Dr S.N. Sen the Author of Administrative System of the Marathas. "Chauth
was a contribution exacted by a military leader. Such a demand was justified by the
circumstances of the times. In theory, the Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue of a district
invaded by the Marathas.
According to J.N. Sarkar, "As the paper assessment was always larger than the actual
collect, the real incidence of the Chauth was considerably more than one-fourth of what the
peasant paid to their legitimate sovereign."
The term "Desai" is a corrupted form of the Sanskrit word "Desaswami" or "Deshmukh".
Sardeshmukh was over many Deshmukhs or Desais. He was paid for his services and that
payment was called 'Sardeshmukhi,' Shivaji claimed to be the hereditary Sardeshmukh of his
country and consequently demanded an additional levy of 10 per cent as Sardeshmukhi.
However, it cannot be denied that it was merely a legal fiction.
Administration of Justice
 The administration of justice was of a primitive nature. No regular courts were set up and
no regular procedure was laid down. The Panchayats continued to decide disputes in the villages.
The system of ordeals was common. Criminal cases were tried by the Patels. Appeals in both
civil and criminal cases were heard by the Nyayadhish who was guided by the Smritis. Hazir
Majlis was the final Court of appeal.The highest court was the ―Hazr Majbs‖ or the court of the
King. Next to it was the Court of Nyayadhish or Chief Justice. Appeals from the lower courts
were heard in this court. In villages the Village Panchayats dealt both civil and criminal cases.
Severe punishments were given to the culprits
Maratha rule under the Peshwas
Balaji Vishwanath (1712 - 1721 AD): In 1712, Shahu died and his minister or Peshwa, Balaji
Vishwanath took over the throne. In 1717 a Mughal emissary signed a treaty with the Marathas
confirming their claims to rule in the Deccan. 1718 marked the beginning of the Maratha
influence in Delhi. Balaji Vishwanath's died in 1721.
Bajirao Peshwa I (1721 - 1740 AD): Bajirao, the elder son became Peshwa after the death of
Balaji Vishwanath. Pune had regained its status as capital of Maratha Kingdom from Rajgad. In
1734, Bajirao captured the Malwa territory in the north, and in 1739, he drove out the Portuguese
from nearly all their possessions in the Western Ghats. Bajirao died in 1740. Baji Rao's son,
Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb) succeeded as the Peshwa. He defeated Ahmad Shah Abdalli in 1756
near Delhi. But in Third Battle of Panipat (1761), between Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdalli,
Marathas lost the war. This war destroyed both Abdalli and Peshwas. Balaji Bajirao died soon
after the war shattered by the death of his older son and brother.
His second son Madhav Rao assumed the title of Peshwa in 1761. He achieved many
remarkable victories and restored the glory of Maratha kingdom to a large extent. His
outstanding achievements included defeat of Nizam of Hyderabad, Hyder Ali of Mysore and
Bhosle of Nagpur. In 1769, Marathas lead by Mahadaji Shinde, headed the North India
campaign. They defeated the Jats and took hold of Agra and Mathura. Madhav Rao died in 1772
at an early age of 27 years.
Narayanrao Peshwa (1772 - 1773 AD): just ruled for one year and was murdered in a palace
conspiracy. Raghunathrao was proclaimed the next Peshwa, although he was not heir to the title.
He was displaced from power by a clever plot by twelve Maratha chiefs and infant son of
Madhav Rao called Sawai Madhavrao was then declared the next Peshwa. The chief
administrator was Nana Phadnis. He handled the Peshwai well and with great unity among
Maratha chiefs. They defeated the rising British Power in 1784, near Pune and halted their
advancements, temporarily till the premature death of Sawai Madhavrao in 1795. In 1796 Baji
Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao became the Peshwa. Nana Phadanis looked after the Maratha
kingdom well until his death in 1800 A.D. After that Baji Rao II signed a treaty with the British
in 1802, which weakened the Peshwa power. His son, Nanasaheb Peshwa opposed the British
with whatever support he could muster. By 1818 the Peshwa power came to an end. Nanasaheb
Peshwa's fight still continued. But the failure of 1857 war put an end to any lingering hopes.
7.5 Rise of Sikh power
Sikhism was established by ten prophet-teachers called Gurus over the period from 1469 to
1708. Each Guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting in the
creation of Sikhism.
Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539)
 First Guru of the Sikhs. Founder of Sikhism.
 Preached the equality of all humans. Guru Nanak said that all people are the children
of one God.
 Guru Nanak spoke against tyranny, social injustice, religious hypocrisy, empty rituals
and superstitions.
 Traveled extensively throughout India and foreign lands to spread his message.
 There are 947 hymns from Guru Nanak Dev included in Guru Granth Sahib (Sikh
holy book).
