PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF

BUILDING SCIENCE

Dr.E.Rajasekar
Civil Engineering
IIT Roorkee
 INDEX
S. No Topic Page No.
Week 1
1 Solar Geometry 1
2 Climate Classification 25
3 Thermal Comfort in Built Environment -1 53
4 Thermal Comfort in Built Environment -2 74
5 Thermal Adaptation 97

Week 2
6 Bioclimatic Assessment 128
7 Thermal Performance Of Building Envelop 164
8 Thermal Performance Of Building Envelop - Indices And Measures (1/2) 192
9 Thermal Performance Of Building Envelop - Indices And Measures (2/2) 208
10 Glazing And Shading Systems 230
Week 3
11 Shading Analysis 256
12 Energy Efficiency And Simulation 270
13 Building Acoustics - Basics 295
14 Sound Propagation 322
15 Acoustic Quality Indicators (1/2) 345
Week 4
16 Acoustic Quality Indicators (2/2) 374
17 Acoustic Design Considerations 397
18 Acoustic Materials 430
19 Lighting - Basics 457
20 Lighting : Design Concepts 480
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture - 01
Solar Geometry

Welcome to the course Principles and Applications of Building Science. This is the first
module. Here we will start with Solar Geometry.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:37)

Mainly we will talk about the Earth-Sun relationship, Sun-path diagrams and what is the
consequence of it on the solar time and local time and how they are different. In Solar
radiations, specifically we will look at how to measure and what are its implications. Finally,
we will look at how does that affects building design, what are the design implications.

To start with, we will look at the Earth-Sun relationship. Some of this we already know. We
will relate it more with climatic building design. The climate of earth as you know is driven
by the energy input from the sun, sun is a source of energy.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:14)

There are two essential aspects that person has to understand; one is the apparent movement
of the sun or you know if you take a geocentric theory, it is apparent movement of the sun
where the sun’s position is that is the solar geometry we typically refer as. And number two is
the energy flow from the sun, be it heat energy be it light energy. It is energy flow from sun
to the earth and how to handle it, whether you will include it in the building or exclude it in
the building. So, two primary things; one is the solar geometry, number two is the energy
flows associated with it.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:05)

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Considering heliocentric view, you have sun in the centre. The earth is moving around it 365
days, the axis which is subtended with the equatorial plane and the sun. This particular angle,
the tilt of earth is 23 and half degrees, this is constant tilt. As the earth moves around, you
will start getting two typical extremes; one is called Northern solstice that is when 23 and half
degrees plus that are on June 21st and 22nd.

It happens that is, the day times are maximum and the night times are minimum in the
Northern hemisphere, typically we call Northern solstice for countries or locations in
Northern hemisphere, this is called summer solstice and the other side winter solstice are the
Southern solstice for the earthen hemisphere which occurs on December 22nd that is minus
23 and half degree tilt. Typically, this is referred as Southern solstice, for locations in
Northern hemisphere we refer to this as winter solstice. This is where you know you get the
shortest day and longest night typically we get minimum temperatures in this particular
season.

Apart from this, when earth is typically you know there is a 0 degree tilt, you call it as
equinox. It occurs twice that is March 3rd week of March and 3rd week of September. So,
there are four important dates which are critical, if you have to understand solar geometry
first is Northern solstice or summer solstice for the Northern hemisphere, next is two
equinoxes which occurs in March and September and the last one is Winter solstice or
Southern solstice which occurs which typically is a minimum temperatures associated with
Northern hemisphere. It is exactly the opposite for Southern hemisphere. So during northern
solstice they have winters and during southern solstice they have their summers.

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:41)

So we have an equator here, Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn 23 and half degrees
north, 0 degrees and 23 and half degree south. So, we are talking primarily about India or
Asian part. Primarily, we will look at what happens around here and what is the impact of the
solar geometry on this particular over particular location.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:22)

So, if you have to understand more or if you have to derive some implications of the solar
geometry on our design, we have to start mapping the sun position. The first step is to get into
a loco centric theory and get two typical angles to map the sun’s position on a two

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dimensional plane, sun has 3D movement. So, from that you are deriving two typical angles
from which you can project, it is a trigonometric projection, first thing is that the altitude
angle, wherever whichever orientation it is, you just typically take a horizontal plane and you
mark the position of the sun, the angle which is subtended to the horizontal plane is called
Altitude angle. Higher the altitude angle, sun is towards your head, that is 90 degree means
sun is just above your head. Typically, if you know if you would say east and west, then you
might get very low altitude angles.

Next is an Azimuth angle which you can take either north or south as reference. In many
cases, you take north as a reference and wherever the sun’s position, irrespective of its
altitude angle where it is located, you typically project it down and take the angle difference
between or the angle subtended from north. For example, when sun is right on the eastern
side, you can say it is 90 degree or towards the west it will be 270 degrees if you are taking
north as a reference point.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:33)

If you have to really calculate altitude angle and azimuth angle, these are trigonometric
calculations. So, you need few indicators like declination which we talked about earlier, you
need the hour angle from solar noon, then you will need the number of day of year. So with
these things, there are some formulas which we are not going to work out as a part of this
module, but if somebody is interested, if you know these 3 to 4 numbers, it is easier to locate
the position of the sun and it is easy to calculate altitude and azimuth angles.

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We will go more with a graphical representation given the shorten duration of this specific
modules.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:08)

Let us consider two specific examples to get a better picture of these solar movements. First
let us take a location Srinagar, typically Northern part of India. The latitude is 34.1 degree
north and the longitude is 74.8 degree east. First let us look at what is the impact of change in
latitudes. So, we will be considering Srinagar first, followed by Trivandrum which is in the
Southern tip of India, so first.. no.. next we will look at longitude where we will talk about
the solar time, also how to calculate local and derive local time from that.so we will look at
that First let us take a look at the latitude of the place 34 degree north.

There are three images. This is summer solstice where..you know here we are referring to the
Northern solstice or summer solstice here. Sun’s position, it rises somewhere, then at this
point and then it moves traverses, sets here. Typically you get sun right above the head, this is
on summer solstice, it never crosses towards the Northern side, it is slightly tilted towards
south, but still you get sun from the north east and north western side during the morning and
evening times. During equinox if you see, sun moves.. you know the sun rises here, moves
along and then sets in this point.

So, typically you get sun rising exactly in the east, setting exactly in the west during equinox,
but it traverses. You know it has a Southern traverse and it rises in the east, traverses through
south and sets in the west. Winter solstice, you have further lower altitude angle, here we are

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talking about three altitude angles, this altitude angle is high, slightly lesser and winter
solstice December 21st here we have typically the least possible altitude angle. You do not
get sun directly on the east or west, it is mostly somewhere close to south-east and south-west
and it has a Southern traverse, this is the case of 34 degree north latitude. Take a look at
Trivandrum. This is 8.5 degrees north latitude which is much closer to the equator.

So, when we looked at Srinagar, it is of tropic of cancer further north of tropic of cancer.
Here, we are talking about a location south of tropic of cancer much closer to the equator. If
you look at the sun movement, it has you know the sun rise happens somewhere close to
north-east and sets somewhere close to north-west. It traverses not directly through south, it is
somewhat half the center point, that is it has a slightly Northern traverse during summer
solstice, it is further half. So, this is a center point, this is south, this part is north. So, it has a
typical Northern traverse, what implication this has is if you have a Northern wall which has
large windows typically during summer especially in latitudes like this say 11 degrees, 10
degrees are even you know 15 degrees, 13 degrees north latitude.

You will have solar incidents on your Northern facade and Northern windows during summer
months. The lower you go towards equator like typically the case of 8 degrees, 8 and half
degrees north latitude, you will have up to 4 and half months, you will have solar incidence
on your Northern wall. So, when you are blindly following a code which says or a text book
which says sun traverses from east to west through south, Northern wall or Northern facades
are you know free of direct solar radiation. It might be misleading, you have to closely look
at what latitude it is which decides because critical months like summers like May, June and
July where solar radiation is also more, temperatures are also more, you are going to get
direct solar radiation on your Northern facade here.

During equinox, east and west a slight Southern traverse is noted, it is slightly half the center
point, slightly traverses towards the south. Winter solstice, the altitude angle if you compare
with Srinagar is not as slow as you looked at Srinagar, you do not get such a low steep
penetration of solar radiation, it is slightly higher in terms of altitude angle. In all the three
cases, the altitude angle is much higher compared to 34 degrees that is, the location Srinagar
which we talked about.

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Now, let us look at something called Sun-path Diagram which is highly useful if you are
designing a building specifically for shading devices or locating, orienting your building, for
anything to start with sun path diagram is a basic requirement.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:58)

It is nothing but a projection, a two dimensional projection of a 3D movement. Mostly we

refer to stereo graphic projection. There are other types like orthographic. We will look at
few of them in an example. Primarily, we are working with a stereo graphic projection.

There are other things like spherical orthographic but mainly we are looking at a stereo
graphic projection. You need two specific angles that is altitude angle and azimuth angle to
locate our map to the position of the sun.

Now, coming back to our two example cities Srinagar and Trivandrum, the solar movement
can be mapped like this. We looked at in the three dimensions, now, this is what we were
talking about, this is your traverse of sun during your summer solstice, this is your traverse of
sun during winter solstice, equinox occurs somewhere here. We will look at the components
more in detail, this is for Trivandrum like I said, this is a center point and these are month
lines. So, if you see up to four months easily, you will get direct solar radiation or solar
incidence on Northern façade.

If you have to access a Northern façade, northern façade will fall somewhere in this center
line, again Southern facade you have to take this as a center line and see how many months or

8
how much duration you have solar incidence on your Southern facade. So, typically in this
case your Northern facade is going to have solar incidence for more duration whereas, here it
is only for 2-3 months that too slightly in the morning and evenings which can be prevented
or up stretched to a vertical shading system. Here, you will also need a horizontal shade on
your Northern wall in order to avoid direct solar radiation during summer.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:27)

In laboratories, this particular thing is studied using heliodon, you might have heard of this
name, this is a device where you can set the solar position, everything is adjustable, you can
set latitude, longitude, solar position and then I mean typically these are lights which cause
shadows you can put your modal and you can assess what is a shadow penetration and what
is a solar incidence? These things can be experimentally assessed. In this module, we are
going to look at.. this is a you know graphic 3d.., 3D graphic which is generated by a
software called Ecotect, we will be primarily using for demonstration, we will be using the
models from Ecotect as well as associated tool called solar tool which helps us to graphically
represent a three dimensional sun path.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:14)

So, similar thing which we are going to look at, this is a solar tool which I was talking about,
here we are talking about the solar path, this is a stereo graphic projection. There are different
types of projections as I said Spherical, Equidistance, Stereographic, Orthographic, Wall
drums, you can also look at tabular mapping of it. There are key components here, the
peripheral line represents the azimuth angle which we talked about and then the concentric
line talks about altitude angle, these are the date lines, month lines for summer to winter
solstice and these things are the hour lines. So, knowing this date and hour lines, you can
locate the sun’s position at a particular point. Other than this, this particular tool let us set the
date and time, say for example, if you are setting June 21st then you will have summer
solstice here, for a particular time you will know where the sun’s position is. When you will
change it to winter that is December, sun position changes here.

You can also change the latitude of the place. Now, it is 34 degrees that is for Srinagar if I
change it to Trivandrum’s location, the solar path that is the total sun-path diagram varies,
this is during December and this is during June. A simple representation of sun movement,
we will look at the shadow and shadow assessments further in detail. So far we have been
dealing with the latitude of a location and how it effects the sun’s movement. Now, in this
section we will talk about the impact of longitude and primary considerations which we have
to give. So for this, one major thing you have to understand is the difference between solar
time and the local time. The time used in the solar chart is a general solar time and it
coincides with the local clock time only at a reference longitude for a particular time zone.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:52)

If you take the case of India, we do not have different time zones, there is one time zone
across the country though we have a vast extend from west to the east, we have only single
time zone and the reference longitude for India is 82.3 degrees east longitude. If you take a
country like U.S, they have a different time zones as you go from east to west of united states
the time zone varies for example, they have half an hour to 1 hour time adjustment every time
zone as you move from east to west. For a basic understanding, every degree of longitude you
move, it means a time difference of 4 minutes.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:43)

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We will use this in further calculations. To understand this better, let us consider two
locations, first is Mumbai which is 73 degrees east longitude on the western side of India,
number two is Dibrugarh which is 95 degrees east longitude which is further east of India.
Mumbai lies west of India’s reference longitude that is 82 degrees reference line, it lies west
of reference line by 9.5 or 9 degrees 30 minutes whereas Dibrugarh lies on the east of India’s
reference longitude by 12 degrees and 30 minutes.

Another thing which has to be factored in the calculation is the equation of time correction
which can be done like I said earlier, it can be done numerically or I am showing you a
graphic indicator, this simple graph which tells you how to find out the time correction.
Along the x axis it has a number of days that is day of the year, starts from 0 goes to 366,
then on the y axis we have the equation of time correction. This depends on the day of the
year considered. For example, if you take 26th January, it comes somewhere here 26th day of
the year, the time correction will be minus 13 minutes, if you take 26th October or 27th
October which is somewhere around the 300th day of the year, the time correction will be
plus 17 minutes. Using this, what we can do if you take the same case of Mumbai and
Dibrugarh, the calculation goes like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:10)

For example, if I have to establish; what is a local solar noon, what time the local noon occurs
in Mumbai, noon is 12 o'clock minus 38 minutes, this 38 comes from this 9 degree 30
minutes, if you multiply that for every longitude degree, it is 4 minutes. So, if you multiply

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you will get 38 minutes minus 13 because I am calculating it for 26th January, where is if I
am calculating it for say as a example I stated 26th October or 27th October, the correction
will be positive, it will be plus 17 minutes, here it is minus 13. So, this comes to 11:09.
Subtract this from 12 then you will get 51 minutes. So, local solar noon at Mumbai occurs 51
minutes later than Indian standard time because it lies to the west of the reference longitude.

In the case of Dibrugarh, in the same way if we calculate, we find that the local solar noon
occurs 37 minutes earlier than the Indian standard time. If India were to have different time
zones from east to west, then the time zone adjustments will be something like half an hour to
45 minutes for each time zone if one were to divide the country into three different time
zones.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:29)

We will look little bit more in detail about solar radiation, two main measures are there,
number one is Irradiance watts per meter square is most commonly used, it is a instantaneous
flux or energy flow, earlier it used to be called solar intensity, now it is called irradiance
watts per square meter, it can be horizontal or vertical. On Number two is irradiation which
means the energy quantity integrated over a specific time, it can be per day, per hour or per
year, total hour for a specific season. It is measured in watt hour per meter square. Looking
little bit more into the details of the solar radiation itself, the sun’s surface is around 6000
degrees centigrade, peak of its radiation emission occurs at 550 nanometer wave length.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:14)

Now, this is a solar spectrum, we know three major things one is a visible spectrum, then you
have ultra violet and infrared. Once the sun’s energy hits earth’s atmosphere, part of it is
reflected back,part of it is absorbed and part of it is transmitted, whatever component is
observed, it is reradiated, then after entering the earth’s atmosphere, the ground absorption or
water bodies they absorb part of it ,reflect part of it, whatever is absorbed is re-emitted, what
comes in a short wave radiation, once it is absorbed and then re-radiated, it goes back as long
wave radiation. These long wave radiations are trapped by the cloud cover which we
generally call green house effect where this re-radiator long wave radiation gets trapped in
the earth’s atmosphere. There is a large variation in irradiation among different locations of
the earth. This is for three main reasons; one is the angle of incidence.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:01)

We know the cosine law which states that the steeper the angle of incidence, the difference
will be more, number two is the atmospheric depletion and again it is a factor of the angle of
incidence. For example, if it is in the polar region, the same sun’s radiation has to traverse a
long distance across the atmosphere cutting through. So, there is a factor which varies
between 0.2 and 0.7 and then number three is the duration of sunshine. For example, earlier
we said summer solstice versus winter solstice or the Northern solstice versus Southern
solstice where the sun’s duration of sunshine considerably varies between June 21st and
December 22nd. So, this has a considerably impact on the irradiation.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:55)

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Let us come back to the example of Srinagar which is 34 degrees north and 74.8 degrees east
longitude. You take the same Southern wall surface, I have put some windows and some
shading systems here, if you take the solar radiation incidence on a winter, this is winter
solstice you have a steep Southern sun, this is where the solar radiation incidence occurs if
you see in this scale, this portion corresponds to somewhere around 3000 watt hours. This is
for a particular day. On the instance of December 22nd this is the solar radiation which
occurs on the Southern surface, this is the total solar radiation. One more thing we have to
remember is this total solar radiation has two components, one is a direct radiation and other
is a diffuse radiation.

