LECTURE NOTES

HYDRAULIC MACHINES &

INDUSTRIAL FLUID POWER
5TH SEMESTER, DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(As per SCTE&VT Curriculum)

Compiled by
Mr. Prasant Kumar Patra, Lecturer
([email protected])

Department of Mechanical Engineering

KIIT Polytechnic, Bhubaneswar

2021-22
 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

CONTENT

Chapter No. Title Page No.

Chapter-1 Hydraulic Turbines 03 - 23

Chapter-2 Centrifugal Pumps 24 - 31

Chapter-3 Reciprocating Pumps 32 - 38

Chapter-4 Pneumatic System 39 - 44

Chapter-5 Hydraulic System 45 - 73

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 1 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

HYDRAULIC TURBINE
Introduction to Hydraulic machines:
▪ These are the machines in which force is transmitted by means of motion of fluid under
pressure.
▪ These can convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy or mechanical energy to hydraulic
energy.
▪ The hydraulic system works on the principle of Pascal's law. This law states that, the pressure
in an enclosed fluid is uniform in all the directions.
▪ Examples: Hydraulic turbines, Pumps, cranes, forklifts, bulldozers
Hydraulic turbine:
▪ It is a hydraulic machine.
▪ It uses energy of flowing water (hydraulic energy) and converts it into mechanical energy (in
the form of rotation of runner)
▪ Shaft power available at the shaft of the Turbine is utilized to run Generator to produce
electricity.
Classification of turbine:
▪ According to the type of energy at inlet
• Impulse turbine
➢ An impulse turbine is a turbine in which the water entering the runner
possesses kinetic energy only. In this, the rotation of the runner occurs due to
the impulse action of water. (Pelton Turbine)
• Reaction turbine
➢ A reaction turbine is a turbine in which the water entering the runner possesses
pressure as well as kinetic energy. In this, the rotation of runner occurs due to
the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the runner. (Francis and
KaplanTurbine)
▪ According to the direction of flow through runner
• Tangential flow turbine
➢ When the flow of water is tangential to the wheel circle, the turbine is called
tangential flow turbine. (Pelton Turbine)
• Radial flow turbine
➢ When the water moves along the vanes towards the axis of rotation of the
runner or away from it, the turbine is called radial flow turbine. When the flow
is towards the axis of rotation, the turbine is called an inward flow turbine.
When the flow is away from the axis of rotation, the turbine is called an
outward flow turbine. (Francis Turbine)
• Axial flow turbine
➢ When the water flows parallel to the axis of rotation, the turbine is called an
axial or parallel flow turbine. (Kaplan Turbine/Propeller Turbine)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 2 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

• Mixed flow turbine

➢ When the water enters radially inwards at inlet and discharge at outlet in a
direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner, the turbine is called
mixed flow turbine. (Moden Francis Turbine)
▪ According to the head at the inlet of turbine
• High head turbine
➢ When a turbine works under a head of more than 250 m. (Pelton Turbine)
• Medium head turbine
➢ When a turbine works under a head of 45 m – 250 m. (Francis Turbine)
• Low head turbine
➢ When a turbine works under a head of less than 45 m. (Kaplan Turbine)
▪ According to the specific speed of the turbine
• Low specific speed turbine
➢ The specific speed up to 30 (Pelton Turbine)
• Medium specific speed turbine
➢ The specific speed varies from 50 to 250 (Francis Turbine)
• High specific head turbine
➢ specific speed is more than 250 (Kaplan Turbine)

Impulse Turbine – Pelton Wheel:

▪ Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine.
▪ It works at high head and requires low flow of water.
▪ It converts pressure energy into kinetic energy in in one or more nozzles.
▪ It is driven by high velocity jets of water coming out from a nozzle directed on to vanes or
buckets attached to a wheel.
▪ The impulse provided by the jets is used to spins the turbine wheel and removes kinetic energy
from the fluid flow.
▪ Pressure of water remains atmospheric inside the turbine.

Construction of Pelton Wheel:

Major Components component of Pelton wheel are described below.
▪ Casing:
➢ Casing prevents the splashing of water and helps in discharge of water from the nozzle
to the tailrace. It protects the turbine from dust and dirt.
▪ Nozzle and Spear Mechanism:
➢ Nozzle produces high velocity jets of water and converts pressure energy into
kinetic energy.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 3 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

➢ The spear mechanism controls the water flow into the turbine and control the
turbine speed according to load. It minimizes energy loss at inlet and provides
smooth flow.
▪ Break Nozzle:
➢ It is used to produce and supply breaking jet of water. It directs the water on
the bucket to stop the runner to rest in a short time
▪ Runner/Rotor:
➢ It is a circular disc mounted by a number of equally spaced buckets which are
fixed on its periphery. Each bucket consists of two symmetrical halves
having shape of semi-ellipsoidal cup.
➢ It provides rotational energy when jet of water having kinetic energy strike the
buckets.
▪ Penstock:
➢ It is the channel or pipeline that connect the high head source water to the
power station
▪ Governing Mechanism:
➢ It controls the speed and power output of the turbine by controlling the flow of
water

Working Principle:
▪ Water is coming from the storage reservoir through a penstock to the inlet of the nozzle.
▪ Nozzle converts the hydraulic energy of the water into kinetic energy and produces high
velocity of jet.
▪ The jet of water released from the nozzle strikes on the buckets mounted on the runner.
▪ Water jet strikes over the runner bucket and imparts a very high impulsive force on the buckets
for a small amount of time to rotate the runner and so mechanical energy develops.
▪ Pressure of water remains atmospheric inside the turbine.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 4 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Velocity triangle of Impulse turbine:

Consider the following terms for understanding the velocity triangle.

At inlet velocity triangle: At outlet velocity triangle:

V1 = absolute velocity of water V2 = absolute velocity of water

u1 = peripheral velocity of runner (bucket speed) u2 = peripheral velocity of runner (bucket speed)

Vr1 = relative velocity of water Vr2 = relative velocity of water

Vw1 = velocity of whirl Vw2 = velocity of whirl

Vf1 = velocity of flow Vf2 = velocity of flow

α = angle between the direction of the jet and the β = angle between the direction of the jet and the
direction of motion of the vane (guide blade direction of motion of the vane (guide blade
angle) angle)
θ = angle made by the relative velocity Vr1 with φ = angle made by the relative velocity Vr2 with
the direction of motion (vane angle) the direction of motion (vane angle)
From inlet velocity triangle we obtain: From outlet velocity triangle we obtain:
α = 0, θ =0, Vf1 =0 Vr2 = Vr1
V1 = Vw1 = u1 + Vr1 and Vr1 = V1 - u1 Vw2 = Vr2 cos φ – u2
u = u1 = u2 = πDN/60, where D = diameter of wheel, N = speed in r.p.m

(Velocity triangle of Pelton turbine)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 5 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Work done and power developed of a Pelton wheel:

Let, F = force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion

= mass x change in velocity in the direction of force
= m x (Vw1 + Vw2) = ρaV1 x (Vw1 + Vw2)
Where: ρ = density of water;
𝜋
a = area of jet = 4 × 𝑑 2
d = diameter of jet
Let, W = Net work done by the jet on runner per second = F x u
= ρaV1 x (Vw1 + Vw2) x u
𝝆𝒂𝑽𝟏 ×(𝑽𝒘𝟏 +𝑽𝒘𝟐 )×𝒖 (𝑽𝒘𝟏 +𝑽𝒘𝟐 )×𝒖
Work done per second per unit weight of water striking = =
𝝆𝒂𝑽𝟏 ×𝒈 𝒈