 Born in Talwandi, now known as Nankana Sahib.
Guru Angad Dev (1504-1552)
 Compiled the biography of Guru Nanak Dev, known as theJanam Sakhi.
 Introduced Gurmukhi script and encouraged people to learn Punjabi.
 There are 63 hymns from Guru Angad Dev included in Guru Granth Sahib.
 Started a school at Khadur Sahib to teach children through Gurmukhi alphabet.
 Compiled the hymns of Guru Nanak Dev and spread his teachings.
Guru Amar Das (1479-1574)
 Guru Amar Das further institutionalized the free communal kitchen
called langar among the Sikhs.
  Guru Amar Das not only preached the equality of people but also tried to foster the
idea of women's equality. He tried to liberate women from the practices
of purdah(wearing a veil) and preached strongly against the practice of sati (Hindu
wife burning on her husband's funeral pyre).
 There are 869 hymns from Guru Amar Das included in Guru Granth Sahib.
Guru Ram Das (1534-1581)
 Founded the city of Amritsar in 1574.
 The standard Sikh marriage ceremony known as the Anand Karaj is centered on the
Lawan, a four stanza hymn composed by Guru Ram Das.
 Spread Sikhism in North India.
 Organized the structure of Sikh society.
 Guru Ram Das stressed the importance of kirtan (hymn singing), which remains an
important part of Sikh worship.
 There are 638 hymns from Guru Ram Das included in Guru Granth Sahib.
Guru Arjan Dev (1563-1606)
 Compiled the Guru Granth Sahib in 1604.
 Built the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib).
 Started the practice of daswandh (tithe) - contributing one tenth of one's earnings for
community purposes.
 Author of Sukhmani Sahib bani - the Prayer for Peace.
 First Sikh Guru to be martyred. Guru Arjan Dev was imprisoned and martyred in
1606 by Emperor Jahangir for not amending the Adi Granth, the Sikh holy book to
reflect his views. Guru Arjan Dev was made to sit on a scorching iron plate and had
boiling sand poured over his body. Guru Arjan Dev tolerated this pain and sat there
chanting hymns.
 There are 2312 hymns from Guru Arjan Dev included in Guru Granth Sahib.
Guru Hargobind (1595-1644)
 Transformed the Sikhs by introducing martial arts and weapons for the defense of the
masses.
 Guru Hargobind put on two swords - one signifying miri (secular power) and
other piri (spiritual power).
  Built the Akal Takht in 1608 at Amritsar in Punjab.
 He was imprisoned in the fort of Gwaliar for one year. When he was released he
insisted that his 52 fellow prisoners, who were Rajput kings, should also be set free.
To mark this occasion the Sikhs celebrate Diwali (bandi chod divas).
 Fought four battles with the Mughal rulers which were forcing people to become
Muslims.
Guru Har Rai (1630-1661)
 Continued the military traditions started by his grandfather, Guru Hargobind.
 The Guru made his son, Guru Harkrishan, the next Guru at the age of only five years.
 Defended the integrity of the Guru Granth Sahib by refusing to modify it's words.
 Made Sikhism strong and popular.
Guru Harkrishan (1656-1664)
 Became Guru at the age of five.
 Guru Harkrishan cured the sick during a smallpox epidemic in Delhi.
 Gurdwara Bangla Sahib in New Delhi was constructed in the Guru's memory. This is
where the Guru stayed during his visit to Delhi.
 Guru Harkrishan died of smallpox at the age of eight.
 Before Guru Harkrishan died, he nominated his granduncle, Guru Tegh Bahadur, as
the next Guru of the Sikhs.
Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621-1675)
 Build the city of Anandpur Sahib.
 Sacrificed his life upholding the "right to freedom of religion". Guru Tegh Bahadur
was responsible for saving Kashmiri Hindu pandits who being persecuted by the
Mughals, but had to lay down his own life to protect their freedom of religion.
 Guru Tegh Bahadur was martyred by Emperor Aurangzeb because he would not
become a Muslim. Gurdwara Sis Ganj in Chandani Chowk, New Delhi is located
where he was martyred.
 Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in New Delhi is located where the Guru's body was
cremated.
Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708)
  In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh baptized the Sikhs and created the Khalsa (the "Pure").
The Khalsa consists of Sikhs who have been baptized and dedicate themselves to
living by the high standards of the Sikh Gurus at all times.
 Instructed the Sikhs to keep the five K's.
 Compiled the 1428 page Dasam Granth Sahib.
 Author of several banis (hymns) which Sikhs recite daily: Jaap Sahib and Chaupai.
 Wrote his autobiography, the Bichitra Natak.