For example, consider this surface at this point of time, this is around noon, this particular
surface is not getting any direct solar radiation, but still the radiation will be there because of
diffuse components. Diffuse radiation will still have some impact on these surfaces, total
radiation and net radiation will be minimum. Consider the case of Trivandrum which is 8 and
half degrees north latitude.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:02)

This is again winter solstice. This Northern sun is not as steep as you found in Srinagar and it
is slightly with a higher altitude angle. Carefully look at this numbers, the total solar radiation
incident on a Southern facade which is somewhere around 6000 watt hours. So, the solar
incidents you receive on the Southern facade considerably vary between the Northern parts of
India that is a location like Srinagar versus Trivandrum.

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Now, let us not worry about what.. let us not worry about what climate condition it is,
Srinagar has a colder climate versus Trivandrum has a warm and humid climate. We are not
getting into the climate classification that is part of a different module, the subsequent
module, but just the solar radiation intensity considerably varies on a given building façade
and how do we account for this particular solar radiation in our building related calculation,
the main parameter which is used this Sol-air temperature, Sol-air temperature is kind of a
inclusive number.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:04)

(a∗i)
T sol−air =T out +
ho

If you read this equation this is T out is a outside air temperature in degree centigrade, this is
a Dry-bulb temperature of outside air, sol-air temperature actually includes the effect of air
temperature and adds up a small component to it which is inclusive of the main thing global
solar irradiance watts per meter square, absorptivity of a particular surface as I say imagine
the same Southern facade which I was talking about, if it were to be bright colored, say a
white surface versus a black surface. This absorptivity of the surface considerably varies.

So in that case, this particular factor will vary. The 3rd part of this small factor is h o or the
heat transfer coefficient for radiation and convection, this is equivalent to the film coefficient

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on the outside surface of the wall. So, this particular factor is added to the outside air
temperature. Sol-air temperature typically will be equal or more than the ambient air
temperature in tropical climates, what happens is say imagine if you take a western facade
somewhere around 4 o'clock in the evening, there will be an ambient temperature, take a case
like Srinagar in June 21st say the ambient temperature is 30 degrees in the Southern facade
which we looked at. The solar radiation intensity will be x plus the absorptivity of a surface,
imagine a white surface, there will be a heat transfer coefficient. So, a small magnitude say
about 4 to 5 degrees will get added up which becomes the sol-air temperature. This is more or
less equivalent to the surface temperature of a particular wall.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:48)

I have done some calculations using the same equation. Take this location, this dotted line
represents the outside air temperature which starts from 6 o'clock, this is evening 6, this is a
12 hour graph. Morning, the temperatures are around 27 degree and goes up to 35 degree in
the evening. There are two other lines in this graph, this is time in hours, this is temperature
and there are two other lines, this is sol-air temperature on the eastern façade, this blue line
versus this purple line, this is a sol-air temperature on the western façade. Interestingly, if you
notice the eastern façade, the sol air temperature goes as high as 40 degrees.

Early in the morning only around say 7 to 9 o'clock the peak occurs, then it cools down,
comes back below the ambient air temperature whereas, on a western façade, this sol-air
temperature rise much lower than the ambient temperature and then it peaks up in the evening

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and then its heat, now it gets heated up and what is the impact on building design. For
example, if you were to have a wall which is part of a bedroom, your bedroom wall is
exposed to eastern side.

The sol-air temperature will go as high as 40 degree in the morning and then it will cool
down. So, when you want to occupy it somewhere around 9 o'clock in the night, the surface
temperature is not that high and including the time lag which we will discuss later. The inside
temperatures will be relatively cooler whereas, a west facing wall of a bedroom, the
maximum temperature occurs somewhere around 4 o'clock to 5 o'clock in the evening, then
this will be transmitted in. So, you will have relatively higher temperature inside surface
temperature as well as heat gain through that particular wall.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:27)

Here, we did a small calculation as such sol-air temperature is dependent on two main things,
the one we have earlier saw the absorptivity of a surface that is represented by a, for a
brighter surface versus a reflective surface versus a darker surface. Number two is, it can be
modified with the effect of shading, what happens in the case of shading, the moment you
have a shading device or a balcony, the direct solar radiation is cut, but you have to keep in
mind the defuse solar radiation still exist. So, it is not totally negated, but the direct
component which is quite significant is totally negated if you have a full cover of shading.
We have calculated the sol-air temperature ranges for 8 orientations.

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There are three cases here, the first case, this is a dark blue, the absorption, the solar
absorption of the surface is 0.4 which corresponds to a normal white painted or a ivory color
painted external wall. There is direct solar radiation and it does not have any shading.
Number two, this light blue where we painted the surface with a reflective coating. Today, we
will get a lot of reflective commonly called low-e coatings which are done on the wall, that is
low emissive coating, mainly reflective coating has been done for the second case and the
third, the same wall an additional shading system was added to the first case that is the
absorptivity remains and there is no reflective coating, but additionally a shading system was
provided that is the wall is completely shaded and you can imagine there is balcony present in
front of the wall.

So, what happens in the first incidence is the sol-air temperature for example, in the eastern
wall goes as high as 47 degrees, for a west facing wall it goes up to 51 degrees. This is in a
tropical warm humid climate and goes as high as 51 degrees in a west facing wall whereas,
when you paint it with a reflective coating it can be brought as low as 41 degree, you will
find 10 degree difference on the external surface or sol-air temperature. Instead of reflective
coating, if you go for a proper shaded west facing wall, you can bring it down to as low as 37
degree and you have to notice that this is more or less equivalent to a north facing wall.

Imagine you have a balcony which has a west facing wall and you cannot avoid it, the better
solution in today’s context would be if you are in a design stage, you can provide a balcony
or a deep over hang. So, as to shade the complete wall, it becomes more or less equivalent to
a north facing wall forgetting about the wind and other components which we are discussing
just with solar radiation and this can be made equivalent to the north facing wall or if you
further do not have choice, you have crossed the design stage, then the next best alternate
would be to look for a reflective coating, but this is temporary, the coating would last for
around 2-3 years after which it loses its reflective property, it has to be recoated. There can be
a slightly better improvement with reflective coating, but with permanent shading system, the
whole sol-air temperature can be brought down.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:31)

Let us discuss about few design implications, this particular graph, two things, this is again
for Srinagar, this is winter solstice and this is summer solstice and this is the same solar
radiation, but this is a direct solar radiation graph. I have split the whole thing, instead of
drawing a square I have made a cylindrical structure which is segmented. So, each of this
segment represents a specific orientation say if you want to take just four cardinal orientation
east, west, north and south, you can refer watt hour per meter square, this is radiance at this
particular instance of time, this is during winter solstice in Srinagar, this is a Southern sun
summer solstice, this is a condition.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:10)

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This is for Trivandrum, the numbers get higher during winter solstice and this is during
summer solstice. Even Northern surfaces and north eastern surfaces get more solar radiation.
One important thing which we should not forget is the use of for example, Northern windows
or north lights as you go down the tropic of cancer towards equator, Northern surfaces start
receiving solar radiation, it is not that Northern surfaces are totally divide of solar radiation
and as you get closer to equator, what happens is suns starts traversing towards your Northern
wall as well.

This is considering a loco centric theory with sun as a moving body, you are located here and
sun starts moving towards your north. If your building facade is this, you will still get solar
radiation in your Northern facade for at least four months for latitudes south of tropic of
cancer. Further you go towards equator, it gets more. Especially, on an equator there will be
equal distribution, half of the year sun will be to the Northern side, half of the year sun will
be to the Southern side.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:17)

To get a better understanding, we have this graph. This small box rectangle here represents a
building’s orientation, these lines here, the red one indicates the solar radiation during
summer which is deputed as overheated period, the blue one which is shown here, this
indicates the solar radiation during the under heated period or the winter season. This is an
interesting graph which shows that which is a major direction from which higher solar
intensity comes during summer, this is during winter and the green one is an annual average.

22
Typically, it is understood and agreed upon that, your longer surface of the building, longer
facades of the building should not be facing east and west without enough solar protection.
So, it is a better idea to orient it, the longer surface to orient it towards north and south,
shatter towards east and west it is understood, but still you can go for minor directional
changes depending on the location for example, in case of Srinagar the major solar incidence
during summer occurs in this direction not exactly in the east, but it occurs slightly away
from the east and during winter it is not directly on the south, but it is towards little bit
towards east it is not south east, but slightly ahead of east.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:44)

So, in this case the actual right orientation of the building will be a slight tilt rather than just
on the plane. Considering the case of Trivandrum, the case changes the maximum solar
radiation intensity during summer occurs at 70 degrees. So, this is where you get maximum
solar radiation during summer and during winter you get somewhere around 160 degrees and
this is where the maximum occurs. So, a trade of the best orientation would not be just south,
the longer facing not just facing south, but it is somewhere around 160 degrees that is a
perpendicular if you draw, this should be facing 160 degrees.

23
(Refer Slide Time: 33:18)

This would be the best case in which the building can be oriented. We will close this session
here, take a quick recap. We studied five important things, first thing is the Earth-Sun
relationship, how it moves around and we studied about Northern solstice equinox and
Southern solstice, the earth’s tilt and then we talked about how this earth movement rather
sun movement would be translated into diagrams for quick reference that is sun-path
diagrams, the stereo graphic projection, how it is built and how it can be used.

Number 3, we talked about the effect of longitude and time zones. We calculated solar time
and local time and then we talked about the impact of solar radiation. We took specific
example of a building facade and were studying it for two different geo locations, then we
studied about the design implications; that is how to orient your building considering the
solar radiation before positioning a building itself.

Thank you.

24
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture - 02
Climate Classification

In this module, I will be teaching you about Climate Classification. The major contents are,
what are the climate variables, how do we account for them, and how climates are classified,
how climate analysis is done for architectural project, and then what are the basic design
strategies which we can infer based on this climate classification.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:45)

So, primarily what are the climate variables we are going to talk about? Dry bulb temperature
that is the most basic parameter environmental variable, followed by relative humidity, both
are measured by using a device called Stevenson screen, which we know very much.

A lowered box, inside which the temperature and humidity sensors are kept, then solar
radiation, air movement, precipitation, cloud cover, and sunshine duration, in a specific
location. These are the major elements, based on which climate classification is done, as for
temperature is concerned 3 parameters are important.

25
(Refer Slide Time: 01:17)

First is, to take monthly; monthly mean daily maximum. So, if today is 42 degree maximum,
you keep counting it for the next 30, 31 days, then the monthly mean maximum, then the
monthly mean daily minimum. Similarly, and the standard deviation, standard deviation is
very important in this, it is a critical indicator, for example, there are certain temperature
anomalies.

For example 2 or 3 days shoot up in temperature, or fall of specifically due to rain or some
other disturbances, then the monthly mean maximum, might be skewed little bit. So, in order
to correct these things, we will also look at the standard deviation of their distribution.
Followed by humidity, we take twice in a day, which is important, two main time positions
are important, one is early morning, which is typically high, then early afternoon, relative
humidity, solar radiation in terms of monthly mean daily total, then wind, speed and
direction, and rainfall. These are typical climate summary charts we call, which is simply
used for inferring the climatic pattern, or the climatic characteristics in a given location.

26
(Refer Slide Time: 02:24)

So, let us consider 3 different locations - Jaisalmer, which is representing hard and dry
climate, Kolkata, representing a warm and humid climate, and Bengaluru, representing a
moderate climate. Let us read this chart first, the x axis, we have months starting from
January to December, and the y axis, there are 2 sides to it. If you start from this, for
example, this is the temperature, in temperature degree centigrade, this is the monthly mean
maxima, minima, and the daily mean value, and this is radiance, and this is the daily towers,
on the left side, here you find the relative humidity, and on the right side, we have the solar
radiation.

So, if you compare the 3 cities, this gives a quick picture of how the climatic characteristics
are, in a given location. For example, if you want to compare Jaisalmer with Kolkata, we can
see the temperature maxima, versus minima, how much is the diurnal variation, for example,
if we take the month of June, the diurnal variation is somewhere between 45, and the
minimum goes to 25 degree. So, 20 degree diurnal variation is seen, whereas, in the case of
Kolkata, the same in the month of June. If we see this is going up to around 38 degrees, 37
degrees 38 degrees, minimum is somewhere around 24. Relatively in Bangalore, the diurnal
variations are even lower.

Similarly, we can compare the radiance, relative humidity, and solar radiation. Another
important parameter, the wind, though we can look at elaborate wind rose chart, I will

27
demonstrate a few tools, which you can use in the following sessions, but to take a quick look
at it, this is a wind rose diagram.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:10)

This has little critical information about wind. Circles, this tells you concentric circles. This
tells you the wind velocity, 10 kilometers, 20, up to 50 kilometers in this graph, particular
graph. Then of course, you get the direction of the wind, and the color intensity indicates the
number of hours.

For example, looking at this graph, there is high speed wind coming from this direction, then
you have higher intensity winds, as well, it is going for further close to 150 hours you get in
this particular velocity, say around 20 kilometers in this direction. For specific building
applications, we simplify this chart, and use a chart, which is just having 8 directions,
cardinal directions, in which the wind vectors are identified. Again we take two times,
morning and evening, typically how the breeze is. For example, if you are taking a coastal
area, you will have clear phenomena of the seaward, and land side wind movement, which
will be clearly depicted in these things.

28
(Refer Slide Time: 05:24)

This will help us; more or less identify the climate type, the major parameters and their
variations across the year, and typical wind pattern. We can also have wind rose diagram
made for different months, different seasons, as we wish to. These are primary data. Then we
start deriving data out of this. There are 2 main things, which you will commonly come
across.

A typical metrological site will give you something called degree days. There are two types
in this heating degree days, and cooling degree days. Heating degree days, tells you how
many days in that particular season or year require heating. Just the number of days it will tell
you. Then the cooling degree days is set. As far degree hours are concerned, it is like a
cumulative value, it actually sums up in terms of degree hours. So, how many degrees are
exceeded, and then how many hours are exceeded, the product of it will give you the total
magnitude. So, when the degree hours are more, say heating hours are more, cooling degree
hours are more, it tells you this is the magnitude of heating, or cooling requirement. It is a
total sigma value that we are going to get.

29
(Refer Slide Time: 06:17)

Keeping this in mind, let us look at climate classification. Most commonly referred
international classification is the Koppen-Geiger. Initially, it had 25 different climate types,
but following that, it was also extended. There are many versions of this Koppen-Geiger
classification. As far as building applications are concerned, we typically look at Atkinsons
classification, which has 4 major climate types, starting from cold, temperate, hot dry, and
warm humid.