NOTE:
Gross head (Hg): - Difference between the water level at head race and tail race
Net head (H): - Head available at the inlet (Effective head)
Absolute velocity can be obtained as: 𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑉 √2𝑔𝐻
Cv = coefficient of velocity of the nozzle
Velocity of wheel (bucket speed) = 𝑢 = ∅ × √2𝑔𝐻
∅ is the speed ratio

Efficiencies of turbine:

1) Hydraulic efficiency (𝜼𝒉 ):

Work done per sec ond  a V1  (Vw1  Vw2 )  u 2  (Vw1  Vw2 )  u

h = = =
 ( a V1 )  V1 V12
Kinetic energy 1 2

2
It can also be obtained as:

 a V1 
(Vw1  Vw2 ) u
Runner Power
kW
 Q  (Vw1  Vw2 )  u
h = = 1000 =
Water Power  gQH  gQH
kW
1000
=
(Vw1  Vw2 ) u
gH

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 6 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

2) Mechanical efficiency (𝜼𝒎 ):

Shaft Power P
m = =
Runner Power  a V1  (Vw1  Vw2 )  u

3) Volumetric efficiency (𝜂𝑚 ):

volume of water actually striking the runner Qa

V = =
total water given by the jet to the turbine Q
4) Overall efficiency (𝜂𝑚 ):
Shaft Power P
h = =
Water Power  g Q H

Relationship between efficiencies:

 O =  h  m  v

Problem from Pelton Turbine:

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 7 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 8 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Reaction Turbine – Francis Turbine:

▪ Francis turbine is a medium head inward radial flow reaction turbine.
▪ Modern Francis turbine is an inward mixed flow reaction turbine. In this turbine, the water
under pressure enters radially to the impeller blades while exits axially.
▪ When water flows radially from outward to inward, the turbine is called inward radial flow
turbine
▪ When water flows radially from inward to outward, the turbine is called Outward radial flow
turbine.
▪ An inward mixed flow reaction turbine, is a combination of impulse and reaction turbine
where blades rotate using both reaction and impulse force of water flowing through them.

Construction of Francis Turbine:

Major Components component of Francis turbine are described below.
▪ Spiral/Scroll Casing:
➢ Its cross-sectional area is maximum at inlet and minimum at exit.
➢ It encloses the turbine runner completely and prevents the splashing of water.
➢ It maintains constant velocity throughout the circumference.
▪ Runner with fixed blades:
➢ It is a circular wheel with a series of radially curved vanes which are fixed on its
periphery.
➢ It provides rotational energy due to impulse and reaction effects on runner.
▪ Penstock:
➢ It is the channels or pipelines which conveys water from source to the power station
▪ Governing Mechanism:
➢ It controls the speed and power output of the turbine by changing the position of guide
blades to vary the water flow rate at variation of loads.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 9 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

(FRANCIS TURBINE)

Working Principle:
▪ In modern Francis turbine; water enters into the turbine with both pressure and kinetic energy.
▪ When water flows through the stationary parts, a part of its pressure energy is converted into
kinetic energy. When water flows over the moving parts, there is change in pressure, absolute
velocity and direction.
▪ The pressure difference between the blade and runner is known as the reaction pressure. This
pressure results the motion of the runner.
Velocity triangle of Francis turbine:
Consider the following terms for understanding the velocity triangle.

At inlet velocity triangle: At outlet velocity triangle:

V1 = absolute velocity of water V2 = absolute velocity of water

u1 = peripheral velocity of runner (bucket speed) u2 = peripheral velocity of runner (bucket speed)

Vr1 = relative velocity of water Vr2 = relative velocity of water

Vw1 = velocity of whirl Vw2 = velocity of whirl

Vf1 = velocity of flow Vf2 = velocity of flow

α = angle between the direction of the jet and the β = angle between the direction of the jet and the
direction of motion of the vane (guide blade direction of motion of the vane (guide blade
angle) angle)
θ = angle made by the relative velocity Vr1 with φ = angle made by the relative velocity Vr2 with
the direction of motion (vane angle) the direction of motion (vane angle)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 10 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

(Velocity triangle of Francis turbine)

From inlet velocity triangle we obtain: From outlet velocity triangle we obtain:
u1 = πD1N1/60 u2 = πD2N2/60
where D = diameter of wheel, N = speed in r.p.m

Work done and power developed of a Pelton wheel:

Let, F = force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion
= mass x change in velocity in the direction of force
= m x (Vw1 + Vw2) = ρaV1 x (Vw1 + Vw2)
Where: ρ = density of water;
𝜋
a = area of jet = 4 × 𝑑 2
d = diameter of jet
Let, W = Net work done by the jet on runner per second
= ρaV1 x (Vw1 x u1 + Vw2 x u2)
𝝆𝒂𝑽𝟏 ×(𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 +𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐 ) (𝑽𝒘𝟏 𝒖𝟏 +𝑽𝒘𝟐 𝒖𝟐 )
Work done per second per unit weight of water striking = =
𝝆𝒂𝑽𝟏 ×𝒈 𝒈

For radial discharge: β = 90 and Vw2 = 0; Output is maximum

0

𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1
Therefore: Work done per second per unit weight of water striking = 𝑔

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 11 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic efficiency:

Runner Power  a V1  (Vw1 u1  Vw2 u 2 ) Vw1 u1  Vw2 u 2

h = = =
Water Power  gQH g H

For radial discharge: when Vw2 = 0;

Vw1 u1
h =
g H

NOTE:
u1
speed ratio =
2g H

V f1
flow ratio =
2g H

Discharge of the turbine = Q = π x D1 x B1 x Vf1 = π x D2 x B2 x Vf2

D1 and D2 are the diameter of runner at inlet and outlet respectively
B1 and B2 are the width of runner at inlet and outlet respectively
Vf1 and Vf2 are the velocity of flow at the inlet and outlet respectively

Problems from Francis Turbine

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 12 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 13 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 14 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 15 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Axial flow reaction Turbine:

▪ In an axial flow reaction turbine water flows parallel to the axis of rotation of the shaft of the
turbine.
▪ It has a vertical shaft with larger lower end known as hub/boss.
▪ Vanes are fixed on the hub and so the hub works like a runner.
▪ It requires large quantity of water at low head
Classification of Axial flow reaction Turbine:
Axial flow reactions are classified as:
▪ Propellor turbine
• Propeller turbine is the axial flow reaction turbine which has not adjustable fixed
vanes.
▪ Kaplan turbine
• Kaplan turbine is the axial flow reaction turbine which has adjustable vanes.
Kaplan Turbine:
▪ It is an axial flow reaction turbine in which water flows parallel to the axis of rotation of the
shaft of the turbine. The water enters the runner of turbine in an axial direction and leaves
the runner axially.
▪ It has a vertical shaft with larger lower end known as hub/boss.
▪ Vanes are fixed on the hub and so the hub works like a runner.
▪ It requires large quantity of water at low head

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 16 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Construction of Kaplan Turbine:

It consists of the following major parts.
▪ Scroll Casing:
➢ It encloses the turbine runner completely and prevents the splashing of water.
➢ Cross-section of scroll casing decreases uniformly to maintain the pressure of water
such that the flow pressure is not lost.
➢ From the scroll casing the guide vanes direct the water to the runner.
▪ Guide vanes mechanism:
➢ The guide vanes are adjustable and can be adjusted to meet the required flow rate.
➢ Guide vanes also control the swirl of the water flow.
▪ Hub with vanes:
➢ The vanes are fixed on the hub and hence hub acts as a runner for the axial flow reaction
turbine.
▪ Draft tube:
➢ The draft tube is a connecting pipe whose inlet is fitted at the outlet of the turbine.
➢ The diameter of the draft tube is small near its inlet and large near its outlet. The
outlet of the draft tube is always submerged in water.
➢ It converts the kinetic energy of the water to static pressure at the outlet of the
turbine. So pressure of the exit fluid increases. This helps to avoid the dissipation of
the kinetic energy of the exit water. It improves the capacity of the turbine.