 Instructed Sikh males to use the last name of Singh (lion) and Sikh females to use the
last name Kaur (princess).
 All four of Guru Gobind Singh's sons were martyred by the Mughals.
 He instructed the Sikhs to follow Granth Sahib as the Guru after him.
Guru Granth Sahib
 The Guru Granth Sahib is the holy book of the Sikhs.
 It is the eternal spiritual guide of the Sikhs. The hymns provide broad guidelines for
harmonious living.
 Compiled by Guru Arjan Dev, it has writings of the Sikh Gurus and other saints.
 The Granth Sahib is kept in all Gurdwaras and in many Sikh houses.
 It contains a total of 5867 hymns in 1430 pages.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (called "The Lion of the Punjab") (1780-1839) was a Sikh ruler of the
Punjab. His tomb is located in Lahore, Pakistan. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was a Sikh born in
1780. At the time much of Punjab was ruled by the Sikhs, who had divided the territory
between factions. Ranjit Singh's father Maha Singh was the commander of the Sukerchakia
misl (faction) and controlled a territory in west Punjab based around his headquarters at
Gujranwala. Ranjit Singh succeeded his father at just the tender age of 12. The Sikh Maharaja
Ranjit Singh after several campaigns he united the Sikh factions into one state and he took the
title of Maharaja on April 12, 1801 (to coincide with Baisakhi day), with Lahore having served
as his capital from 1799. In 1802 he took the holy city of Amritsar. He then spent the following
years fighting the Afghans, driving them out of western Punjab. He also captured Pasthun
territory including Peshawar. This was the first time ever that Pastuns were ruled by non-
muslims. This event has a very important historical perspective. For more than a thousand
years invaders had come down from the Khyber pass and ruled eastern lands. Ranjit Singh
reversed this trend. When the Sikh empire finally fell to the English, they were able to retain
this province. He captured the province of Multan which encompassed the southern parts of
Punjab, Peshawar (1818), Jammu and Kashmir (1819) and the hill states north of Anandpur,
largest of which was Kangra. He also modernised his army, hiring European mercenaries to
create the first modern Indian Army, the effect was to create a powerful and heavily armed
state and at this point Punjab was the only state not controlled by the British. He brought law
and order, yet was reluctant to use the death penalty. He stopped Indian secular style practices
by treating Hindus and Muslims equally. He banned the secular "jizya" tax on Hindus and
Sikhs. In his multi-ethnic empire he was famous for its tolerance with Muslims and Hindus
holding high states of office. The Empire was effectively non-secular as it did not discriminate
against Hindus and Sikhs, relatively modern and had great respect for all religions of the
Empire. This was in sharp contrast with the ethnic & religious cleansing of past Moghul rulers.
Ranjit Singh had created a state based upon sikh and hindu noble traditions, where everyone
worked together, regardless of background. Where citizens where made to look at the things
that they shared in common, e.g. being Punjabi, rather than any religious differences. The
British at this time, on the subcontinent, where expanding and consolidating their grip on
power. Whereas, in Punjab they had met a comprehensive road block for complete supremacy,
on the subcontinent. Ranjit Singh had stopped the ever expansion of the British Empire, during
this time- around Punjab, and this could have been permanently entrenched by competent
political heirs. Ranjit Singh died in 1839 and the state went to his eldest son Kharak Singh. The
Kingdom, that he had worked so hard to build, began to crumble due to poor governance and
political mismanagement by his heirs. His successors died through accidents and murder, while
the nobility and army struggled for power till the end of the Second Anglo Sikh War, when it
was annexed by the British from his youngest son Duleep Singh. However, after the First
Anglo Sikh War, Punjab effectively ceased to be an independent state and all major decisions
where made by the British Empire. The Punjabi Army had been reduced under the peace treaty,
with the British Empire, to a tiny skeleton force. Moreover, massive punishing war
compensation had destroyed any meaningful, independent fiscal policy. Most historian believe
competent political heirs would have forged a highly durable, independent and powerful state
(Ranjit Singh had done during his rule). Ranjit is remembered for uniting the Punjab as a strong
state and his possesion of the Koh-i-noor diamond. His most lasting legacy was the
beautification of the Harmandir Sahib, holiest site of the Sikhs, with marble and gold from
which the popular name of the "Golden Temple" is derived. He was also known as Sher-e-
Punjab, the Lion of Punjab and is considered one of the 3 Lions of India, the most famous and
revered heros in North Indian history (Emperor Rajendra Chola and Asoka were the 2 most
powerful Indian kings of history yet are not named part of the 3 Lions) - the other 2 Lions are
Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar and Shivaji the Maratha. The title of Sher-e-Punjab is still widely
used as a term of respect for a powerful man.
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