Apart from this, another climate type is added, which is a composite, say for example, when a
given location does not have a regular climate pattern, or a similar pattern for more than 2
months, it may be too cold in winter, too hot in summer. Sometimes, it is too rainy as warm
humid climates, then, we classify it as a composite zone. So, 2 to 3 months the climate
pattern or characteristic, of that location keeps changing.

30
(Refer Slide Time: 07:17)

This picture tells you the world global classification as per Koppen-Geiger system. If you
look at this, there are 5 main climate types, a, represents equatorial, b, represents arid, c, is
warm and temperate, d, is snow and e, is polar. Apart from this, based on precipitation, there
are 6 types, dessert, steppe, full humid, summer dry, winter dry, and monsoonal. As far
temperatures are concerned, there are 8 different types, hot, arid, up to polar tundra region.
So, if you come close to India, there are specific regions, which are indicated in color scale.

For example, the coastal areas this represents A and M. A, is equatorial, and M is monsoonal.
So, most of this west coast is classified, and say part of Sri Lanka, it is classified as
equatorial, monsoonal climatic zone. Say most part of India, it shows as A W that is, A is
equatorial, and winter dry. Similarly, the climate classifications of India can be inferred from
this map.

31
(Refer Slide Time: 08:24)

Let us take a closer look at how Indian classification works out like. Interesting thing is that,
if you look back in 1975, we had this particular climate map of India. Initially we had 6 major
climate zones. We had west coast tropical, we had east coast tropical then we had peninsula
plains, Gangatic plains, for most part of India, then dessert areas, and then eastern hill areas.
These were the type of climates, which were available way back in 1975. These two things
actually represent, where lighting protection is required, in those days, they did not have
much data for northern tip of Kashmir.

But later, national building code was revised, when the climatic classification was also
revised, as a part of it. Now we have officially 5 climate zones. We have hot and dry, but just
turn on this belt, we have warm and humid for most part of this coastal peninsular area, then
we have composite climate, which takes around 30 percent, one third of Indian geography,
then we have temperate climate or moderate climate, small patches of it, then we have cold
climates, and Kashmir, and far north east region.

So, as far the major climate zones are concerned. We have 5 major climate zones. So, we
talked about major climate zones. Now, next interesting thing is, not all the locations present
within, say for example, warm humid, or composite climate, resembles the same. For
example, take a city like Delhi, which is in composite climate, city as Lucknow, composite
climate, and city as Hyderabad, which is also classified as composite climate. We have

32
Nagpur, which is also a composite climate. Not all of these locations resemble the same, in
terms of their climatic pattern.

So, we can further narrow it down to localized macro climate. This is still a macro climate,
this is not micro climate, and this is macro climate, but still, we can term it as a localized
macro climate.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:04)

This is a result of the geography around, for example, if there are hilly areas around, there
may be a solar re-radiation, long wave radiation, intensity will be more, or if it is on a ghat
area it may be susceptible to more precipitations. So, depending on altitude, latitude,
longitude, these vary and again Sunshine hours will vary from north to south of India.

The third step, or the third micro level is the micro climate, for example, take a given city,
like Delhi for example, the climate type, or the climate severity, for example, in the core of
New Delhi, in and round Rashtrapathi Bhavan area, versus what happens in Noida or
Gurgoan, or any city for that example, these are called micro climates. These are more
localized than this; we term them as micro climate. The phenomenon like urban heat Islands,
are more closely associated with micro climate of a given location.

33
(Refer Slide Time: 11:03)

I did a small climate assessment, taking a set of locations, specifically across warm and
humid climate. I will not going to talk about more of the statistical analysis which happened,
there was a processing which was done, which is called statistical climate clustering,
statistical clustering analysis which was basically done. We took the hourly weather data,
temperature, humidity, radiation, and precipitation data, for these locations. This represents
Buvaneshwar, this is Chennai, Guwahati, it is like a chain starting from west coast, it starts at
Jamnager, and goes all the way to West coast, East coast, you have Mangalore, then you have
Vizag, Trivandrum, you have Kolkata all the way to Guwahati and north eastern tip.

So, all these locations are classified as warm and humid, as per the national building code.
What we did was, we build the data which resembles each other, for example, how do you
say a specific set of days, or summer days? Specific set of days are winter, monsoon, etc. So,
I divided this into 4 specific seasons in a year, based on which these bubbles are shown here.
What you see in this, the size of the bubble represents, the more number of days, on x axis
you have, the t-out maximum, a specific daily t-out maximum, here we have the direct solar
radiation maximum on a particular day.

We have 95 percent confidence interval here. So, that the extremities are avoided. What we
find, this is Jamnagar, which has maximum, as I said, this is 95 percentile, so you are not
seeing the extremities, but still, you have a considerable amount of summer, since the circle is
big, the bubble is big, you have more number of days, which have, say, for example, around

34
37 degree mean maximum temperature. And the solar radiation is also quite high, whereas, if
you want to compare the summers in Guwahati, sorry Jamnagar, with Guwahati. Guwahati is
green in color; summer in Guwahati appears somewhere here. The solar radiation is high, but
the temperatures are quite lower. So, this clearly shows; what is the difference in the
localized macro climate. This is again not micro climate, summer in Jamnagar versus summer
in Guwahati, winter in Jamnagar is somewhere here, and winter is Guwahati is somewhere
here.

If you closely take a look at each of these cities, versus the climate data, you will get a fair
idea of, how far these climate severities are, in these particular locations. Say some of these
places, if you take this blue, this is Bhuvaneshwar. Winter in Bhuveshawar, fairly small,
number of days, very few numbers of days you experience winter, low solar radiation and
lesser temperature. So, like this you can take a pretty detailed look, and compare these cities
with one another. This is similar climate clustering, which is done for composite climatic
region.

The last slide we saw was for hot and humid, sorry, warm and humid climate, this is for
composite climate; the axis remains the same.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:04)

It is the temperature, the daily temperature mean maxima, this is a solar radiation again, but
what we find here is, only two typical seasons data has been presented, this is for summer and
this is for winter, there are more number of cities here. there are about 20 cities starting from,

35
this is Allahabad up to Saharanpur, there are 20 cities located in composite climate. I would
recommend you to take a closer look at this, similarly, size of bubble, versus the temperature
and humidity solar radiation extremities, and how the thermal severity will be there, in these
locations.

Now, how do we start using this? Numbers are good, but how do we translate them into
design? This is where a role of architect or designer gets more interesting. So, first we have to
get them onto the way, in which, buildings can be designed. So, what I have shown here is,
the psychrometric chart, with a overlay of climatic classification. You know the
psychrometric chart well. Hope you know how to read this, you have temperature, dry-bulb
temperature, under a lower axis, you have absolute humidity, or moisture content, and these
lines represent the relative humidity.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:04)

The overlays of climate zones are clearly seen here. You have the cold climate, you have a
moderate climate, here, warm dry, hot dry, warm humid, and hot humid. So, for example if I
have to call a particular city as hot and dry, the majority of the data has to be located around
this particular region. I mean the whole year data might be dispersed well across the
psychrometric chart. You will have monsoon so naturally, you will have a humid period in
the year, and you have a colder season.

So, you will still have a few days which are on the colder side, but still majority, for example,
of the extreme condition, like summer, it should be in this, and then we can term it as hot and

36
dry. Similarly, for warm humid or hot humid. Now let us take a look at specific locations in
India, and how climate analysis can be done and presented. So, it can be for a project design
that you are working on or it can be for an academic exercise. Let us see, step by step, how
climate analysis can be done, and understood basically.

(Refer Slide Time: 016:20)

So, what are the basic considerations that we talk about in terms of buildings? We have the
first major consideration that is the plan form, in terms of numbers. you can translate it as
perimeter to area ratio. You can imagine a square versus a H-shape building.

The same area can be accommodated with the lesser perimeter. In the square as compared to
the H-shape, which, the same area gets accommodated into a larger perimeter. So, the plan
form, in terms of perimeter to area ratio is very crucial. Following this, you have the plan
elements, for example, it can be presence or absence of deep shading devices. Roof form, or
the pergolas, or the presence of balconies, anything like that, then we have of course, the
building orientation which we looked at, in terms of solar radiation analysis.

In another module, I was demonstrating how a building can be oriented, with respect to the
solar radiation. Then another important parameter talks about the volume, it is about surface
area to volume ratio, how much floor area can be accommodated in a given volume. So, this
tells you actually the, sorry, how much volume can be accommodated with a given surface
area. I would recommend; you can compare a square or a rectangle, with that of a
hemispherical structure.

37
In a hemispherical structure, classic example of a building built form is an igloo. So, they
have a hemispheric doom shaped building, in which they reside. The surface area to volume
ratio is considerably lower, very less surface area, and more volume is accommodated.
Instead if you have a linear rectangle, then the surface area to volume ratio differs - Roof
form and materials fenestration pattern and configuration, then orientation of the fenestration,
which side to put windows, where not to put then opaque wall material, and surface
treatment. Part of it we will look at in this module, we will talk more about this fenestration
pattern, wall material, and surface treatment in the following modules.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:21)

Let us take one climate after other (Refer Time: 18:15), we will be looking at specific city
example and how climate analysis can be done. First, let us look at warm and humid climate.
We have, all across starting from this zone, goes up to north east, the same psychrometric
chart, which I showed you. We have overlay of the climate zones in this particular boundary
represents, the monthly mean temperatures of each month. There are twelve points, which are
connected, that is why you are getting a distorted shape. I can read some of these months,
here it is May, there is December here, you have October, here march, is somewhere located
here April, August is here.

So, typically if you connect these, these are monthly mean temperatures. Say monthly mean
in May goes around 37 degrees, somewhere here, monthly mean in December goes to around
27 and a half, 28 degrees, here. This particular zone, this is for the location Chennai, this is

38
where the monthly data gets connected, but if you take a closer look at this, this is the same
data, instead of monthly mean, every hour data points are plotted, 8760 hours that is, that is
365 into 24. Every hour, the temperature and humidity data is plotted.

So, the colors represent the months, of course. You have more of pink in this area, that is
January, whereas, you have more of greens here, in the month of May, which is somewhere
hot as well as humid. So, now, there is a comfort zone. We will talk about comfort zone a
little later, but this is the dispersion of data. As such we looked at, last time, it was a clear
connect located somewhere in warm and humid, but you look at the whole data, it is more
sultry, it is also getting more hot, but the dispersion is in this pattern.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:58)

Take another city, for example, Kolkata. This is the same as, as I showed you for Chennai.
This is where the dispersion of data. This is the monthly mean, if you connect them, more or
less in warm humid, it also, it also spreads to warm dry, and moderate in certain months.

For example, for in the month of July, it goes down. There are two extremities, within which
the data is spread. A similar look at the hourly data points for Kolkata, more number of
points, this yellow boundary represents the comfort zone. As I said, we will talk about
comfort zone more elaborately in another session. For now, this is the comfort zone. More
number of data points, compared to Chennai, lying within this particular boundary.

39
(Refer Slide Time: 20:45)

So, what do you do, as far design is concerned? We have to basically increase the provision
for ventilation that is first major thing which has been traditionally done in any vernacular
building; building form you take. The first thing, people did in this particular climate, is
improve the provision for ventilation, more windows.

Then another thing which we can translate, we talked about is a perimeter to area ratio, large
perimeter to area ratio, same area under a large perimeter. H-shape buildings for example, in
place of compact square or rectangular buildings you go for more distributed planning. Slope
roof, because coastal areas mainly precipitation is high, humid zones, warm and humid zones,
typically you have more precipitation. So, slope roof forms are preferred, why you can
reflective wall surfaces.

40
(Refer Slide Time: 21:33)

Or the earlier graphs, you also looked at the solar radiation, intensity is quite high during
summer. So, you go for white and reflective wall surfaces.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:55)

Classic examples, Indian examples, most of the vernacular buildings have louvers, nicely
shaded balconies, improved ventilation pattern, white reflective surfaces, nice courtyards,
spread out plans; this is not a very compact plan form. The perimeter to area ratio, I would
recommend you compare them, and see, the plans are more loosely packed.

41
(Refer Slide Time: 22:00)

More examples for warm and humid climate, and how design was represented, some
international example, more or less the roof forms, the planning were more or less resembling
this is some example from South East Asia. You can find more examples further.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:14)

Few, few pictures I have put in ventilation, is given the primary importance apart from the
roof form.

42
(Refer Slide Time: 22:24)

Let us go to hot and dry climate zone. I have taken Jaisalmer as an example. This is a spread
of climate as you see, the distribution is quite far. It has a few humid and hot months, it has a
few hot and dry months, it has warm and dry months, it has a partly moderate climate in
about two months, January, February. Partly it has, little moderate climate, this is the
distribution. If you compare, we still have more number of data points, within comfort zone
compared to humid climates, whereas, you have more extremities. Temperature extremities
go as far as, 46 degrees, versus about 3 to 4 degrees in winter, plus, you also have certain
humid months.

So, the distribution is quite wide. So, what do we do, in terms of design? Primary thing is to
shield a building from high solar radiation. Contrary to what people used to do in warm and
humid regions.

43
(Refer Slide Time: 23:08)

The P by A ratio, that is perimeter to area ratio, it should be kept low, or which is being, it
was being kept pretty low in most of the vernacular buildings. I will show you a few
examples. This typically means, the building plan form is more compact, protection from
dust, and hard winds is another crucial thing, plus of course, white reflective roof surfaces are
also preferred.

Classic example is the Havelis of Jaisalmer, which are more compact in plan, even when they
do had courtyards for ventilation efficiency, they were more compact and shaded.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:40)

44
Narrow gullys, compact plan form, you will not find a loosely packed plan form at all.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:50)

Not just Indian example, even international examples, where you experience hot and dry
climate, the plan forms are more closely packed, the walls are more massive.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:56)

We will talk about the building envelope, in that part, we will talk more about thermal
capacity, and the type of wall envelope, which is being used right now. These are massive
walls, which has more thermal capacity, are damping in technical terms. Some views of these
buildings, the massing is more or less resembling, a typical hot dry region.

45
(Refer Slide Time: 24:20)

Next is cold climate. I have taken the example of Srinagar. I could not get the climate data for
Leh, which is you know, which will be further more onto the left side, for further more lower
temperatures. This is for Srinagar.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:25)

It starts from one extreme, it goes all the way to warm and humid in one of the months, plus,
more or less, it lies in moderate, as well as cool, and it extends down to pretty cold seasons.
This is how the distribution of data is. It goes below 0, for a few part of the year, some

46
climate data points are say in December January even part of November you will find data,
which is sub zero.

Most part of the data is in cold. Then you also have little bit of moderate and warm humid
temperature data points. as well Mostly, the part of the year, that is, about 4 to 5 months, you
will have, in and around comfort zone, or the warmer time of the year. What do we do here?

(Refer Slide Time: 25:24)

First is, harnessing solar radiation is very crucial. Number two, there is a resemblance
between this particular climate cold climate, and the hot dry climate, in terms of the P by A,
that’s perimeter to area ratio. Both of these things will have low perimeter to area ratio, or
more compact plan form for in architectural terms. We need protection from cold drafts.
Similar to that, we had from hot winds. Roofs are sloped, because we have precipitation in
the form of snow sometimes.

47
(Refer Slide Time: 25:53)

Some examples from Leh compact plan forms, except that the buildings are located in the
cold climate.

The plan forms resemble these two extreme climate regions.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:04)

We also talked about the surface area to volume ratio, the example of igloo, it is a
hemispherical structure, and we have more volume accommodated in the minimum exposed
surface area as possible. Take a look at composite climate, Delhi is a classic example.