(KAPLAN TURBINE)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 17 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Key points for Kaplan Turbine:

𝜋
1. Discharge through the runner: 𝑄 = × (𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑏2 ) × 𝑉𝑓1
4

Where: Do = diameter of the runner

Db = diameter of the hub/boss
Vf1 = velocity of flow at inlet
𝜋
2. Area of flow at inlet = Area of flow at outlet = 𝐴 = × (𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑏2 )
4
𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝑁
3. Peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal: 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 = 60

4. Velocity of flow at inlet (Vf1) = Velocity of flow at outlet (Vf2)

𝑢1
5. Speed ratio =
√2𝑔𝐻

𝑉 𝑓1
6. Flow ratio =
√2𝑔𝐻

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
7.Water power = 1000

1 𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1 + 𝑉𝑤1 𝑢2
8. Runner Power = 𝑔 × 1000

𝑉𝑤1 𝑢1
9. Hydraulic efficiency = (for radial discharge)
𝑔𝐻

𝑆𝑃
10. Overall efficiency = 𝑊𝑃

𝑁√𝑃
11. Specific speed pf turbine = 𝑁𝑠 = 5
𝐻 ⁄4

Problems from Kaplan Turbine:

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 18 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 19 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 20 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 21 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Difference between Impulse and Reaction turbine:

Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

The water flows through the nozzles and The water flows first through guide mechanism
impinges on the moving blades and then through the moving blades

The water impinges on the buckets with kinetic The water glides over the moving vanes with
energy pressure and kinetic energy

The water may or may not be admitted over the The water must be admitted over the whole
whole circumference. circumference

The water pressure remains constant during its The water pressure is reduced during its flow
flow through the moving blades. through the moving blades.

The relative velocity of water while gliding over The relative velocity of water while gliding over
the blades remains constant. the moving blades increase

The blades are symmetrical The blades are not symmetrical

The number of stages required is less for the The number of stages required is more for the
same power developed. same power developed

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 22 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

REFERENCE:
1. Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines by R.K. Bansal (Book).
2. https://youtu.be/UMz5GR7Nhqg?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
3. https://youtu.be/1eYcjdGrXYA?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BFoJOZbZ9FI&list=PLq7jO-
L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn&index=13
5. https://youtu.be/TyygDiQPzaA?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
6. https://youtu.be/RcdA2tGts_E?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
7. https://youtu.be/HWX06fwSJWM?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 23 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

CENTRIGUGAL PUMP

Introduction:
▪ It is a hydraulic machine in which force is transmitted by means of motion of fluid under
pressure.
▪ In this machine, mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy in the form of pressure
energy by the action of centrifugal force on the fluid.
▪ Its main purpose is to transfer fluids through an increase in pressure.
▪ It acts as a reverse of an inward flow reaction turbine.
▪ It is used in the field of agriculture, municipality, industries, power plants,
petrochemicals, mining etc.
Construction:
Major components of Centrifugal pump are:
▪ Casing:
It is an air tight passage which surrounds the impeller. It converts kinetic energy of water into
pressure energy with its special design. It is classified as:
• Volute casing
➢ Volute casing is the spiral casing in which the area of flow increases from inlet
to outlet. This gradual increase in area helps to reduce the velocity of flow and
increase the pressure at outlet. Due to formation of eddies, there is a limitation
of energy loss.
• Vortex casing
➢ In Vortex casing a circular chamber is provided in between the impeller and
casing. This decreases the energy loss formation of eddies. It helps to increase
the efficiency of the pump.
• Casing with guide blades
➢ In Casing with guide blades a series of guide blades mounted on a ring
surrounds the impeller. This helps to control the velocity and pressure of water
by adjusting the guide blades.
▪ Impeller:
It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curved blades or vanes. It is
mounted on the shaft powered by motor.
▪ Suction pipe with foot valve and strainer:
It’s one end connects the inlet of the impeller and the other end is dipped into the sump of
water. The foot valve fitted to the bottom of suction pipe is a one way valve that opens in the
upward direction. The strainer fitted to the bottom of suction pipe is used to filter the unwanted
particle present in the water to prevent the centrifugal pump from blockage.
▪ Delivery pipe and delivery valve:
It’s one end connects the outlet of the pump and other end connects the point where water is
delivered. A delivery valve is fitted with the outlet controls the flow from the pump into
delivery pipe.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 24 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Working of Centrifugal Pump:

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 25 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

▪ When the electric motor starts, the shaft of the pump coupled with the motor shaft rotates. It
gives rotational motion to the impeller mounted on the shaft.
▪ The rotating impeller drives the water inside it and produce centrifugal force. This creates
velocity difference between the inlet and outlet.
▪ It causes the rising of water from sump through suction pipe to eye of the impeller.
▪ When water gets pressurized, the delivery valve opens to discharge water to desired height.
▪ Priming is the operation in which water is feed into the casing and suction pipeline keeping
the delivery valve closed, so that all the air from the pump is driven out and no air is left.

Velocity triangle of Centrifugal pump:

Consider the following terms for understanding the velocity triangle.

At inlet velocity triangle: At outlet velocity triangle:

V1 = absolute velocity of water V2 = absolute velocity of water

u1 = peripheral velocity of runner (bucket speed) u2 = peripheral velocity of runner (bucket speed)

Vr1 = relative velocity of water Vr2 = relative velocity of water

Vw1 = velocity of whirl Vw2 = velocity of whirl

Vf1 = velocity of flow Vf2 = velocity of flow

α = angle between the direction of the jet and the β = angle between the direction of the jet and the
direction of motion of the vane (guide blade direction of motion of the vane (guide blade
angle) angle)
θ = angle made by the relative velocity Vr1 with φ = angle made by the relative velocity Vr2 with
the direction of motion (vane angle) the direction of motion (vane angle)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 26 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

When water enters the impeller radially. at inlet

α = 900 , Vw1 =0, Vf1 = V1
 D1 N1  D2 N 2
u1 = and u2 =
60 60
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 (𝑄) = 𝜋𝐷1 𝑁1 𝑉𝑓1 = 𝜋𝐷2 𝑁2 𝑉𝑓2

Let, W = Net work done by the jet on runner per second = ρaV1 x (Vw2 x u2)
Work done per second per unit weight of water striking = (Vw2 x u2)/g

Heads of Centrifugal pump:

Suction head (hs)
It is the vertical distance between the centre line of pump and the water surface at sump level.
Delivery head (hd)
It is the vertical distance between the centre line of pump and the water surface at the discharge
tank.
Static head (H)
It is the sum of suction and delivery head.
Manometric head (Hm)
It is the working head of the centrifugal pump.
It is given by:
Hm = (Head imparted by impeller to the water – loss of head in the pump)

Hm =
(Vw2  u2 ) − loss of head
g

If loss of head is neglected

Hm =
(Vw2  u2 )
g

Efficiencies of Centrifugal pump:

Manometric efficiency (ηman)
It is the ratio between manometric head and the head imparted by the impeller to the water.

Hm g Hm
m a n = =
 Vw2  u2  Vw2  u2
 
 g 

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 27 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Mechanical efficiency (ηm)

It is the ratio between the power at the impeller and the power at the shaft.