48
(Refer Slide Time: 26:20)

You have climate data spreading in at least 4 to 5 different climatic regions. It is hot and
humid, during the monsoon season, it is hot and dry, during summers, it gets to warm and
humid. You have warm and dry and moderate season, some part of the year, this is how that
climate distribution is. It is little complicated in terms of the climate occurrences, or the
weather occurrences, it spreads as far from, the hot and dry, goes up to hot and humid, and
goes all the way to a cold climate.

So, there is no specific climate type, which is occurring for more than 3 months. So, this is
called composite climate. Another example, Hyderabad, this also has pretty good spread of 5
different climate zones, starting from moderate on one side, hot humid, warm humid, warm
dry, and hot and dry. This is how the spread of data points is. It is not as extreme, if you note
closely, as Delhi. The temperature points are not going as far, as it went in Delhi, but still the
distribution is quite wider. What do we do in these types of things? It is more challenging, in
terms of designing buildings, in these particular climates.

What people used to do, simple thing, they had seasonally varying strategies. Simple example
is the Mughal summer, winter palaces, they used to switch where they were living. Climate
responsive living patterns, they adopted summer palaces, winter palaces, they had Hawa
Mahals for specific seasons, and they occupied these buildings.

49
(Refer Slide Time: 27:59)

So, some kind of adjustments, they were able to do, within themselves. Common thing which
people do is, shield solar radiation during summer, and harness it during winter. Typically,
the plan form is compact, though, some seasons are pleasant. Considering two extremities,
both pretty hot summers, as well as pretty cold winters, the P by A ratio is kept low. The
protection from cold draft during winter, and hot winds during summer, compact planning
was adopted. I am coming back to the same graph, which I showed you here. I would like to
highlight, there is quite a good distribution, among the macro climate, that is localized macro
climates, within the composite climate itself.

I would recommend you keep this in mind, because just take 20 locations, the distribution is
quite significant, in terms of both summer and winter. So, when you design a building with
one city, with respect to the other city, though there are standards which prescribe certain
building envelope characteristics, we will look at them, but whatever climatic
recommendations are there, we also need to consider the localized macro climate within,
when designing for climate responsiveness. Only then the design would be more successful,
and regionally representative.

50
(Refer Slide Time: 29:12)

Next, is a moderate climate - it is a pretty, you know, comfortable climate rather, example is
Bangalore, which I have considered here. Partly, it is in warm and dry, warm humid and
spreads to moderate. This is a spread of data, a lot of data points, lie within the comfort zone,
lesser number of heating and cooling degree days, typically the harness solar radiation which
is focusing on winter, you can have lot of shaded outdoor activities, and constriction can be
less massive. Thermal capacity, very high thermal capacity is not expected in this climate
some international examples as well.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:48)

51
To conclude this session, we started with climate variables; we looked at what are the
different parameters, which we need to consider. What are the climate classifications, we
looked at 5 major classifications, apart from the international one. We took a look at how
climate analysis is done. We looked at how it is read in a psychrometric chart, then how do
we interpret and get design strategies what people were primarily doing. These were historic
examples, which I was trying to site.

Following sessions, I would be talking more about, how we infer for our specific design,
what strategies to use, and how successful they might be, in our own design. I will be
demonstrating this with a specific set of software tools which you can use.

Thank you.

52
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 03
Thermal Comfort Built Environment – 1

In this module, we will be looking at Thermal Comfort and Built Environment. To give you a
quick overview thermal comfort is something for which the whole you know effort is being
made. To talk about climate responsive building you are making a climatically responsive, in
order that internal environments are thermally comfortable. It includes provision of proper
temperatures, appropriate temperatures curtailing excess heat gains, minimizing heat losses,
enhancing ventilation. So, it involves a series of phenomena by virtue of which you call
something like overall thermal comfort inside the built environment.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:05)

The contents would be an introduction for thermal comfort, when we will look at what are the
factors actually contributing to thermal comfort. Then we will go for comfort zone and
thermal comfort models.

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Human body produces heat continuously it is like a machine we call it metabolic process, as a
part of this process, there is a continuous heat generation which happens because of which
heat emission dissipation happens. We heat output varies somewhere between 70 watts during
sleep and if you are involved in heavy physical activity it may go up to 700 watts

(Refer Slide Time: 01:34)

So, it depends primarily on what kind of activity you do. So, if you are in the class sitting and
listening, versus faculty who is taking a class you are working in an office, versus you are on
this street doing some physical activity or you are going for a jog; the amount of heat
dissipation considerably varies from one to the other. So, if the environment you know
ambient conditions indoor or outdoor, if it is amicable then proper heat dissipation would
happen, whatever excess heat is generated will be dissipated to the environment.

Moment the ambient conditions are not in terms where it can get these heat or it can absorb it
can become a heat sink, then the human body starts sweating, which means the excess heat is
being given out in the form of sweat and because of this you evapo transpiration then you
know because of these evaporation heat dissipation happens. So, this is something we will
look at further in detail.

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We have two body temperatures; one is a core body temperature which is somewhere around
37 degrees and the skin temperature that is a surface skin temperature, which may range from
31 to 34 degree centigrade. When these two things are in place we are physically fit and these
go up or come down then the bodies starts to adjust itself by either by sweating or by
shivering in terms of heat or in terms of cold discomfort that is what we mean. So, beyond
that we get into the health related troubles, it can go up to a heat shock or frost bite in the
other side.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:08)

This is a metabolic heat balance or heat balance equation

M ± Rd ± Cv ± Cd - Ev =∆S

commonly termed as it is quiet old you know derivation which is there, you know very
generally accepted broad outline of understanding how heat exchanges happen. Here there
are different terms; first is the metabolic heat production that we talked about in the previous
slide, the next is net radiation exchange which happens between person and the environment.
Then you have convection exchange which includes the respiration. So, whatever you breathe
you are also loosing heat or gaining heat. Then you have the conduction exchange again you
can gain heat or loose heat If you are in touch it can be the floor surface or if you are

55
reclaiming, if you are sitting then there could be some amount of heat exchange then you
have evaporation which again includes respiration.

Then if you have this on the left hand side and the right, you will have the change in stored
heat. If these things are not equating or negating each other there will be some reminder
which is delta S that is change in the stored heat. If these things cancel each other then this
will be 0. If you look more closely into this metabolic heat production is always possible you
know positive you keep producing heat that is no negative term here. So, it is always heat
gain, heat production, net radiation can be positive or negative.

You can gain heat through radiation or you can lose heat through radiation. Convection again
plus or minus, you can gain heat through convection or you can also loose heat through
convection. Conduction similarly is plus or minus, minimum amount of conduction happens
mainly it is radiation and convection wherever you are in touch physically with objects then
you will have conductive heat losses or gains. Then evaporation finally it is a delta S that is a
net stored change in the net stored heat.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:55)

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If you take an ideal scenario even all these things negate each other they cancel out you get 0
which means there is thermal comfort. Ideally we should not be calling this as thermal
comfort, but we must be using a term called Thermal Equilibrium.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:11)

Our body is said to be in a state of thermal equilibrium, with the ambient condition; indoor or
outdoor conditions. But then what we talk about here is only the cognitive part. Cognitive
thermal sensation this is what is primarily refer using this heat balanced equation. If you read
the definitions of thermal comfort in any standard it is defined as the condition of mind which
expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. Here, we are using two terms expression
and expression of satisfaction, and it is the condition of mind. So, when you talk about the
condition of mind and expression of satisfaction to the thermal environment apart from this
thermal equilibrium and cognitive thermal sensation we have another term called Thermal
Perception.

So, you have certain ques you are body is sensing it cognitively, it is sensing certain thermal
condition and you are responding to it. And beyond this response you start perceiving thermal
comfort. Here we come into two terms or two notions of thermal comfort one is the
physiological approach to thermal comfort, next is physio-psychological approach to thermal
comfort. If you look purely at the heat balanced model thermally equilibrium and cognitive

57
thermal sensation then you can deal with it in terms of physiological approach. That is you
are talking about the core body temperature skin temperature, ambient temperature and how
heat exchange happens between these three nodes. Or, if you are talking about the second
approach or the second notion you come to terms with the thermal perception.

The same environment you may be feeling may be warm, I may be feeling it as comfortable
somebody may be feeling it as slightly more warmer then you feel. So it varies from person
to person there is a psychology, I may feel the same environment today as warm, eventually
say after week after two weeks I may feel this is ok and I may feel it is comfortable.

So, when you say thermal comfort apart from physiological you also get physio-
psychological. We will look about this physio-psychological approach in the next you know
one of the future modules. First, we will take close look at what is thermal comfort and
physiologically how do you define heat balance and how do you define comfort by itself,
what are the parameters; that are what we will you know look more closely into. What are the
factors influencing thermal comfort; there are three different sets of factors in fact, which
contribute to thermal comfort.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:58)

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First is the environmental parameter; set of environmental parameters, basic is air
temperature referred as dry bulb temperature technically, air movement includes air velocity
and the direction, humidity relative humidity, indirectly it refers to the amount of moisture or
moisture content in the air, then you have the radiation that is the radiant exchanges or
controlled by this. So, four environmental variables it can be outdoor or indoor.

Then, you have four personal variables first is a metabolic rate like we talked about earlier
depending an activity you perform your heat generation varies. So, the excess heat which
needs to be dissipated considerably varies from one activity to the other activity. So, based on
this metabolic rate is a primary you know determinant of the personal variables. Then next is
the type of clothing you wear; what type of clothing is it a light summer clothing cotton wear
or is it like a thermal wear which, you would put in the winter, a woolen cloth. Next is the
state of health. We will look at these parameters more closely then the state of health, it varies
from person to person. If you are physically, if you are you know not sick then your thermal
perception differs, whereas if you are with some element you may perceive the same
environment slightly in a different manner.

Then comes acclimatization which means adjusting to thermal conditions set of thermal
condition, it may be short term adjustment or long term adjustment. Say for example, within
winter there is a sudden raise in temperature among the winter months suddenly, there is a
temperature increase and then it again drops down. The winter is really chill. For example,
you are dealing with say you know 8 degree, 10 degree temperature average temperature
during winter suddenly there is a increase you get 25, 26 degrees and then it drops back. So,
the perception of the chillness considerably gets effected, but over a period of time say within
a short duration say three to four days or maximum week you will get acustom to.

Similarly, a short spell of rain during summer; to bounce back to the regular adjustment you
will need 3 to 4 days, you may feel slightly more hotter or warmer, you know cooler then you
actually would have. Then there is long term acclimatization. Imagine you are moving from a
colder climate, a city in a colder climate like Srinagar, you are located in Srinagar you are
moving for a job to some other hotter location like Jaisalmer. For the first year, second year
you will eventually get acclimatized or adjusted, you are psychology will get adjusted to this
place and after say 1 or 2 years it varies from again person to person a gender lot of variations

59
are there because of that you will eventually get adjusted to particular thermal environment.
Then your complaints of dis comfort will eventually come down.

Other factors which are contributing to it apart from these two; depends on the food habits,
the drink you take, body shape, the fat content we call you know BMI another height weight
things which are taken into consideration during thermal comfort assessment. Age and gender
of course as a great contribution. Now as a part of this particular module and the next module
we will primarily look at the environmental variables and two personal variables which are
primarily contributing to it. Immediately we are not discussing this, but in of the later
modules where we talk about thermal adaptation adaptive thermal comfort. We will talk
about little bit acclimatization, age, and gender etc.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:43)

First about air temperature it determines the convective heat dissipation; how much effective
the convective heat losses or gains happen is determined by the air temperature. That is one
of the primary determinants of it. Next is air movement it accelerates convection it alters skin
and clothing surface heat transfer coefficient. You know if each surface has something called
film coefficient or surface heat transfer coefficient it is a total you know integrated factor of
convective and radiative exchanges as well. So, we will study more about heat transfer
coefficient in one of the other modules.

60
It alters the skin and clothing surface heat transfer coefficient, it as an impact of heat transfer
through the clothing also, it increases the evaporation from skin. So, these are the effects of
air movement; higher the velocities better the heat losses happened during summer. Humidity,
when the humidity is really high it is sultry the air is getting saturated 90-95 percent humidity
or even more it restricts the amount of evaporation that can happen. So, because of which you
will start feeling more uncomfortable. This is typically the happening which you know takes
place in coastal areas or humid climate specifically.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:37)

We will look at some examples. I am showing you few measured examples, which were taken
in residential environments, climate conditions may vary. But in this case this is a hot and dry
climate typically the measurements were taken in winter I am just trying to present what
happens, with the indoor air temperature air you know humidity and air velocity. How these
things vary with respect to outdoor conditions just to give you a perception of what do we
you know what are we talking about, what kind of comfort or discomfort we are dealing with
or talking about. here in this axis you will find the hour this is 3 day recording 0, this is a
second this is the first day 24 hours then second day start this is the 30 day outdoor
temperature variation is a cyclic phenomena the red dotted line indicates the ambient
temperature. Then this is there are 2 rooms here; one is the east exposed room that is the blue
color line and the grey one is a west exposed room.

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So, there are two lines which closely follow the ambient condition the cycle of variation in
the maxima, minima as well as the time of occurrence ofcourse there is a delay there is a
slight amount of damping slide damping which is available, but apart from this the trend is
similar because this is a naturally ventilated residential space two, you know residences have
been presented here and the thin grey bars which you see in the background we have to refer
to the right hand axis that is the RH this y axis is temperature.

That is what I was talking about the right hand y-axis here it is a relative humidity in
percentage. So, this also varies somewhere between 50-55 percent and minimum you can get
around 35 to 40 percentage this is a hot and dry region of peak winter, it is not peak winter it
is just half peak winter more or less is a moderate variations were observed this is typically
what you will see when you are looking at naturally ventilated residential conditions.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:27)

Indoor air temperature considerably varies as I said with respect to east and west exposed
faces. Here, This is another example which we look in a hot and humid climate where the
green is an east exposed space red is a west exposed space it may vary again you know it is
one such example, it may vary from case to case there are other factors. So, this is a effect of
orientation same material everything is same just the space type everything is more or less the
same.

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But by virtue of orientation there is a slight difference in the temperature you get about one
and half to two degrees temperature difference because of orientation in a nicely cross
ventilated space where, two opposite you know facades have walls have windows which is
well ventilated you may be able to expect somewhere, around 0.2 to 0.3 or sometimes when,
it is really well ventilated you will get around 0.6, 0.7 meter per second air velocity through
natural ventilation again it is not a consistent air flow, that you can expect. So, it may vary
with time this is a sea shore, so coastal area. So, you get you know sometimes there is a good
breeze again it drops down then again it increases apart from the window modulations or
door balcony door modulations that you do, typically you can expect somewhere around 0.5
to 0.8 meter per second air velocity in a cross ventilated space.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:29)

We talked about temperature humidity and air velocity the next important parameter which
contributes us the radiation exchange.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:44)

This is a very crucial factor and determining how comfortable or uncomfortable you are in a
given space. We commonly refer the term called MRT or mean radiant temperature which is
one of the most commonly used indicator for the radiant environment or radiant thermal
environment. Radiation exchanges can be said using this. It is nothing but, average
temperature of surrounding surface elements weighted by the solid angle and the area it
subtends. So, it is like how much areas you know exposed to me or as a person if I am put in
the center of the room how many surfaces are there and that what temperature they are and
what angle they subtend.

So, this is primarily determining the radiant exchange between these surfaces and myself
where I am sitting in a particular room as I move away from a surface or as I move close to
the surface. You know tilt angle varies, but then the radiant temperature is considerably going
to vary. One thing we must understand MRT as a parameter it is not directly measurable
mostly you actually determine it or derive it using another term called globe temperature. We
measure it using globe thermometer we studies this in school as well the you know
convectional way of measuring is, keeping a thermometer mercury thermometer inside a
copper globe, it is a mat black mat black painted it is like a perfect black body it is like a heat
sink it absorbs all the radiation from various surfaces you put this thermometer inside the

64
copper globe. There is air temperature first this is measuring air temperature apart from this,
it is also sensing the increase in temperature due to radiation exchanges.

So, the mercury gets heated up you gets slightly increased temperature, if it is a warm
environment and the other hand if you put the same globe in a really cold chamber there is
going to be heat loss this is going to lose heat this particular black surface will start losing
heat and you will find a slide drop in the globe temperature by using globe temperature you
will be able to determine mean radiant temperature, we will look at it how.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:54)

A simple set up that we typically use for our measurements, you have a data logger here this
is a globe thermometer I was talking to about instead of a plain thermometer it as a sensor
temperature senor inside this, but the principle of working remains the same the white one
thin white one here is the temperature in humidity probe this one is the hot wire anemometer
for indoor measurements typically, if your air velocities are less than 0.5 meter per second
vane anemometer which is commonly used in laboratories vane anemometer may not be
much useful because their sensitivities might not be that low.

Because you know they do well for velocities around 1, 1.5 meter per second or sometimes as
low as 0.3 or 0.5 meter per second, but indoor air velocities when you are trying to measure

65
something like 0.1, 0.15 hot wire anemometers are more sensitive they will be able to give
you as low as low 0.05 meter per second air velocity again it depends on the instrument
sensitivity there are few other probes. This particular one captures the radiation from this side
and this side it determines, what is the radiant difference between these two radiant
asymmetry we call we will look at this shortly.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:07)

Now, I have measured globe temperature using that this is a simple equation, if you know
formula which has been in use for quiet some years with globe temperature you add the air
velocity components this is square root of air velocity and the difference between the globe
temperature and dry bulb temperature. So, effectively as I said when, the surfaces around you
are cold then the ambient temperature the globe temperature or MRT is going to come down
then the average air temperature. Where as if the surfaces are hot then your mean radiant
temperature would probably be higher than your air temperature classic example of this
imagine, you are traveling in a car you are in the front seat you have the windshield you are
driving towards west in the evening.

You have sun in front of you sun is heating up the glass you get radiant heat from the
windshield side, whereas you are trying to cool your car down through your air conditioner
which is actually throwing cold air on you. So, you have a convective heat glass and the

66
radiant heat gain this will never tally with each other even if you put your AC in full blast if
the sun is really, you know harsh then you are still going to feel the heat of it unless you have
a very well conditioned system. Where you know you have throw from three to four
directions then you are kind of getting neutral with it otherwise the radiant heat exchange
heat gain will be more prominent and you will be still feeling uncomfortable.

Typically in warm, another thing to note it varies with respective air velocity as the velocity
increases or decreases MRT is going to go up or down accordingly. In warm climate when
you are with lighter clothing the contribution of mean radiant temperature say if, you are
perceiving some temperature you are not going to actually perceive the air temperature, but in
a warm climate when you are with light cotton wear then what you actually perceive is only
one-third of dry bulb temperature and two-third of mean radiant temperature. Imagine, you
are ambient dry bulb temperature is 30 degrees, but your mean radiant temperature is 40
degrees then, you will still be uncomfortable because even 30 degrees as such 30 is ok, but
when the radiant temperature is increasing two-third of contribution is made by this. So, you
are going to feel uncomfortable.

Similarly, in cold climate when you are with heavier clothing say woolen wear the perceived
environmental temperature is half of mean radiant temperature and half of dry bulb
temperature this is also partly due to the amount of surface. Body surface which is expose to
ambient here what happens, with lighter clothing much of the body is exposed to the ambient
surfaces around you. So, there is more probability of heat gains from these surfaces. So, MRT
takes the front seat whereas here you have more or less covered yourself as well as the
surface properties are different you are in heavier clothing as well as it is a colder season then
it is half contribution.

But still you will have half of the contribution made by mean radiant temperature, if the
surface is really cold you will still be feeling uncomfortable.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:09)

We have been always talking about an ideal imaginary room place yourself in the center you
have 6 surfaces. You know exchanging heat with your body it either contributes to heat gain
or heat losses through radiation, but ideally you know in an actual condition what happens,
there are n number of surfaces you have tilted different angles different you know amount of
surfaces say, even a book shelf you have the solid wooden or metals surface then you have
books you have you know window, frame, glass lot of other things are there. Everything is
getting involved in the total heat exchange.

So, effectively determining mean radiant temperature in actual case is really a challenging
activity. I am giving you similar examples of few mean radiant temperature measurements.
This is from an unexposed roof condition this is a top most floor in an apartment.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:56)

Three cities we measured more or less the indoor conditions that is the spatial typologies
were similar, the you know floor area plus the orientation were more or less kept similar.
three different cities just to given an example of how mean radiant temperature varies this is
the case of Bangalore, Hyderabad the peak comes close to this is the Chennai line to this
comes close to this it may vary from case to case. Of course, orientation lot of other
parameters are there, but typically variation and this is how it relates to the indoor air
temperature. it more or less revolves around indoor air temperature.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:28)

You will also observe similar pattern of variation, but in hotter conditions hotter climate it
might slightly go up above the you know air temperature during the peak time when there is a
good radiant exchange.

Say if you are in a room with large glazed window surfaces or balcony doors then you are
MRT is going to really shoot up, but then it will also drop eventually in the night, it will get
really cold, then you know it more or less follows the pattern, but the magnitude of difference
might depend on various aspects like including orientation depending on the glazing glass
surface area radiant property of surfaces the magnitude of variation might differ from one
another. similarly the variation in globe temperature or mean radiant temperature you have a
good amount of variation in terms of roof exposed versus roof unexposed condition. Lot of us
have you know an apprehension that the top most floor in a flat has more amount of thermal
discomfort you would generate down preferred buying a flat just on the top most floor for one
reason that you get a lot of heat.

We know that we get a lot of heat, but it is not just the heat gain through the surface, but it is
also raises the mean radiant temperature probably, if you are putting air temperature sensor in
two flats; one in the top most floor and somewhere, in the lower floor air temperature is more
or less going to be similar may be half a degree difference. You may be able to find, but

70
moment you put a globe thermometer you start measuring globe temperature and calculate
MRT with it you are going to find a considerable amount of difference 2 to 3 degrees easily
you can find even with a properly treated roof.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:08)

Let us talk about personal factors, first is a metabolic rate. We talked about watt or watts per
meter square of body surface. This is typically a scientific measure, but as for thermal
calculation we are trying to simplify it we are trying to use a term called Met; M E T, 1 Met is
equal to 58.15 or 58, 0.2 watts per meter square of heat emission.

Now, this is like equivalent to body surface of a normal adult is around 1.7 meter square. If
you take a sitting person doing sedentary activities, say you are in office or you are in a
classroom you are listening to something or doing typical office work computer based work,
you will have a heat loss of around 100 watts. So, effectively the Met value will be around
1.51, 0.16. Again it will increase say, if you are sleeping it would be 0.8 Met if you are sitting
little be close to 1 Met playing,jogging each one as a different metabolic activities. So, the
average activity level varies for each of this activity.

Just the quick hint if you are really training to estimate the thermal comfort of a person it is
not the momentary activity that you have to be taking care of. For example, if you have to ask

71
this guy who is sitting here how comfortable you are feeling or how uncomfortable you are
feeling, we might be missing a critical link he might have just completed a jog and he might
have been sitting here. So, the perception is different for this guy versus this guy.

So, ideally what we generally do for our comfort surveys or comfort assessment is; we take
into account what this guy or this lady did for the last one hour, what kind of activity they
were performing and what is the amount of heat emission, what is a Met value during the last
1 hour is always accounted in thermal comfort calculation.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:54)

The next factor is the clothing insulation; what kind of clothing you wear and what is the
thermal resistance the clothing offers. So, actually the clothing is one kind of capsule that
protects you from the outdoor environment. This is one line of protection the thicker are the
more isolative your clothing is the lesser the heat exchanges that would happen. This is
typically what happens during winter you have a thermal wear, you have a woolen which
prevents heat exchange from rather heat loss from the body to the ambient.

Similarly, during summer you have a thin cotton wear which enhances the convective heat
flow to happen between the ambient and the body. So, the clothing insulation typically it is a
resistance value meter square degrees centigrade per watt, but here again to simply this we

72
will refer to it as a term called Clo. Clo 1, Clo is equal to 0.155 meter square degree
centigrade per watt. Typically, we can refer it as 1 Clo. It depends from clothing type to
clothing type. For example, this would be around 0.3 or 0.4, whereas a typical office where
could around 1.5 Clo value, it depends on the type of insulation the material used.

There is lot of research happening around and different type of ethnic wears and what is there
clothing insulation which we did not have our repository. The last few years there has been
lot of interest where people are trying to find out different type of clothing and what is there
actual insulation, this as a good amount of role being played in terms of the perceived thermal
comfort.

So, we will stop this module here, we looked at basics of thermal comfort and we looked at
environmental and personal factors influencing thermal comfort. We talked about four
environmental parameters; air temperature, humidity, air velocity and radiation; and two
personal factors; metabolic activity and clothing insulation; and how they influence thermal
comfort.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture - 04
Thermal Comfort in Built Environment – 2

In previous module, we have been looking at Thermal Comfort in Built Environment.

Primarily, we talked about the basics of thermal comfort and factors influencing it. Now we
will start looking at, what comfort zone is, how do we define comfort zone, how comfort
zone is defined in international models, as well as Indian models. We will look at few
examples. First let us take a look at how do we primarily define comfort zone; I am referring
to ASHRAE, standard 55 thermal comfort standard.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:49)

This is psychometric chart; we have been talking about psychometrics. You have, Instead of
there is a one small change in psychometric chart instead of dry bulb temperature, here we
have something called operative temperature, which is equivalent to say in still air about less
than 0.5 or say 0.2 meter per second air velocity. More or less still air, it is half of dry bulb
temperature plus half of mean radiant temperature. This is replacing the dry bulb temperature
in the actual psychometric chart. Right hand axis, you have humidity ratio, then you have

74
these lines, relative humidity lines.

Now, comfort is defined based on, one is environmental condition, here temperatures and
humidity’s. Apart from this, you also have the clothing insulation and metabolic activity the
personal variables. This comfort zone actually includes this all these factors. There are 2
boxes, if you look at it closely. There is one shaded box which says which is ranging
somewhere between, 25 degrees operative temperature. It goes more close to 27, 27 and half
degrees, operative temperature, at very low humidity. At high humidity’s it is around 24 to
somewhere around 26, 26 and half degrees here when the humidity increases. Beyond this,
the comfort zone does not extend, which means you will not have thermal comfort beyond
this point.

This is an international scale we will come to applicability later, but quickly this is the
comfort zone with 0.5 clo value when your clothing insulation is 0.5, you have light summer
wear then this would be your wear comfort zone. What happens when you put on slightly
thicker clothes, winter clothes, or thermal wear? For instance, not to the extent of total blazer
kind of thing you have, say 1-clo value which is not a total thermal wear, insulated thermal
wear, but more or less like an office cloth, suits, office suits, you will have close to 1-clo
value. Essentially what happens in the comfort zone? It is start moving towards your left side.
So, instead of the comfort starting from 25 degrees, it goes as low as 21 and half degrees. So,
if you are tightly dressed, if your thermal insulation, clothing thermal insulation is getting
higher, you will need lower ambient temperatures, for yourself to be comfortable.

So, from 0.5 clo value, the upper and lower limit have tilted, or moved towards left side.
Apart from this, when you are doing higher metabolic rate activity, you are, instead of
sedentary activity, you are getting into more strenuous physical activity, and then your
comfort zone will move towards your left. Apart from the clothing insulation, then when you
have a higher radiant temperature, MRT or globe temperature is getting higher, then your
comfort zone, will move towards your left. On the other hand if your clothing insulation is
further low, or your metabolic activity is getting further low, or the radiant temperature are
lower comparatively, you have more colder surfaces around you, even when temperatures,
conditions are not suitable, if these conditions prevail, your comfort zone would start moving
towards your right. Not to the further extent, but there is a limit, within which, it can move.

75
Another thing you can notice this is, with an air velocity of 0.1 meter per second, and when
you have air velocities of up to 1.2 meter per second, then your comfort zone can still be
higher. If you take a closer look, say take a relative humidity of around 20 percentage here,
somewhere close to this. Your lower limit of the actual comfort zone was around 24 and a
half, 25 degrees and the upper limit was, somewhere close to 27 degrees, but this is at still air,
around 0.1 meter per second, or when there is still air. When you have a higher air velocity,
when your air velocities are above 1 meter per second, say 1.2 meter per second is what is
given in the chart, then that the same relative humidity, the lower limit would be somewhere
around 26 degrees, operative temperature and upper limit can be as high as 31 and half
degrees, even with 31 and half degrees, operative temperature, you will still be within
comfort zone, when you have enough air velocity. This is a kind of comfort zone, which is
defined in ASHRAE.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:26)

We will look at more models quickly. Coming to our Indian model, this is not a graphic
representation, but they have nicely presented 2 tables, I am referring to, there of Indian
standard, sp41 special publications. This is hand book of functional efficiency in buildings.
This is a very old standard, which has been in use, 2 nice tables have been presented here,
similar looking tables, but only differences ie this is, a set of conditions for comfort, thermal
comfort, and the next table is, conditions for, acceptably warm conditions. It does not have to

76
be really comfortable, but it can also be acceptably warm, warm, but still again accept it,
then, the conditions slightly differ. First let us like, take a look at this first table; here you
have dry bulb temperatures, starting from 28 to 38 degrees.

On this, along the row, you have relative humidity stating, starting from 30 percentage going
all the way up to 90 percentage, and what these numbers represent? They represent the
required amount of air velocities. Say for instance, your air temperature is 30 degrees, your
relative humidity is somewhere around 60 percentage, it says 0.06 which means; you may not
need much of air movement to be comfortable. Even with at 30 degrees and 60 percent of
relative humidity, with still air, you can still be comfortable. This, tests were done for Indian
subject, so the derivation hold good for most of warm humid composite or hard dry bulb
regions of India. 30 degrees, 60 percent relative humidity, you will still be comfortable
without air movement.

Now, if the relative humidity increases to 80 percentage. Same temperature, 30 degrees

humidity increases to 80 percentage, you will need 0.5 meter per second air velocity, in order
to be comfortable. Looking back our at our measurement, we will, we know we said, with a
well cross ventilated residential space, you will expect around 0.4 to 0.5 meter per second air
velocity, which means, temperature is 30 you know degrees up to 80 percent humidity, you
will still be comfortable, and marginally you will be comfortable even at 90 percent relative
humidity. But as the temperature increases, take a case of say 32 degrees here, when it is 50
percent humid, you will already need 1 meter per second air velocity, and as you go up say 80
percentage, you will almost need a very strong wind, or 3 meter per second air velocity.

When it further increases, this means, you cannot attain comfort. Take a case of 35 degree
temperature, 30 percent humidity you will need 3 meter per second air velocity to be
comfortable, but beyond that, even a slide increase in relative humidity, you cannot attain
comfort. Similar table, the same you will find dry bulb, this along this column, and relative
humidity along this row, but the numbers changes considerably, and the extent also increases.
The earlier table, we had up to 35 degrees, here we have another degree added up, and this is
acceptably warm condition. What they say, 30 degrees, 60 percent relative humidity, they say
it is acceptable.