  Q  Vw2  u 2
m =
S .P
Overall efficiency (ηo)
It is the ratio between the power output of the pump and the power input of the pump.
S .P
o =
 g Hm 
 
 Vw2  u 2 
Relation between ηman, ηm & ηo

 o =  m a n  m

Problem from Centrifugal Pump:

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 28 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 29 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 30 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

REFERENCE
1. Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines by R.K. Bansal (Book)
2. https://youtu.be/S7eGRy7zlj4?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
3. https://youtu.be/5KgIDLs4rGg?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
4. https://youtu.be/dPYq8Nj0awo?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 31 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

RECIPROCATING PUMP

Introduction:
▪ It is a hydraulic machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy (pressure
energy).
▪ It is a type of positive displacement pump.
▪ It is suitable where small amount of water is to be delivered at higher pressure.
▪ While working, it sucks water at low pressure into a cylinder containing a reciprocating
piston. The piston exerts a thrust force on the water and increases its pressure.
Advantages:
▪ It can deliver the required flow rate very precisely.
▪ It gives a continuous rate of discharge.
▪ It can deliver fluid at very high pressure.
▪ It provides high suction lift.
▪ No priming is needed.
Disadvantages:
▪ It requires high maintenance
▪ It gives low flow rate i.e. it discharges low amount of water..
▪ These are heavy and bulky in size.
▪ It has high initial cost.
Classification of Reciprocating pump:
▪ According to sides in contact with water:
• Single acting reciprocating pump
➢ In single acting reciprocating pump water comes in contact of only one side
of the piston. Suction and delivery of water occurs at one side.
• Double acting reciprocating pump
➢ In double acting reciprocating pump water comes in contact of both sides of
the piston. Suction and delivery of water occurs at both sides.
▪ According to number of cylinders used:
• Single cylinder pump
• Double cylinder pump
• Multi cylinder pump

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 32 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Construction of Reciprocating pump:

Major components of Reciprocating pump are:
▪ A cylinder with piston, piston rod, connecting rod, crank and crank shaft
▪ Suction pipe
▪ Suction valve
▪ Delivery pipe
▪ Delivery valve

Working of Single acting reciprocating pump:

▪ The above figure shows the single acting reciprocating pump.
▪ It works in two strokes such as suction and delivery strokes.
▪ During suction stroke, the piston moves backward and suction valve opens. So, water enter
into the cylinder. During suction the delivery valve remains closed.
▪ During delivery stroke, the piston moves forward and delivery valve opens. Suction valve
remains closed. Piston exerts thrust on the water and increases water pressure.
▪ Water with pressure energy escapes out of the cylinder through delivery pipe to the delivery
point.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 33 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Work done of Single acting reciprocating pump:

Consider the following terms:
D = diameter of the cylinder
A = cross-sectional area of the piston = (π/4) × D2
r = radius of crank
N =speed of crank in r.p.m
L = length of stroke = 2 × r
Hs = suction head
Hd = delivery head
H = Hs + Hd = total head
Q = discharge of pump per second
ρ = density of water
Discharge of water in one revolution of crank = Volume of water delivered in one second = A × L
If, number of revolutions per sec = N/60
Discharge of pump per second, Q = A × L × (N/60)
➢ Weight of water delivered /sec,
W = ρ × g × A × L × (N/60)
➢ Work done by the pump /sec,
W × (Hs + Hd)

Working of Double acting reciprocating pump:

▪ When the piston moves right the suction

valve of left side opens and suction valve
of right side remains closed. The water is
sucked into the cylinder at left side of
piston.
▪ At this stroke delivery valve of left side
remains closed and delivery valve of right
side remains open. So, piston displaces the
water with pressure energy at its right.
▪ Thus, suction occurs at left end of piston
and discharge occurs at the right end.
▪ Similarly, when piston moves towards
left, suction occurs at the right end and
discharge occurs at the left end.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 34 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Work done of Double acting reciprocating pump:

Consider the following terms:
D = diameter of the cylinder
A = cross-sectional area of the piston = (π/4) × D2
r = radius of crank
N =speed of crank in r.p.m
L = length of stroke = 2 × r
Hs = suction head
Hd = delivery head
H = Hs + Hd = total head
Q = discharge of pump per second
ρ = density of water
Discharge of water in one revolution of crank = Volume of water delivered in one second = 2×A.L
If, number of revolutions per sec = N/60
Discharge of pump per second, Q = 2×A × L × (N/60)
➢ Weight of water delivered /sec,
W = 2×ρ × g × A × L × (N/60)
➢ Work done by the pump /sec,
W × (Hs + Hd) = 2×ρ × g × A × L × (N/60) × (Hs + Hd)

Slip & Percentage of Slip:

Slip is the difference between the theoretical discharge (Qth) and actual discharge (Qact).
Slip = Qth – Qact
This is known as positive slip when, Qth > Qact.
This is known as negative slip when, Qth < Qact
𝑄𝑡ℎ − 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = × 100
𝑄𝑡ℎ

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 35 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Problem (1) A single acting reciprocating pump, running at 50 r.p.m delivers 0.01 m3/s of water.
The diameter of the piston is 200 mm and stroke length 400 mm. Determine: (i) the theoretical
discharge of the pump, (ii) coefficient of discharge, (iii) slip and the percentage of slip of the pump.
Solution: Given
Speed pf the pump, N = 50 r.p.m
Actual discharge, Qa = 0.01 m3/s
Diameter of piston, D = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Stroke length, L = 400 mm = 0.4 m
𝜋 𝜋
Cross-sectional area of piston, A = 4 × 𝐷2 = 4 × 0.22 = 0.031416 m2
A×L×N 0.031416 × 0.4 × 50
(i) Theoretical discharge of the pump, Qth = = = 0.01047 𝑚3 /𝑠
60 60
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 0.01
(ii) Coefficient of discharge, 𝐶𝑑 = = 0.01047 = 0.955
𝑄𝑡ℎ

(iii) slip of the pump, 𝑄𝑡ℎ − 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.01047 − 0.01 = 0.00047 𝑚3 /𝑠

𝑄𝑡ℎ −𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 0.01047−0.01
Percentage of slip of the pump = × 100 = × 100 = 4.489%
𝑄𝑡ℎ 0.01047

Problem (2) A double acting reciprocating pump, running at 40 r.p.m delivers 1 m3 of water per
minute. The diameter of the piston is 200 mm and stroke length 400 mm. The delivery and suction
head are 20 m and 5 m respectively. Find the slip of the pump and power required to drive the
pump.
Solution: Given
Speed of the pump, N = 40 r.p.m
1
Actual discharge, 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 1𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 60 𝑚3 /𝑠 = 0.01666 𝑚3 /𝑠

Stroke length, L = 400 mm = 0.4 m

Diameter of piston, D = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Suction head, Hs = 5 m
Delivery head, Hd = 20 m
𝜋 𝜋
Cross-sectional area of piston, A = × 𝐷2 = × 0.22 = 0.031416 m2
4 4
2×A × L × N 2×0.031416 × 0.4 ×40
Theoretical discharge of the pump, Qth = = = 0.01675 𝑚3 /𝑠
60 60

Slip of the pump, 𝑄𝑡ℎ − 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 0.01675 − 0.01666 = 0.00009 𝑚3 /𝑠

Power required to drive the pump,
2×ρ × g × A × L×N× (𝐻𝑠 + H𝑑 ) 2×1000 × 9.81 × 0.031416 × 0.4×40× (5 + 20)
𝑃= = = 4.109 𝑘𝑊
60000 60000

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 36 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Difference between Centrifugal pump and Reciprocating pump:

Centrifugal pump Reciprocating pump

1. Simple in construction 1. Complicated in construction
2. Total weight of pump is less for a given 2. Total weight of pump is more for a given
discharge discharge
3. Suitable for large discharge and smaller 3. Suitable for less discharge and higher heads
heads
4. Required less floor area and simple 4. Required more floor area and heavy
foundation foundation
5. Less wear and tear 5. More wear and tear
6. Maintenance cost is less 6. Maintenance cost is high
7. Can run at higher speeds 7. Can’t run at higher speeds
8. Its delivery is continuous 8. Its delivery is pulsating
9.Needs priming 9. Doesn’t need priming
10. It has less efficiency 10. It has more efficiency

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 37 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

REFERENCE:
1. Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines by R.K. Bansal (Book)
2. https://youtu.be/H1AsPLYCyWk?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
3. https://youtu.be/aiH_hwb8Ceg?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn
4. https://youtu.be/-JRsCoPWHkU?list=PLq7jO-L_k0yVmqNL4XVB9vOJ47_ysGYWn

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 38 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Introduction:
Pneumatic systems are the power systems which are using compressed air as a working medium for
the power transmission. The air compressor used in the Pneumatic system converts the mechanical
energy of the prime mover into pressure energy of the compressed air. After compression, the
compressed air obtained from the compressor is prepared and used to perform useful work. The air
preparation includes filtration, cooling, water separation, drying, and adding lubricating oil mist. The
compressed air is stored in compressed air reservoirs and transmitted through transmission lines:
pipes and hoses. The pneumatic power is controlled by means of a set of valves such as the pressure,
flow and directional control valves. Then, the pressure energy is converted to the required mechanical
energy by means of the pneumatic cylinders and motors.

Advantages of Pneumatic Systems:

▪ Air is used as a working medium in Pneumatic system which is unlimited in the atmosphere.
▪ Compressed air can easily be stored and transmitted through pipe lines. It can be easily
released into the atmosphere without further processing.
▪ Pneumatic parts are proven to last longer and require less maintenance.
▪ Pneumatic system components are relatively simple, which makes them suitable for less
complicated automatic control systems.
▪ Pneumatic systems can work in inflammable environments without the risk of fire or
explosion.
▪ Pneumatic system components are relatively inexpensive. So, it is cost-effective.

Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems:

▪ Air is a compressible gas. So, control and speed in a pneumatic system is more difficult in
comparison to electric or hydraulic systems.
▪ Pneumatic systems are less durable than hydraulic systems.
▪ Pneumatic systems cannot operate underwater and are sensitive to changing temperatures and
vibrations. Devices are known to fail over long periods of time.
▪ Pneumatic systems are the loudest type of designs that other machines. Actuators that run the
system are the source of the noise.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 39 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Basic Components of a Pneumatic System:

The functions of various components of a Pneumatic system are as follows:
▪ Pneumatic actuator:
o It converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful work.
▪ Compressor:
o It is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
▪ Storage reservoir:
o It is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
▪ Valves:
o These are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
▪ External power supply (motor)
o It is used to drive the compressor.
▪ Piping system:
o It carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

(Components of a Pneumatic System)

When the air compressor starts, it draws the air from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised
required pressure and temperature of air. A cooler is provided to cool the air and moisture from the
air is removed. This pressurised air is stored in a storage reservoir. A pressure switch is fitted with
the storage reservoir to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the required
level respectively. The pressurised air is transferred from the storage tank to one side of the piston
and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. The direction of flow of air is controlled
by the valve, which controls the motion in the actuator. The actuator is used to convert the fluid power
into mechanical power to do useful work.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 40 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system:

Hydraulic System Pneumatic System

1. It uses a pressurized liquid as a fluid. 1. It uses compressed air as a fluid.

2. Pumps are used to provide pressurized liquids. 2. Compressors are used to provide compressed air.

3. It is generally employed as closed system. 3. It is generally employed as open system.

4. It operates at pressures up to 700 bar. 4. It operates at pressures at 5-10 bar.

5. This system is heavy in weight. 5. This system is light in weight.

6. Leakage of fluid affects the performance. 6. There is no such effect of leakage.

7. Valve operations are difficult. 7. Valve operations are easy.

8. There may be chance of fire hazards. 8. This is free from fire hazards.

9. No special lubrication is required. 9. Special lubrication is important.

AIR FILTER
Function:
▪ To prevent entrance of solid contaminants to the system.
▪ To condensate and remove the water vapour that is present in the air.
▪ To arrest submicron particles that may pose a problem in the system components.

(Air Filter)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 41 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

The construction and operation of a typical cartridge-type filter system is illustrated in Figure. It
consists of the filter cartridge, deflector, plastic bowl, baffle, water drain valve.

Working:

The air to be filtered is allowed downward with a swirling motion that forces the moisture and the
heavier particles to fall down. The deflector used in the filter mechanically separates the contaminants
before they pass through the cartridge filter. The filter cartridge provides a random zig-zag passage
for the airflow. This type of airflow arrests the solid particles in the cartridge passage.
The water vapor gets condensed inside the filter and is collected at the bottom of the filter bowl. Also,
heavier foreign particles that are separated from the air are collected at the bottom of the bowl. Then
the accumulated water and other solid particles at the bottom of the filter bowl are drained off with
the use of an on-off drain valve located at the bottom of the filter bowl.

AIR REGULATOR
Function:
The function of the air pressure regulator is to maintain working pressure virtually constant regardless
of fluctuations of the line pressure and air consumption. When the pressure is too low, it results in
poor efficiencies and when the pressure is too high, energy is wasted and equipment’s performance
decay faster. In pneumatic system, pressure fluctuations occur due to variation in supply pressure or
load pressure. It is therefore essential to regulate the pressure to match the requirement of load
regardless of variation in supply pressure or load pressure.
Generally, pressure is regulated in pneumatic system at two places.
▪ At the receiver tank and in the load circuits
Pressure regulation at the receiver tank is required as a safety measure for the system. In the load
circuits, pressure regulator is used to regulate the pressure for downstream components such as valves
and actuators.

(Air Regulator)
There are two types of Pressure regulators: 1) Diaphragm type regulator, 2) Piston type regulator

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 42 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

AIR LUBRICATOR
Function:
The function of air lubricator is to add a controlled amount of oil with air to ensure proper lubrication
of internal moving parts of pneumatic components.
Lubricants are used to
▪ To reduce the wear of the moving parts
▪ Reduce the frictional losses
▪ Protect the equipment form corrosion
The lubricator adds the lubricating oil in the form of fine mist to reduce the friction and wear of
moving parts of pneumatic components such as valves, packing used in air actuators

(Air Lubricator)
The air lubricator is shown in figure. As air enters the lubricator its velocity is increased by a venture
ring. The pressure at the venture ring will be lower than the atmospheric pressure and the pressure on
the oil is atmospheric. Due to this pressure difference between the upper chamber and lower chamber,
oil will be drawn up in a riser tube. Oil droplets mix with the incoming air and form a fine mist. The
needle valve is used adjust the pressure differential between across the oil jet and hence the oil flow
rate. The air – oil mixture is forced to swirl as it leaves the central cylinder so that large particles of
oil is goes back to bowl and only the mist goes to outlet.
Filter-Regulator-Lubricator Unit:
Filter, Pressure Regulator, and Lubricator are combined in a unit. These three units together are called
FRL units or Service units. Compressed air from compressor comes in FRL unit wherein, the air is
filtered, controlled, and lubricated. Such prepared and controlled air is delivered to the pneumatic
system.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 43 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