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It does not need any air velocity; this does not arise at all. Even 33 degrees, 40 percent
relative humidity, without much of air movement, you can still be comfortably warm. There
is the term called acceptably warm, which means, it is, you can accept it 35 degrees, 40
percent humidity, you will need around 1, 1.5 meter per second air velocity. Typically, with
the ceiling fan, or a pedestal fan, table fan, you will be able to much closer, around the
vicinity of the throw, you will be able to get around, 1, 2, sometimes 1.5 meter per second air
velocity.

If you really close to of pedestal fan, you will be able to manage 1.5 meter per second, air
velocities typically example which we worked out, an interesting case is we know that these
boundary conditions are existing, how do we really report? Say you want to measure for your
own class room, or for your house, and you have to report that whether temperature, humidity
,air velocity is ok or not? a minimum climatology lab will have, sensors for temperature,
relative humidity as well as anemometer, with these quick handy things you can do simple
experiments, and you can report it this way.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:27)

You can say as per national building code, whether comfort conditions are acceptably warm
condition are existing or not. A simple way of reporting, here what we have done, we have
taken the similar condition, indoor temperature, this we call crosstab statistics. Simple

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analysis, temperatures here, relative humidity here, and this percentage represent, how much
percentage of data, falls within these combinations. Say we did not measure anything, with
31 degrees and 20 percent humidity. Whereas, we had about 1.5 percent of data, falling in 31
degree and 1 and half, know, 50 percent relative humidity. 34 degrees, 50 percent relative
humidity, we had about 7 percentage a data.

Similarly, if you have look at this, about 28 percent of the data was, around 34 degree, if you
look at this way, around 29, 30 percent of the data had 60 percent relative humidity. With this,
if you make a chart, simple chart, again this has a constant air velocity. We had a ceiling fan
running, which means the air velocity is around 0.8 to 1 meter per second, roughly, say
around 0.8 meter per second, with that air velocity, these are the temperature and humidity
combination. Which means, out of the whole thing, 54 percent, 54.6 percent was comfortable,
this whole area 41.7 percent was tolerable, tolerably warm, then you have 4 percent which is
uncomfortable.

So, this is how a simple example of, how to consolidate your comfort reporting, using simple
instrumentation, and day today measurements. What are the other considerations apart from
these 6 things which we talked about? Important factor is something called draught. Imagine
it is a very cold day.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:00)

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You have chill breeze coming through your window, then you feel the chill, sometimes
outdoor conditions we call it wind chill. You call it draught in the indoor, cold air. Then you
have vertical temperatures difference, you are sitting next to a heater, or an air conditioner.
Then the temperature difference between the foot as well as the head level considerably
varies. So, a vertical temperature difference, I am going to show you a few you know
numbers, where you can actually determine; what is the percentage of discomfort as well.
Apart from this you have something called radiant asymmetry. I showed you a sensor using
which we can measure radiant asymmetry you are sitting in the center of the room. One side,
you have a hot surface, say glass large glassed window, where you have direct solar radiation.

So, this particular surface is hot, you have radiant heat gain from one surface. The other
surface is really cold. So, you have heat losses happening, radiant heat losses happening to
the other surface. Then, you have, you are starting to experience something called Radiant
Thermal Asymmetry. This can also happen in the vertical plane, you are on the top most floor
of a building, your roof starts radiating lot of heat, and your floor is not that hot. So, there is a
kind of radiant asymmetry which is existing. Or you have under floor air conditioning
system, you get the chill surfaces in the bottom, plus the ceiling is emitting, the roof is
emitting lot of heat, you have radiant asymmetry along the vertical axis. Then you have floor
temperature differences.

This is primarily due to conductive heat flow; this also has a measure concern in terms of
comfort, apart from these 6 parameters which we were talking about earlier. Taken closer
look at radiant asymmetry, like I said, on a colder day, you are sitting next to a wind. One side
is really cold, these window surface temperatures are getting as close to single digit number;
say 4 to 5 degrees you get in the window surface the indoor surfaces, indoor environment is
heated.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:40)

So, more or less, the surface temperatures are revolving around 20, 21 degrees. So, you
clearly get around 15 to 18 degrees temperature difference, between this surface and this
surface. So, when you do the same mean radiant temperature calculation, which I was talking
to you about, then the emission from this surface versus the absorption towards this surface is
going to be considerably different. These standards, where I am referring to, ISO 7730, gives
you a simple graphic indicator of, what is the delta T that is the temperature difference
between one side to the other side, and with the increase of this, how much will be the
increase in percentage of people, who are going to be dissatisfied. It varies from person to
person.

So, typically we express in terms of percentage of people, who are dissatisfied with it. So, the
dissatisfaction goes up, as this temperature differences increases. This also varies for a warm
ceiling, the same example I was talking to about, an exposed roof case, versus a cold floor
surface, the vertical difference, or a cold ceiling, say when you have snow on the roof
surface, your surface is going to be cold on top. The floor is heated now. This difference, this
is also considerably different from one, warm ceiling is different from that of the cold ceiling,
cold wall is different from that of the warm wall, the percentage of the dissatisfied, and the
pattern of variation is also going to vary.

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Then the vertical temperature difference is I am going to shortly show you some examples of
what we actually measured. Vertical temperature difference, occurs both in air-conditioned, as
well as unair-conditioned, non air-conditioned or so called free running spaces.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:17)

As the vertical temperature difference increases, then your percentage PD, percentage of
dissatisfied - increases. It is not so linear, but still, it increases with the, it is directly
proportional, as this increases, this will also increases. Typically in air condition spaces, cold
air settles down, the warm air rises up. So, naturally you will have a vertical temperature
stratification or difference.

So, you can easily find about 3 and half to 4 degree vertical temperature difference, but it
depends on the floor to ceiling height, how much height it is, say if it 3 meters, the difference
might be slightly lower, but if you are talking about 5 meter or 6 meter tall space then the
vertical temperature difference is going to be considerably different. But even in the case of
naturally ventilated space, here we took measurement in our naturally ventilated building.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:16)

This is again hot and humid climate. We took measurements at 3 different heights, 0.1 meter
height, which correspondence to the foot level of a standing person, 1.6 meter height, this is
somewhere in the center of the room, or which correspondence to your face, or head level.
2.9 meter height, which much close to the ceiling, the roof is exposed. So, what kind of
difference you find here? The maximum difference is 33.5 to 36.5 which is about 3 degrees
difference the peak level, but eventually it comes down.

Even when it is low, the minimum difference you get is also around one and half degrees. So,
vertical temperature difference considerably varies, but one thing need to note here, these 2
lines, this blue and green line, that is, the foot level and the 1.6 meter, that is the head level,
this is considerably difference, different, but at one point they converse, and then in this
particular level 1.6 meter drops down below the 0.1 meter line here. This is the temperature at
the floor level; this is the temperature at the head level. This was interesting because, what we
noted as the convective mechanism sets up, the heat is dissipated, this is also lying in the
window plane, and it is cross ventilated.

So, the temperature eventually drops down, that is not much of difference, around 0.5
degrees, but still, it is drops down while the floor level temperature, more or less was still and
it was revolving around 33 degrees, even after that it does not fall much below 32 degrees.

83
You know it also depends slightly on the material used. The earlier was solid cement block,
this is like a low density block, it can be an aerated concrete, or a hallow wall cavity wall
system.

Even there, you will find the vertical temperature difference, it will considerably be different
from one material to other, the magnitude may be different, but the pattern of variation
remains the same. We were talking about other phenomenon, the draught. External
environment we call it wind chill, there are different indices. The commonly used is, wind
chill index.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:18)

What this tells you? Below freezing point, as a temperature goes further and further, and if
the wind velocities are increasing, the same amount of temperature, the same 20 degrees,
which you pursue at 2 meter per second air velocity, versus the same 20 degree you face a 20
meter per second air velocity, you will start feeling very cold. There is a danger of frostbite,
and there is a real danger of casualties because of frostbite.

On the other hand, with respect to hotter environments, you have the heat stress. There are
indices like heat stress index, wet bulb globe temperature WBGT. Now, these are heat stress
indices, which combine air temperature, as well as humidity. As the temperature increases,

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and as the humidity also goes up, the amount of heat stress increases, the WBGT or heat
stress index might go up. There are different indicators; this is just to give you a simple
example.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:06)

Let us quickly take a look at 2, 3 comfort models, and how they work around. I have plus
presented list of comfort models, not an exhaustive list, but a few commonly referred models,
starting from wet bulb temperature, it goes on to tropical summer index.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:25)

This is one of the indexes developed in India. These are different environmental and personal
variables. Ti is dry bulb temperature, globe temperature, air velocity, this is vapor pressure,
relative humidity, and this is operative temperature. Then you have metabolic activity, and the
clothing insulation. Two personal variables, just to give you an idea about, what are the
parameters, these indices actually take into consideration. If you take index like a wet bulb
temperature, it takes air temperature as well as relative humidity into consideration, you take
an index like heat stress index, and it takes indoor dry bulb temperature, globe temperature as
well as WTW, wet bulb temperature into account.

Then you have something like predicted mean vote. We look at it shortly. This is a comfort
model, this takes into account, globe temperature, vapor pressure, operative temperature, as
well as 2 personal variables, which is, metabolic activity and clothing insulation. To take the
Indian index, this is KSU, Kennesaw State University. TSV Thermal Sensation Vote, these
are different indicators. You will also find effective temperature, standard and corrected
effective temperatures here.

Tropical summer index again includes globe temperature, air velocity. It includes wet bulb
temperature, which is further a factor of air temperature and relative humidity, or vapor
pressure, but it does not include metabolic and clothing insulation. No personal variables are

86
associated, but environmental parameters are taken into consideration.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:54)

Among the international models, there are lot of international models, among them, 2
commonly used or most often revised and revisited models include, the two-node model
commonly called as two-node model, which is developed by the Pierce Laboratory, JB Pierce
Laboratory. And next is the Fangers comfort equation. Apart from this, you also have models
like Munich energy model. There are lots of models, but apart from these, these are 2 most
commonly used models. And of course, the Indian model developed in CBRI, Roorkee, way
back in the 80s, 70s and 80s, this is the tropical summer index. We will look at 2 of these
models more closely.

First is the two-node model, the Pierce is two-node model. This works on the metabolic heat
exchange or, the thermal equilibrium between the body and the environment. This takes two-
nodes, first is the core body temperature, then is the surface temperature, and then the
ambiance.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:42)

So, this actually calculates how much is the heat exchanged, between the core body and the
skin. And then, how much is exchange, effective exchange, between the skin and the ambient
condition. It can be indoor or outdoor condition. So, effectively it summarizes, it also include
the effect of clothing, and the metabolic activity, because you are taking about the metabolic
heat generation. So, it is typically a heat transfer model, where thermal equilibrium is
obtained. You call it is thermal, it is not actually thermal comfort, but it is thermal
equilibrium, that is what this model tries to derive.

The next commonly used model or most familiar model rather is, the Fangers PMV model.
Fanger is a scientist who developed this model. This is predicted mean vote. So, as the name
says, it is a kind of predictive index. The basic theory behind or the philosophy behind it is,
you know he pulled in more than hundred people; he pulled them in a laboratory. He varied
the environmental parameters, 4 environmental parameters, temperature humidity, air
velocity, and radiation, as well as, 2 personal variables, metabolic activity. He made them 2
different activities, plus, he asked them to vary the clothing insulation. With these variations
parametrically he determined; what is the comfort vote, for each of these set of conditions.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:15)

So, based on this, he also determined another indicator called, predicted percentage
dissatisfied. At certain kind of environmental condition, and personal variable combinations,
how many percentage of how much percentage of people are really feeling uncomfortable?
So, this is the inverse bell shape curve. It has it, is a double likert scale, it is start from 0,
which is neutral, on others one side, right hand side, it has slightly warm, which is plus one,
indicated as number plus one, warm, and hot.

On the other side it goes to minus 1, minus 2 and minus 3. This is cold. Some cases, if you
are doing in extreme condition, say if you are evaluating PMV in India, it may go to minus
3.5, minus 4, because we are dealing with hotter conditions. We will look at it, but typically
the actual scale given is, plus 3 to minus 3, both ISO 7730 thermal comfort standard as well
as ASHRAE, 55 standard, refer to Fangers model. There has been lot of modification to
Fangers model as well, but primarily, this is inverse bell shape curve. What we need to note,
when there is 0? Which means, thermal neutrality, we talked about thermal equilibrium and
neutrality.

When there is thermal neutrality, this is at it is minimum. That is percentage of people

dissatisfied, it is at the minimum, but still it is around 5 percentage, which indicates even with
ideal condition, when all the environmental variables as well as personal variables are more

89
or less amicable, still there will be about 5 percentage of people, say 5 out of hundred, would
still be feeling uncomfortable. Leaving them aside, this particular curve will increase. If your
predicted mean vote increases, say from 0 to 1, 1 to 2, or 2 to 3. There will be an increase at
around 2, the percentage of people dissatisfied will be 80 percentages, and further it will go
up.

And similarly on the negative side, that is on the colder side also, but one quick thing, note
we have to take, we will look more about it in the adoptive comfort section the further
following module. But one quick thing, you have to observe here, is, as stated, these are
results based on standard, static laboratory conditions. There are set of environmental
variables which are preset and people are responding to these environmental variables. They
were not allowed to get adjusted or acclimatized to these things.

They were not adjusted allow adjusting their clothing insulation, nor adjusting their
movement, or any kind of parameter, temperature, humidity, radiation, nothing. They didnt
have any personalized controls available. So, there is a lot of debate going on about, whether
the Fangers Pierce model really applies to the field or not. There has been lot of
investigations which say, that it needs a correction, with which can applied to the field. Some
of the authors also site that you know this is far beyond field application. This is more lab
oriented index, but all said and done, this is a parametric equation, or rather an empirical
equation, which based on which the PMV is derived. It has variables from metabolic activity,
it has variables like, the clothing, surface factor of clothing, radiant temperature is there then
heat transfer coefficient, air temperature is available.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:00)

So, doing this, it is an exponential empirical equation based on which you will be able to
predict PMV.

{ −3
PMV =[ 0.303 ∙exp ( 0−0.036∙ M ) +0.028 ] ∙ ( M −W )−3.02 ∙10 ∙ [ 5733−6.99 ∙ ( M −W ) − pa ] −0.42 ∙ [ ( M −W ) −

Moment you know PMV similar fashion you can also determine PPD. It is a kind of extended
heat balance equation, in which, both environmental as well as personal variables are taken
into account even with corrections we have found that some of the field studies, through field
studies. This model applies well and it is more or less, the balanced kind of an approach to
predict environmental conditions.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:46)

Some of the measurements for your reference, I am not getting into details much of what this
is. This is outdoor air temperature, and this is PMV, the left hand y-axis is PMV, this is air
temperature taken in Bangalore.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:55)

How it varies during summer, summer in Bangalore PMV varies around 1. This is in the case

92
of Hyderabad as well as Chennai.it goes As I said, it can go up to 3.54 sometimes, it depends
primarily on temperature, humidity. As such, this is developed for European subjects. So, the
applicability in Indian context it is not directly, but you have to apply some weightage
factors, you have to do field validations, before applying this parameter.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:21)

In case of Ahmadabad, hot and dry climate, during summer, this is a comfort band minus one
to plus one typically, if we say, just 20 percent of people dissatisfied, is permissible. During
winter, it goes below, that is, touches minus 1.5, but summer, it goes around 3, 3.5 whereas,
place like humid region, like warm and humid climate like Chennai, during summer it
touches around 1 close to 1.5, but in summer, it goes beyond 3. It touches sometime around
3.5, 3.8 doesn’t mean it is unbearably hot. People can still accept it, but as I said, this model
will really need validation for application, in actual field conditions. As such, you can also
find differences in terms of building exposure. PMV will show certain difference, because
MRT or radiant temperature is part of the PMV equation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 27:17)

So, the effect of orientation will have an impact of PMV. Finally, the tropical summer index
or, which is the index which is developed in the Indian context, with Indian subjects. The
tests were, more or less like in the PMV model. Again people were asked to choose, which
conditions environmental conditions they are comfortable with. Based on this, an index or the
boundary limits of comfort was actually tuned. These experiments were done around 1980s,
75 to 80 these experiments were done, but this does not include personal variables, like PMV,
which excludes metabolic activity, and clothing insulation, but it takes into account, wet bulb
temperature, globe temperature and air velocity.