In most pneumatic systems, the compressed air is first filtered and then regulated to the specific
pressure and made to pass through a lubricator for lubricating the oil. Thus, usually a filter, regulator
and lubricator are placed in the inlet line to each air circuit. They may be installed as separate units,
but more often they are used in the form of a combined unit.
Pressure Relief valve:

The pressure relief valves are used to protect the system components from excessive pressure. Its
primary function is to limit the system pressure within a specified range. It is normally a closed type
and it opens when the pressure exceeds a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow back to
the tank. The simplest type valve contains a poppet held in a seat against the spring force as shown
in Figure. This type of valves has two ports; one of which is connected to the pump and another is
connected to the tank. The fluid enters from the opposite side of the poppet. When the system pressure
exceeds the preset value, the poppet lifts and the fluid is escaped through the orifice to the storage
tank directly. It reduces the system pressure and as the pressure reduces to the set limit again the valve
closes.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 44 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Hydraulic System:
The hydraulic systems are used to employ pressurized liquid for transmitting energy and perform
useful work. A hydraulic fluid is the transmitting medium of a hydraulic system. It performs the
following functions.
▪ Power transmission
▪ Cooling and Lubrication
▪ Sealing
▪ Removal of impurities
Basic Components of a Hydraulic System:
The functions of various components of a Hydraulic system are as follows:
▪ Hydraulic actuator:
o It converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful work. It may be
of linear or rotary type.
▪ Pump:
o It is used to produce pressurised liquid. It forces the liquid into the different
components of hydraulic circuit.
▪ Reservoir:
o It is used to store the hydraulic liquid.
▪ Valves:
o These are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of liquid.
▪ External power supply (motor)
o It is used to drive the pump.
▪ Piping system:
o It carries the liquid from one location to another.
▪ Filter:
o Filters are used to remove contaminants.
▪ Pressure regulator:
o It regulates the required level of pressure in the hydraulic fluid.

(Components of a Hydraulic System)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 45 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

When the pump starts, it draws the oil from the oil tank through an oil filter and raised required
pressure and temperature of oil. The oil pressure is regulated by the pressure regulator. The direction
of flow of oil is controlled by the valve, which controls the motion in the actuator. The actuator is
used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work.

Gear Pumps
Gear pumps are less expensive but limited to pressures below 140 bar. It is noisy in operation than
either vane or piston pumps. Gear pumps are invariably of fixed displacement type, which means that
the amount of fluid displaced for each revolution of the drive shaft is theoretically constant. There
are two types of gear pumps.
External Gear Pumps:
External gear pumps are the most popular hydraulic pumps in low-pressure ranges due to their long
operating life, high efficiency and low cost. They are generally used in a simple machine. The most
common form of external gear pump is shown in Figure. It consists of a pump housing in which a
pair of precisely machined meshing gears runs with minimal radial and axial clearance. One of the
gears, called a driver is driven by a prime mover. The driver drives another gear called a follower. As
the teeth of the two gears separate, the fluid from the pump inlet gets trapped between the rotating
gear cavities and pump housing. The trapped fluid is then carried around the periphery of the pump
casing and delivered to outlet port. The teeth of precisely meshed gears provide almost a perfect seal
between the pump inlet and the pump outlet. When the outlet flow is resisted, pressure in the pump
outlet chamber builds up rapidly and forces the gear diagonally outward against the pump inlet. When
the system pressure increases, imbalance occurs. This imbalance increases mechanical friction and
the bearing load of the two gears. Hence, the gear pumps are operated to the maximum pressure rating
stated by the manufacturer.

(Working of External Gear pump)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 46 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

The advantages of external gear pump are as follows:

1.They are self-priming.
2.They give constant delivery for a given speed.
3. They are compact and light in weight.
4. Volumetric efficiency is high.
The disadvantages of external gear pump are as follows:
1. The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it will damage pump.
2. Variable speed drives are required to change the delivery.
3. If they run dry, parts can be damaged because the fluid to be pumped is used as lubricant.
Internal Gear Pumps
Another form of gear pump is the internal gear pump, which is illustrated in the figure. They consist
of two gears: An external gear and an internal gear. The crescent placed in between these acts as a
seal between the suction and discharge. When a pump operates, the external gear drives the internal
gear and both gears rotate in the same direction. The fluid fills the cavities formed by the rotating
teeth and the stationary crescent. Both the gears transport the fluid through the pump. The crescent
seals the low-pressure pump inlet from the high-pressure pump outlet. The fluid volume is directly
proportional to the degree of separation and these units may be reversed without difficulty. The major
use for this type of pump occurs when a through shaft is necessary, as in an automatic transmission.
These pumps have a higher-pressure capability than external gear pumps.

(Working of Internal Gear pump)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 47 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Vane Pumps
There are two types of vane pumps:
1. Unbalanced vane pump
2. Balanced vane pump
Unbalanced vane pumps are of two varieties:
a) Unbalanced vane pump with fixed delivery.
b) Unbalanced vane pump with pressure-compensated variable delivery.

Unbalanced Vane Pump with Fixed Delivery:

A simplified form of unbalanced vane pump with fixed delivery and its operation are shown in Figure.
The main components of the pump are the cam surface and the rotor. The rotor contains radial slots
splined to drive shaft. The rotor rotates inside the cam ring. Each radial slot contains a vane, which is
free to slide in or out of the slots due to centrifugal force. The vane is designed to mate with surface
of the cam ring as the rotor turns. The cam ring axis is offset to the drive shaft axis. When the rotor
rotates, the centrifugal force pushes the vanes out against the surface of the cam ring. The vanes
divide the space between the rotor and the cam ring into a series of small chambers. During the first
half of the rotor rotation, the volume of these chambers increases, thereby causing a reduction of
pressure. This is the suction process, which causes the fluid to flow through the inlet port. During the
second half of rotor rotation, the cam ring pushes the vanes back into the slots and the trapped volume
is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid through the outlet port. In this pump, all pump
action takes place in the chambers located on one side of the rotor and shaft, and so the pump is of an
unbalanced design. The delivery rate of the pump depends on the eccentricity of the rotor with respect
to the cam ring.

(Simple Vane pump)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 48 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Unbalanced Vane Pump with Pressure-Compensated Variable Delivery:

Schematic diagram of variable displacement vane pump is shown in Figure. The Variable
displacement feature can be brought into vane pumps by varying eccentricity between the rotor and
the cam ring. Here in this pump, the stator ring is held against a spring-loaded piston. The system
pressure acts directly through a hydraulic piston on the right side. This forces the cam ring against a
spring-loaded piston on the left side. If the discharge pressure is large enough, it overcomes the
compensated spring force and shifts the cam ring to the left. This reduces the eccentricity and
decreases the flow. If the pressure continues to increase, there is no eccentricity and pump flow
becomes zero.

(Working of Variable displacement Vane pump)

Balanced Vane Pump with Fixed Delivery:

(Working of Balanced Vane pump)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 49 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

A balanced vane pump is a very versatile design that has found widespread use in both industrial and
mobile applications. The basic design principle is shown in Figure. The rotor and vanes are contained
within a double eccentric cam ring and there are two inlet segments and two outlet segments during
each revolution. This double pumping action not only gives a compact design, but also leads to
another important advantage: although pressure forces acting on the rotor in the outlet area are high,
the forces at the two outlet areas are equal and opposite, completely cancelling each other. As a result,
there are no net loads on shaft bearings. Consequently, the life of this type of pump in many
applications has been exceptionally good. Operating times of 24000 h or more in industrial
applications are widespread. In more severe conditions encountered in mobile vehicles, 5000–10000h
of trouble-free operation is frequently achieved.

The advantages of vane pumps are as follows:

1. Vane pumps are self-priming, robust and supply constant delivery at a given speed.
2. They provide uniform discharge with negligible pulsations.
3. Their vanes are self-compensating for wear and vanes can be replaced easily.
4. These pumps do not require check valves.
5. They are light in weight and compact.
6. They can handle liquids containing vapors and gases.
7. Volumetric and overall efficiencies are high.
8. Discharge is less sensitive to changes in viscosity and pressure variations.
The disadvantages of vane pumps are as follows:
1. Relief valves are required to protect the pump in case of sudden closure of delivery.
2. They are not suitable for abrasive liquids.
3. They require good seals.
4. They require good filtration systems and foreign particle can severely damage pump.

Piston Pumps:
Piston pumps are of the following two types:
1. Axial piston pump
2. Radial piston pump
Axial Piston pumps are of two designs:
a) Bent-axis-type piston pump
b) Swash-plate-type piston pump

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 50 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS:
Hydraulic systems are used to control and transmit power. A pump driven by a prime mover such as
an electric motor creates a flow of fluid, in which the pressure, direction and rate of flow are controlled
by valves. An actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the mechanical power. The
amount of output power developed depends upon the flow rate, the pressure drop across the actuator
and its overall efficiency. Thus, hydraulic actuators are devices used to convert pressure energy of
the fluid into mechanical energy.
Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:
1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders).
2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (semi-rotary actuator).
CONTROL VALVES:
In fluid power, controlling elements are called valves.
There are three types of valves:
1. Directional control valves (DCVs): They determine the path through which a fluid
transverses a given circuit.
2. Pressure control valves: They protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due
to a sudden surge as valves open or close or due to an increase in fluid demand.
3. Flow control valves: Shock absorbers are hydraulic devices designed to smooth out pressure
surges and to dampen hydraulic shock.

Directional Control Valves:

A valve is a device that receives an external signal (mechanical, fluid pilot signal, electrical or
electronics) to release, stop or redirect the fluid that flows through it. The function of a DCV is to
control the direction of fluid flow in any hydraulic system. A DCV does this by changing the position
of internal movable parts.
A DCV is mainly required for the following purposes:
▪ To start, stop, accelerate, decelerate and change the direction of motion of a hydraulic
actuator.
▪ To permit the free flow from the pump to the reservoir at low pressure when the pump’s
delivery is not needed into the system.
▪ To vent the relief valve by either electrical or mechanical control.
▪ To isolate certain branch of a circuit.
Classification of DCVs:
Based on fluid path, DCVs can be classified as follows:
▪ Check valves.
▪ Shuttle valves.
▪ Two-way valves.
▪ Three-way valves.
▪ Four-way valves.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 51 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Based on design characteristics, DCVs can be classified as follows:

▪ An internal valve mechanism that directs the flow of fluid. Such a mechanism can either be a
poppet, a ball, a sliding spool, a rotary plug or a rotary disk.
▪ Number of switching positions (usually 2 or 3).
▪ Number of connecting ports or ways.
▪ Method of valve actuation that causes the valve mechanism to move into an alternate position.
Based on the control method, DCVs can be classified as follows:
▪ Direct controlled DCV: A valve is actuated directly on the valve spool. This is suitable for
small sized valves.
▪ Indirect controlled DCV: A valve is actuated by a pilot line or using a solenoid or by the
combination of electrohydraulic and electro-pneumatic means. The use of solenoid reduces
the size of the valve. This is suitable for large-sized valves.
Based on the construction of internal moving parts, DCVs can be classified as follows:
▪ Rotary spool type: In this type, the spool is rotated to change the direction of fluid. It has
longitudinal grooves. The rotary spools are usually manually operated.
▪ Sliding spool type: This consists of a specially shaped spool and a means of positioning the
spool. The spool is fitted with precision into the body bore through the longitudinal axis of
the valve body. The lands of the spool divide this bore into a series of separate chambers. The
ports of the valve body lead into these chambers and the position of the spool determines the
nature of inter-connection between the ports.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 52 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

3/2-Way DCV (Normally Closed):

Three-way valves either block or allow flow from an inlet to an outlet. They also allow the outlet to
flow back to the tank when the pump is blocked, while a two-way valve does not. A three-way valve
has three ports, namely, a pressure inlet (P), an outlet to the system(A)and a return to the tank(T).
Figure 1.10 shows the operation of a 3/2-way valve normally closed. In its normal position, the valve
is held in position by a spring as shown in Fig. 1.10(a). In the normal position, the pressure port P is
blocked and outlet A is connected to the tank. In the actuated position shown in Fig. 1.10(b), the
pressure port is connected to the tank and the tank port is blocked.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 53 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

3/2-Way DCV (Normally Opened):

Figure 1.11 shows a three-way two-position DCV (normally open) with push button actuation and
spring return. In the normal position, shown in Fig. 1.11(a), the valve sends pressure to the outlet
and blocks the tank port in the normal position. In the actuated position, the pressure port is blocked
and the outlet is vented to the tank.

Check Valve
The simplest DCV is a check valve. A check valve allows flow in one direction, but blocks the flow
in the opposite direction. It is a two-way valve because it contains two ports. The following figure
shows the graphical symbol of a check valve along with its no-flow and free-flow directions.

Pressure-control valves:
Pressure-control valves are used in hydraulic systems to control actuator force (force = pressure ×
area) and to determine and select pressure levels at which certain machine operations must occur.
Pressure controls are mainly used to perform the following system functions:
▪ Limiting maximum system pressure at a safe level.
▪ Regulating/reducing pressure in certain portions of the circuit.
▪ Unloading system pressure.
▪ Assisting sequential operation of actuators in a circuit with pressure control.
▪ Any other pressure-related function by virtue of pressure control.
▪ Reducing or stepping down pressure levels from the main circuit to a lower pressure in a sub-
circuit.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 54 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

The various pressure control valves are:

▪ Pressure-relief valve
▪ Pressure-reducing valve
▪ Unloading valve
▪ Counterbalance valve
▪ Pressure-sequence valve
▪ Brake valve.

Pressure-Relief Valves:
Pressure-relief valves limit the maximum pressure in a hydraulic circuit by providing an alternate
path for fluid flow when the pressure reaches a pre-set level. In a hydraulic circuit, a relief valve
opens and bypasses fluid when pressure exceeds its setting.
Schematic diagram of simple relief valve is shown in Figure. It is normally a closed valve whose
function is to limit the pressure to a specified maximum value by diverting pump flow back to the
tank. A poppet is held seated inside the valve by a heavy spring. When the system pressure reaches a
high enough value, the poppet is forced off its seat. This permits flow through the outlet to the tank
as long as this high-pressure level is maintained. Note the external adjusting screw, which varies
spring force and, thus, the pressure at which the valve begins to open.