So, if you closely look at the equation, globe temperature has a maximum weightage, this has
0.75 of globe temperature, which means, an increase of globe temperature will have the
maximum impact on tropical summer index, whereas, an increase of wet bulb temperature,
say humidity goes up high, wet bulb temperature is affected. It has about 0.31, which means
around 30 percent or less impact, this will have compare to globe temperature, the impact of
wet bulb temperature is lesser. But both of these things will result in increase of tropical
summer index, while air velocity is in negative. If you want to improve thermal comfort, you
provide more air velocity. Say simple, enhancing cross ventilation, or turning on a ceiling fan,
or a pedestal fan, you improve or increase the air velocity, because of which you are able to
reduce tropical summer index. Say take an air velocity of one meter per second, you will

94
reduce the tropical summer index almost by 2, 2 degrees.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:52)

On the psychometric chart, same this is a dry-bulb temperature, vapor pressure, relative
humidity lines are there. Tropical index, tropical summer index has the boundary of comfort
drawn somewhere here. So, below 20, below 30 percent relative humidity, it is not
comfortable, and above 70 percent relative humidity, it is not comfortable. If you take a
closer look at it, it starts somewhere from 28 degrees, 30 percent relative humidity, 27
degrees, and then on the further end, when the humidity’s are also high, it tilts towards the
left.

You can be comfortable up to 70 percent humidity and around 29 degrees temperature. When
the humidity’s are lower, say 30 percent humidity, you can be comfortable up to 31 degrees.
Like we saw in Fangers index, there we had percentage people dissatisfied, here it is
percentage people comfortable, it is a bell shaped curve, as a tropical summer index drops
that is it goes towards the lower temperature side, the numbers of people feeling comfortable,
drops down.

Similarly, when the temperature goes up, the number of people feeling comfortable also
drops down. So, typically we define comfort in this way. Again if you have to really improve

95
on this index, you have to include the effect of air , you know metabolic activity and clothing
insulation.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:12)

The effect of cross ventilation, like I said, it can easily bring down 2 to 2 and half degrees in
terms of tropical summer index.

So, we will close this session here. To get a recap we looked at the comfort zone, how
comfort zone is defined in international models. We looked at the ASHRAE comfort zone.
Then we looked at how Indian standard defines comfort zone. Then we also looked at certain
comfort models. Primarily, we looked at the pierces two-node model and Fanger’s comfort
model. Apart from which we also looked at the tropical summer index which is in applicable
more in the Indian context.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 05
Thermal Adaptation

In the previous module we talked about thermal comfort and the physiological processes
behind the thermal comfort. This module talks about Thermal Adaptation, the concept of
thermal adaptation, and what is the idea behind this adaptive comfort model and the studies.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:43)

Primarily, this would talk about the physiological dimension of psychological as well as
physiological. It is psycho-physiological dimension of thermal comfort. Then we will talk
about thermal adaptation and what the factors behind thermal adaptation. We will talk about
how do we assess or measure thermal adaptation, lot of field studies are being conducted. So,
we will take a look at how to go about these field studies. And then we will take a look at a
few adaptive comfort models which may be relevant to design of buildings.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:11)

The psychological dimension of thermal comfort; In the last module, we looked at comfort as
a perception or an expression of satisfaction to the thermal environment around a person. But
today in this session we would look at comfort as a negotiable socio-cultural construct.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:15)

What happens? Comfort is not just physiological it is not a thermal regulation, but how we

98
perceive and react to the thermal environment. We are under constant interaction with the
environment, we will look at it in more detail, but with this practice comfort becomes a
negotiable socio-cultural phenomenon, which society we belong to what culture we grow up
in this determines what our expectation to a particular thermal environment. What do we need
what do we want and how do we perceive a given thermal environment?

If we look at the building design vernacular building styles were more responsive, they were
meant to be a limit responsive, but due to space constraints demand for spaces, the type of
construction has underwent wide transformation. That is why we are re looking at how
comfort can be assessed and how to design buildings for comfort itself.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:31)

In the last modules what we saw is a person’s body, physiologically regulates itself to the
thermal environment. Say for example, let us start in this chart let us start from this point
present heat cold loads of on a body what happens there is a physiological thermo regulation
process which the body, undergoes because of this we start perceiving or experiencing a
particular environment. Here there are 3 different things first is the thermal effect; how do the
environment affects you. Then we start talking about comfort discomfort and then we start
sensing the thermal environment, this is the first part of it.

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Now, what do we do? What else connects to thermal comfort? There is a huge setup
parameter which is connecting to thermal comfort; the first thing is the past thermal
environment says for example, you are moving from a place like Srinagar to work in Delhi.
During summer you cannot stand it for the first year, for the second year and eventually third
fourth year you get used to it. So, it is a long term thermal experience which is needed to get
adjusted to a place similarly you move from a hotter zone to a colder area. You need a quite a
longer duration to adapt this is long term, but then suddenly it rains in summer.

The first day you are happy, the second day it is raining, but the third day it starts getting
sunny again it is a short term thermal disturbance. So, your body gets acclimatized to the
heat, suddenly it rains. So, there is a thermal readjustment and then when you get sun again
you cannot tolerate it for the first day, the second day, but in 2 to 3 days time, you get used to
it again this is a short term adjustment. So, this is the short and long term past thermal
environment.

Then comes the Climo-cultural practices and norms there are certain cultural practices it
starts from the dressing code it starts from our food habits, you know people living especially
in composite climatic regions have a specific way of food habit's during summer, during
winter, during monsoon, times this is quite well adapted food practices. Climo-cultural
practices and norms then you have environmental adjustments which a person does it can be
active or passive leads to behavioral or technological adjustments. So, these things totally
come back, first you had the thermal effect thermal affect, comfort discomfort and sensation.

Now, we get another component called thermal expectation, These thermal history, as well as
your climo-cultural practices and norms, together lead to something called thermal
expectation. I am expecting something in this summer in this particular city. So, this leads to
an expectation which has a lateral impact on the perceived comfort discomfort as well as the
thermal sensation. This together leads to something the term called satisfaction. I may be
comfortable, but I may not be satisfied there is a small difference between having a sense of
comfort, having perception of comfort and expressing a thermal satisfaction. We will look at
it little more in detail for better clarity.

Then this also affects the thermal preference say for example, like the earlier example I said I

100
am moving from Srinagar all the way to Delhi to work, my thermal preference because of
these practices is something, but what I sense and I what I experience as comfort is different,
because of this my satisfaction of the thermal environment is varying. Because of these things
I go for behavioral or technological adjustments. Behavioral can be in terms of changing a
dress, changing your activity pattern, doing or not doing certain activities, changing food
habits.

If these things do not permit or you are not willing to do these things you go in for
technological adjustments, simple thing you buy an air conditioner, you condition your room,
1, 2 numbers of unit's technological adjustment happens which again comes back and affects
your environmental adjustments. So, from a naturally ventilated or a free running
environment you are moving towards a technologically controlled, mechanical controlled,
and environment. This again determines your heat or cold loads on the body. So, this total
thing becomes a loop.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:54)

What is the factors primarily influencing this? I have indicated specific clusters with color
codes. For example, the first thing is seasonal variation from summer to winter to monsoon to
spring to autumn, there is a considerably variation between the seasons which significantly
effects thermal adaptation. Number 2 is a micro climate moving from suburban area or a rural

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area to the city, you have a significantly distinct micro climate I am going to show you some
specific evidence or documentation which we made in this regard, these are environmental
variables.

Then the next set is personal variables where age, gender and state of health. For example,
during field studies we found a considerable difference is adaptation, thermal adaptation with
respect to age as well as gender. For examples older peoples did not complain about heat
discomfort during summer, but they had more comforts more complaints about cold
discomfort during winter.

Similarly, when we talk about age another critical example, which came up was the younger
set of people less than 20. For example, had a preference for lower temperature, compared to
people who were say above 50 years of age, mid age and old age people. State of health has a
clear impact, we will talk about this little while, then the nature of work you do both the
metabolic activity, which determines the values which we talked about it depends on how
much metabolic activity or heat production your body is undergoing.

On the other side, it also depends on what kind of position and place you are stuck to. For
example, if you are a IT professional, you are a student sitting in a classroom, you are bound
to a seat, you do not keep moving around, you do not have a flexibility to switch on switch
off your air conditioner or your fan, it is not your personalized control. Whereas, you have a
single cabin you are sitting in this cabin then you have more flexibility, over the light fan
opening or closing the windows set temperature lot of controls are available. So, the nature of
work you do whether the work place is air conditioned or naturally ventilated has a lot of
impact on thermal adaptation.

Apart from this you have the availability of thermo adaptive opportunities, Whether I have
access to controlling the fan speed, whether I have access to controlling the air conditioning
set point temperature, whether I have oper able widows which will facilitate better
ventilation. So, presence or absence of adaptive opportunities this is where the role of
designers comes into picture. For example, you design a building to have an office space
whether you are taking care of providing an adaptive opportunity. So, that this person sitting
in this cabin is going to use that opportunity some time or the other to make himself

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comfortable for a few more hours. Rather than opting to switch on an air conditioning
system.

Then we talked about these two phenomena, these are like more psychological short term
thermal experience like a sudden change of weather during a particular season; say a typical
sunny days in rainy season, monsoon season or a few rainy days in the summer season
changes your thermal experience, your body needs a few more days to acclimatize back to the
summer condition after the rain.

Long term thermal history, it depends on where you grow up what you know about the
particular season, your summers may not be as harsh as you know where you grow up would
not be as probably may not as harsh as what you experience in the place where you work or
where you study. So, there is a lot of difference or it takes a lot of time for you at least a few
years to get to this acclimatization. So, this is short term and long term, this is not an
exhaustive list, but these are some major parameters which influence the thermal adaptation
processes.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:57)

In short I would like to present this as graphic for your understanding and info graphic for
your understanding. This is more or less covering the themes of what we have been

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discussing, so far and few other modules that we will discuss after this as well.

Let us start this from here there are 3 main components the first is the environment say
outdoor environment. This is a major component; the thermal severity of this particular
environment affects comfort, influences comfort, then you have occupants people who are
perceiving comfort or perceiving the environment, so about the people by them self like we
discuss the age, gender, body mass index lot of things and their own their physique affects the
perception of comfort.

Then number 3 comes the building, how we design a building actually this is where we are
going through, we started the module somewhere from environment, now we are moving
towards comfort and occupant, next we will be talking more about building then we will go
to comfort and energy efficiency in building this is where we are moving along.

First is an environment how the environment itself is severe we talked about climate, now we
are talking about occupant the physiological as well as physio-psychological part of occupant
comfort. The next would come the building how building impacts the comfort, but now, what
we need to understand these 3 entities are not acting by themselves independently; they are
partly independent partly they are dependent on each other. Environment is an independent
variable, but then occupant interacts with environment, this particular interaction how he
perceives the environment we talk about thermal comfort, thermal perception, then we talk
about thermal history, thermal adaptation. So, his experience of the environment determines
adaptive thermal comfortable. So, how the environment by itself is how his body reacts, what
is his thermo regulatory phenomena plus how in long term or short term he adapts to the
thermal environment? So this interaction builds us the adaptive comfort criteria.

Next part is how building interacts with environment, we will look at this interaction more in
detail, but to look at it short we talk about climate responsive design we did look at some
vernacular principles which were being adapted to be more climates responsive. So, there is a
thermal severity in the environment for most of the climates then, we design our buildings
and this building starts reacting with the environment this is more or less a
deterministic way of reaction or eventually it is a cyclic phenomenon

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It keeps happening and like this interaction which is more probable and eventually it is a
matured phenomena where it keeps changing season to season, it is not like a long term
prediction I cannot say what I would be experiencing next summer compared to this summer.
So if I have a data of say a person x has experienced the past 5 or 6 summers, and this being
his thermal experience was this I may not be able to say hundred percent surely that the next
summer with this given temperature he is going to stay comfortable or uncomfortable.

Whereas, the building versus environment response is more or less cyclic then comes how
occupant interacts with the building. The interaction has two dimension one is more design
oriented how we use the space what we do move around this comes more into the design side,
but what we are talking about more relevant to what we are talking about is how we use the
adaptive features provided in the building. As a designer it bothers you in order to give proper
adaptive mechanisms in the building. Building proper adaptive mechanism, which will
facilitate the occupant to improve his level of comfort rather than opting for mechanical
systems, this is more of a probabilistic behavior I can open the building probably I can open
the window, probably I may open the window to what percentage people are willing to use it.
So, this is more of a probabilistic interaction occupant using the building rather more focused
using it is adaptive features then the comfort perceptions considerably changes.

So, these 3 things together how harsh is the environment say typically take a suburb the
building is behaving in some manner in summer then the people are using the building in
some way they are closing the windows in the daytime opening it in the night time for proper
night ventilation. So, this totally determines overall indoor thermal perception, this whole
phenomena can be combined together and say what is the overall adaptive thermal comfort
available for the person. We saw this particular comfort boundary in the last class.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:51)

On a psychrometric chart this ASHRAE model they are superimposed the comfort zone for
summer and winter where this say this particular boundary the area lying within this
boundary the temperature humidity combinations would provide comfort for a set of people,
and we also saw moving towards the right or left how it affects being comfortable or
uncomfortable.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:20)

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But to simplify this the adaptive model gets you a comfort boundary something like this,
what you have in x axis is the mean outdoor air temperature, this could be daily mean or this
could be monthly mean here we have indoor operative temperature and simply this particular
band is said to be a comfort zone. I give you the history of how this particular thing itself is
developed, but before getting there you will see 4 lines here, the first two the inner set this
makes the shaded portion this is 90 percent acceptability limits.

So, when the prevailing mean temperature is like this, this particular operative temperature
set is set to be acceptable for 90 percent acceptability limit then, the next broader one is 80
percent acceptable. Acceptable by 80 percent of people, Another interesting thing that you
need to notice here, the comfort boundary is not a straight line like you see in your
conventional model we always say 24 and half degree plus or minus 1 and half, 2 degrees is
comfortable, but this particular model says that the indoor operative temperature or the
comfort temperature rather the comfort band increases proportionally with respect to the
prevailing outdoor air temperature. For example, what is comfortable to you at 10 degree
ambient temperature is not comfortable to you at 30 degrees ambient temperature. When the
prevailing mean temperature for example, the daily mean temperature is 20 degrees then, 10
degrees then your probable indoor operative temperature comfort could be between 20 and 22
somewhere in this area.

But then when the prevailing outdoor mean temperature gets higher, for example you are
going towards summer somewhere between 30, 32 degrees then this particular limit the same
20 to 22 degrees, you will perceive us being cool or cold. Whereas, you would prefer being in
a temperature of something like 28 degrees, where you would express comfort. Similarly in
winters the same 28 degree you will express it as being warm probably not hot, but you
would probably say that this is a warm condition rather than saying that it is comfortable.