(A simple Pressure relief valve)

Pressure-Reducing Valve:
This is another type of pressure control valve. This type of valve (which is normally open) is used to
maintain reduced pressures in specified locations of hydraulic systems. It is actuated by downstream
pressure and tends to close as this pressure reaches the valve setting. Schematic diagram of pressure
reducing valve is shown in Figure.
A pressure-reducing valve uses a spring-loaded spool to control the downstream pressure. If the
downstream pressure is below the valve setting, the fluid flows freely from the inlet to the outlet.
Note that there is an internal passageway from the outlet which transmits outlet pressure to the spool
end opposite the spring. When the outlet (downstream) pressure increases to the valve setting, the
spool moves to the right to partially block the outlet port. Just enough flow is passed to the outlet to
maintain its preset pressure level. If the valve closes completely, leakage past the spool causes
downstream pressure to build up above the valve setting.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 55 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

(A Pressure reducing valve)

Flow-control valves:
Flow-control valves control the rate of flow of a fluid through a hydraulic circuit. Flow-control valves
accurately limit the fluid volume rate from fixed displacement pump to or from branch circuits. Their
function is to provide velocity control of linear actuators, or speed control of rotary actuators.
Flow-control valves can be classified as follows:
1. Non-pressure compensated
2. Pressure compensated
Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves:
Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are used when the system pressure is relatively
constant and motoring speeds are not too critical. The operating principle behind these valves is that
the flow through an orifice remains constant if the pressure drops across it remains the same. In other
words, the rate of flow through an orifice depends on the pressure drop across it.
The main disadvantage of this valve is that, the speed of the piston cannot be defined accurately using
non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves when the working load varies.
Schematic diagram of non-pressure-compensated needle-type flow-control valve is shown in Fig. 1.3.
It is the simplest type of flow-control valve. It consists of a screw (and needle) inside a tubelike
structure. It has an adjustable orifice that can be used to reduce the flow in a circuit. The size of the
orifice is adjusted by turning the adjustment screw that raises or lowers the needle. For a given
opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice. Usually, charts are available that allow quick
determination of the controlled flow rate for given valve settings and pressure drops. Sometimes
needle valves come with an integrated check valve for controlling the flow in one direction only. The
check valve permits easy flow in the opposite direction without any restrictions.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 56 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Pressure-Compensated Valves:
Pressure-compensated flow-control valves overcome the difficulty caused by non-
pressurecompensated valves by changing the size of the orifice in relation to the changes in the system
pressure. This is accomplished through a spring-loaded compensator spool that reduces the size of
the orifice when pressure drop increases. Once the valve is set, the pressure compensator acts to keep
the pressure drop nearly constant.
Schematic diagram of a pressure compensated flow-control valve is shown in Fig. 1.5. A pressure-
compensated flow-control valve consists of a main spool and a compensator spool. The adjustment
knob controls the main spool’s position, which controls the orifice size at the outlet. The upstream
pressure is delivered to the valve by the pilot line A. Similarly, the downstream pressure is ported to
the right side of the compensator spool through the pilot line B. The compensator spring biases the
spool so that it tends toward the fully open position. If the pressure drops across the valve increases,
that is, the upstream pressure increases relative to the downstream pressure, the compensator spool
moves to the right against the force of the spring. This reduces the flow that in turn reduces the
pressure drop and tries to attain an equilibrium position as far as the flow is concerned.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 57 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Speed-Controlling Circuits:
In hydraulic operations, it is necessary to control the speed of the actuator so as to control the force,
power, timing and other factors of the operation. Actuator speed control is achieved by controlling
the rate of flow into or out of the cylinder.
Speed control by controlling the rate of flow into the cylinder is called meter-in control. Speed control
by controlling the rate of flow out of the cylinder is called meter-out control.

Meter-In Circuit:
The following figure shows a meter-in circuit with control of extend stroke. The inlet flow into the
cylinder is controlled using a flow-control valve. In the return stroke, however, the fluid can bypass
the needle valve and flow through the check valve and hence the return speed is not controlled. This
implies that the extending speed of the cylinder is controlled whereas the retracing speed is not.

Meter-Out Circuit:
The following figure shows a meter-out circuit for flow control during the extend stroke. When the
cylinder extends, the flow coming from the pump into the cylinder is not controlled directly.
However, the flow out of the cylinder is controlled using the flow-control valve (metering orifice).
On the other hand, when the cylinder retracts, the flow passes through the check valve unopposed,
bypassing the needle valve. Thus, only the speed during the extend stroke is controlled. Both the
meter-in and meter-out circuits mentioned above perform the same operation (control the speed of
the extending stroke of the piston), even though the processes are exactly opposite to one another.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 58 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Bleed-Off Circuit:
Compared to meter-in and meter-out circuits, a bleed-off circuit is less commonly used. Figure 1.10
shows a bleed-off circuit with extend stroke control. In this type of flow control, an additional line is
run through a flow-control valve back to the tank. To slow down the actuator, some of the flow is
bleed off through the flow-control valve into the tank before it reaches the actuator. This reduces the
flow into the actuator, thereby reducing the speed of the extend stroke. The main difference between
a bleed-off circuit and a meter-in/meter-out circuit is that in a bleed-off circuit, opening the flow-
control valve decreases the speed of the actuator, whereas in the case of a meter-in/meter-out circuit,
it is the other way around.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 59 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Circuit:
A hydraulic circuit is a group of components such as pumps, actuators, control valves, conductors
and fittings arranged to perform useful work. There are three important considerations in designing a
hydraulic circuit:
▪ Safety of machine and personnel in the event of power failures.
▪ Performance of given operation with minimum losses.
▪ Cost of the component used in the circuit.
Control of a Single-Acting Hydraulic Cylinder:
The following figure shows that the control of a single-acting, spring return cylinder using a three-
way two-position manually actuated, spring offset direction-control valve (DCV). In the spring offset
mode, full pump flow goes to the tank through the pressure-relief valve (PRV). The spring in the rod
end of the cylinder retracts the piston as the oil from the blank end drains back into the tank. When
the valve is manually actuated into its next position, pump flow extends the cylinder. After full
extension, pump flow goes through the relief valve. Deactivation of the DCV allows the cylinder to
retract as the DCV shifts into its spring offset mode.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 60 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

(Control of a single-acting cylinder)

Control of a Double-Acting Hydraulic Cylinder:

The circuit diagram to control double-acting cylinder is shown in the following figure. The control
of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder is described as follows: 1. When the 4/3 valve is in its neutral
position (tandem design), the cylinder is hydraulically locked and the pump is unloaded back to the
tank. 2. When the 4/3 valve is actuated into the flow path, the cylinder is extended against its load as
oil flows from port P through port A. Oil in the rod end of the cylinder is free to flow back to the tank
through the four-way valve from port B through port T. 3. When the 4/3 valve is actuated into the
right-envelope configuration, the cylinder retracts as oil flows from port P through port B. Oil in the
blank end is returned to the tank via the flow path from port A to port T. At the ends of the stroke,
there is no system demand for oil. Thus, the pump flow goes through the relief valve at its pressure
level setting unless the four-way valve is deactivated.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 61 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

(Control of a double-acting cylinder)

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 62 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC SYMBOLS

Hydraulics pneumatics symbols play very important role in design and implementation of the
systems. These symbols designate the components and way they should be interconnected. Without
hydraulics pneumatics symbols it would have very difficult to represent and express a hydraulic
circuit.

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 63 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 64 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 65 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 66 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 67 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 68 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 69 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 70 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 71 P.K.Patra

 KIIT POLYTECHNIC

REFERENCE:
1. Text book of Hydraulics & Hydraulic Machines by R.S. Khurmi (Book)
2. Hydraulic & Pneumatic Control by S. Sundaram (Book).
3. https://youtu.be/8xd7cWvMrvE?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
4. https://youtu.be/2__g1Fntx4o?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
5. https://youtu.be/EWPVrljCgpk?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
6. https://youtu.be/yx3DzindtXU?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
7. https://youtu.be/gruZTqln1cY?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
8. https://youtu.be/2__g1Fntx4o?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
9. https://youtu.be/EWPVrljCgpk?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
10. https://youtu.be/yx3DzindtXU?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
11. https://youtu.be/UGozt4Lum4Q?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja
12. https://youtu.be/3YQVPFpXHQQ?list=PLbMVogVj5nJTKwm1WjlutrAEZrLE995Ja

Hydraulic Machine & Industrial Fluid Power Page 72 P.K.Patra