This particular graph has been developed as a part of, what it is referred as research project
884 this is one of the common or standard reference there is a interesting report available an
exhaustive report. This particular report sequentially analyzed different components of
thermal comfort, it took into consideration numerous field studies which were conducted, we
will talk more about the procedures for field studies, but lot of field studies which are you
know where people ask about thermal perception with different group of people performing

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the actual activities rather than a control laboratory setting this is where there is a starking
difference between the adaptive model and the standard thermal comfort model.

As we said for example, the Fangers comfort model or the tropical summer index model the
Indian model, these particular models were developed in controlled laboratory setting like
you get some hundred people to the lab, you control the environment indoor environment you
modify the temperature, radiation, humidity, air velocity and for each of these modification
you make them respond as to how they feel. But one major difference which happens from
this comfort to what we actually experiences is in field we are not bound to this you know
third party controlled temperature or any environmental settings, we are free to adapt to
certain extent of course, to certain extent we all are also bound to do certain things. Say if I
am working in a office I am bound to follow dress code, I am bound to do or not do certain
things, but still I have certain amount of flexibility to adapt myself to a thermal environment.
So, in this case people found there is a lot of difference between the laboratories-controlled
results of comfort versus the field results of comfort thermal comfort.

So, taking that into account as a central theme thing, particular report looked at different field
studies and evidence from field where there was a difference between the lab controlled
comfort perceptions, versus what actually people experience in the field putting all these data
together this database is also available online for you, if somebody wants to explore this is
from different countries. You know prominently from South-East Asian countries.

If you are interested to take a re look at the data derive something out of it, you can feel free
you can search for RP 884; lot of data the whole setup data is sequentially stored and it is
freely available for assessment. Taking those data this particular analysis was made and this is
a fit which was brought in and people found that 90 percent acceptable limit lies somewhere
here, we will look at few more examples specific field studies and how these things are
developed in the following things.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:23)

How do you measure thermal adaptation, if we say measuring comfort there are lot of indices
we also looked at few of them like Fanger PMV or for example, the effective temperature of
TSI you basically assess the thermoregulatory phenomena we saw the low pierces 2 node
model, where you study the thermoregulation phenomena of the body itself, but when you
say thermal adaptation, you are talking about set of dynamic people or people doing dynamic
mechanisms to keep themselves comfortable people are under movement they are not idle.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:00)

So, primarily these adaptive studies revolve around conducting field measurements of
comfort it has two components, one is physical measurement accompanied by subjective
assessment. It is like you have a set of sensors you go to the field you measure the condition
parallelly you also ask people, how do they feel? So, how do we ask how do they feel and
what do you measure this is what you are going to look at this section.

There are 3 important scales, which we have to keep in mind in order to do thermal comfort
studies on field today you find lot of studies such studies are being reported. So, if one is
interested to conduct these studies we need a lot of more studies for India specifically
because, the climate is diverse cultural variations are really huge we have lot of socio-
psychological differences. So, with these things we need a lot of field evidence. If one is
interested you have to have in mind 3 important scale; the first is the ASHRAE scale all these
things are double liked scale this is 7 point scale, you have 0, which is thermal neutrality in
the center towards the right you have slightly cool, cool and cold minus 1, minus 2 and minus
3; here you have plus 1, plus 2, plus 3 representing slightly warm, warm and hot, this
typically we call thermal sensation mode, but it is depends certain authors refer it as the
actual sensation vote ASV there is a different terminology, but the scale remains the same.
Ideally what you ask is what do you perceive, when you have to ask this question you need to
ask them what is your thermal perception? Or what is your thermal sensation right now?

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The next particular scale which is interesting is the Bedford scale, this looks alike in terms of
the number, in terms of the balance it is also 7 point scale starting from 0 minus 3, one side
and plus 3 in the other side, but there is small difference. In fact, it is a major difference when
people answer for this small difference in terms of the verbal variations which is put in here,
0 is neutral here, but when you go to minus one or plus one you find the term comfortably
cool or comfortably warm.

We refer this commonly as a comfort scale rather than a simple sensation scale, this is like a
thermal sensation scale, what do you sense the thermal environment like, but this is like are
you comfortable with it? I am going to show you some field evidences how the answers the
same person answering in these two scales there is a lot of difference in the way he answers,
this rather asks you whether you are comfortable when you say, I am feeling slightly cool it
means that the environment is slightly cool, when you say I am feeling comfortably cool it is
cool, but you are comfortable with it.

The next important scale is the 3 point scale which is McIntyre scale commonly referred as
McIntyre scale this is very crucial information which you get from the field, just 3 simple
things I need cooler, I need warmer or I can accept. For instance a person might say I am
slightly warm, but he may say it is comfortably warm and he can also say I can accept this,
which means this particular setup thermal environment if you go with the sensation scale you
may say that no this is slightly warm you need to bring it to neutrality, which means that
people always do not need neutrality, but they can also be feeling comfortably warm. For
example, a slightly increased temperature or a radiant heating will give you or will keep you
comfortably warm in winter, and you can still accept that particular thermal condition.

A sample comfort questionnaire just to show you that there are lot of dimensions in which
you can assess thermal comfort a standard like ASHRAE 55 thermal comfort standard would
give you an appendix what all basic conditions you need to ask how to ask and what to do,
basically these comfort questionnaires will have their date time stamp plus age, gender.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:02)

You will be noting it, but other than that you will also have some place where you will have
to note the environment criteria, what does the here we had room dimension and basic
features of the room about the whether the windows are open, fan is on off, what type of
thermal environment is prevailing in the room plus the design configuration, apart from
clothing and activity level, when I say activity level it is not the momentary activity the
person is doing, you have to also record what activity this person was doing for the past 1
hour at least. So, that you get a fair idea about what thermoregulation is happening in a
particular person.

Apart from these environment criteria, you ask a set of questions it can be short
questionnaire, it can be a long questionnaire this one I am showing you is a little exhaustive
one. Apart from basic 3 scales you also can ask them about how do you feel about the air
moment whether it is breezy, whether it is windy what about the sultriness whether it is
humid sultry or whether you feel it like dry you can also ask about the health conditions as
you ask more questions in a systematic way the better information or inference can be made
out of this.

There are two types of surveys which are typically done, one is the transverse survey which is
called right here right now. You go with the questionnaire go with the setup instruments, Let

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the instruments settle down with it is sensitivity. So, it may take a minute to 5 minutes
depending on the instrument sensitivity. Then you also let the person sit settle down you
explain him what you are trying to do and then you ask the question saying it can be
exhaustive, it may take about 5 minutes he will be answering you about each of these
questions and what he was doing for the past 1 hour, where he comes from like that plus your
measurements will be going on. Say you know 10 to 15 minutes of this interaction will give
you a set of answers from a particular respondent this is one type right here right now or a
transverse survey.

It is like a door step survey you have to get in of course, but it is like knock the door get it do
the survey, but other type of survey which is even more informative is the longitudinal
survey, where you keep asking the same person set of questions multiple times say it can be 3
or 4 times a day to it can go all through the season. He may be answering it daily he may be
answering it 3 times daily over the year as you have provision the more stable and more
informative the data is, but one small constraint is you cannot ask exhaustive questions again
and again to the same person. The numbers of questions have to be limited, and the number
of measurement parameters also might have to be limited because, if you have to install such
a set of specific instrumentation for each person it may be really a costly affair.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:08)

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Typical set of instrumentation, before we talk about instrumentation there are 3 classes of
survey, level 3 surveys for instances there are 3 levels; level 3 is like you have minimum
instruments you measure temperature humidity probably air velocity, again sensitivity vary
varies I am giving you a very basic information about this, say you have temperature
humidity and you are measuring air velocity you also ask the person a few questions about
the thermal environment it does not cost you much, but still you manage to get some amount
of data, but the accuracy of the data considerably varies, as you go to level two service, level
two you need to measure at least 4 environmental parameters temperature, humidity air
velocity as well as radiation in terms of globe temperature you would have to measure apart
from noting down their activity in metabolic, you know metabolic activity and the clothing
insulation.

Then comes level one survey, where the temperature humidity as well as the thermal
environments are recorded at 3 different levels, say if a person is seated you take in his foot
level his waist level, as well as his head level, for the same with the standing person apart
from this it also needs continuous recording for at least a duration. So, that you measure the
thermal environment surrounding for a particular duration. It is not like a momentary survey.
So, there are 3 levels of course, level one gives you more standard and stable information, but
it is eventually it is costly for example, this is a very small device we used to have for
measuring temperature humidity as well as globe temperature, along with a hot-wire
anemometer which measures air velocity. Hot-wire anemometer has better sensitivity for
indoor measurements this give you much better results than vane anemometer, this is a
comfort meter which directly measures the Fanger’s predicted mean vote.

I am not talking much in detail about the construction of this instrument, but later versions
are available this is a very useful instrument it directly gives you plus 3 to minus 3, it you set
metabolic activity and the clothing insulation this is the one of the very fine instruments
which even it has been in news for the past 30 years it is still being updated.

Apart from this if you have to do level one survey, you have to have at least two sets of
instruments like this, measuring into different levels you can measure temperature humidity,
air velocity, then the radiant asymmetry globe temperature air at least two different heights
plus you need a data logger which needs to continuously be recording at specific frequencies.

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I will show you few results. So, as to touch space some what we were actually talking about,
we did a subjective evaluation or adaptive comfort survey for a set of people in a warm
humid climatic condition, I am going to show you some results and relate to what we have
been talking about.

What we did? We did a survey of about 300 plus about 330 people were surveyed, there were
short term surveys like transverse surveys, they were longitudinal survey the overall data set
was something like 1500 around 1500 numbers data sets were there because longitudinal
about 100 people were answering again and again and for specific duration during summer
during winter.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:25)

So, the data set was about measurements were taken what you see here is the indoor globe
temperature and what you see here is a thermal sensation vote. This is the first in the 3 scale
that I was talking about this is the ASHRAE scale thermal sensation people were answering
on how they actually sense the thermal environment the temperature is recorded were
something like 25 degrees all the way up to 40 degrees of indoor globe temperature the
measurements were taken and this is the response given by people.

There are 2, 3 interesting things which we need to note. See whenever you do adaptive

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comfort survey that is what you will get you will get a graph like this, when you plot you will
get a graph like this, what it means say take a temperature of say 36 degree, you have set of
points dots across the y axis it does not, of course, come down which means this is cold this
is cold, this is cold, cold and very cold. This is on the hotter side, you do not get the colder
responses during this particular temperature of course, 36 degrees nobody tells I am feeling
cool which means there is an anomaly in the measurement, but still what we found there were
set of people who were also saying they are with it that is they say it is thermally neutral I
will tell you who said those things.

Then there a set of people who were responding somewhere between one and two, and there
were a good amount of people responding between 2 and 3 you get more data of course, on in
the higher side as the temperature go up. Whereas, if you see temperature like 26 degree you
still have some people saying I am thermally neutral, but still you find more number of votes
coming towards the colder side as I said this is like one humid more specifically it is a hot
and humid region, this was recorded in Chennai where winters are not that prominent.

As it gets lesser than 25 degrees people start saying that it is a cold condition, on the contrary
if you go to a colder climate or a composite region you are used to 25 degrees, 26 degrees,
because your temperature drops as low as 5, 6 degrees. So, 25 is comfortable you may get
further lower temperatures, you may get this response you may not get this response. So, one
important thing we need to note this particular dispersion is very location specific very you
know specific to the socio-cultural group which we were talking about.

Coming back to this particular response, some people had responded that they were neutral
feeling neutral they are with it this actually corresponded to a set of people from different
socio cultural segments of the people, you know society we recorded with a set of fisherman
for example, was one group of people from with whom response was taken, of course, it was
a indoor measurement not outdoor measurement.

Fisherman’s colony we covered the other measurements were taken in HIG homes like you
like people already are using minimum two air conditioners and their thermal responses. So,
this is a total response. So, you have a wider dispersion. Similar thing one more important
thing is when you fit a curve here this particular line is a simple linear fit, it crosses 29

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degrees at thermal sensation vote of 0, which means the thermal neutrality for this total set of
people is around 29 degree. If you take plus 0.5 or minus 0.5 say 90 percent acceptability
then their limit would be somewhere between 27 and up to 30.5. So, this would be range
which is thermally acceptable if you go with the thermal sensation vote.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:18)

A similar assessment done with tropical summer index, because this is only temperature
globe temperature response if you include humidity and air velocity you can do the same
thing with TSI. This is the third scale, which I was talking about the McIntyre scale you ask
them whether you can accept you need warmer or you need a cooler environment. You have
tropical summer index here and percent of subjects here this is a logit analysis you see this
green line this is like I can accept, as the temperature TSI increases I can accept votes come
down, the percentage of people saying I can accept comes down percentage of people saying
I need cooler goes up and need warmer naturally comes down, we did not go much on the
colder side of the recording. So, this particular line fit did not really come well, because most
of it was taken in the warm nobody is going to say I need warmer, had we been doing this
surveys on the other side say 0 to 25 degree this line would fit much better.

Taking this clue, if you see the need cooler and need warmer line meet, this particular thing is
probably the thermal preference of people. Getting back to the previous slide, what actually

117
they were saying they were feeling thermo neutral about they were saying I am feeling
thermo neutral at 29 degrees. Whereas, when you ask them whether you can accept it or what
you prefer, it comes to around 27 degrees. Which says that 27 degree is the thermal
preference, but they can sensation wise they are with 29 degrees. These 2 degree differences
will probably induce people to adopt for more air conditioning system or getting into more
cooler environment.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:46)

There are also other parameters like micro climate, but getting much into the details of it you
have obligations based on this you can refer to.

But, just to give you a simple example taking two different housing colonies, this is like
micro climate recording of that particular thing temperature humidity and the ambient noise
level. Why I have put noise level is, one was in a major traffic intersection people were not
able to use their balconies or windows because it was too noisy as well as air pollution was
pretty high. The other one was in a quieter environment. Temperatures were also considerably
different this particular one the maximum temperature during summer went up to 40.
Whereas, here it was around 37, 38 under similarity this were taken from met department
stations in these two locations in the same city humidity levels are also different.

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(Refer Slide Time: 38:43)

If you carefully assess this particular thing is on the ASHRAE scale this is the TSV on the
ASHRAE scale and the responses are more or less same between these two housing colonies.
Whereas, if you ask them on Bedford scale how comfortable you are people located in this
particular thing the expression of comfort considerably changes this is heat discomfort. So, it
is on the other side of it heat discomfort the higher the number is the more people are saying I
am feeling more heat discomfort.

Say take a temperature like 31 degree this particular thing is located in a quieter set ting
people had the flexibility to use their windows, balconies they can open windows they can get
more ventilation compared to this people who were bound to keep their windows balconies
closed. At same temperature say a temperature of 31 degrees almost double the percentage of
people said they were feeling uncomfortable, or they were experiencing heat discomfort
compared to this particular thing. This happened at almost all the temperatures. So, as a
designer what this means to you micro climate or setting up the micro climate is very crucial,
not just ambient pollution alone is a major thing. Visual privacy especially in apartments
when you have two adjacent blocks looking at each other people do not open the windows it
affects the ventilation, but it affects thermal adaptation, in the context we are talking about as
a result of which people are going to express more heat discomfort and this would lead to
usage of more energy in terms of mechanical systems. Let us take a look at some adaptive

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comfort models, there are lots of studies and each study is reporting about a different setup.
So, more or less overlapping, but a different range of temperature humidity condition or
environmental condition which it people are able to adopt.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:34)

One standard reference is the ASHRAE standard model where comfort temperature are

T comf =0.33 ∙ T om +17.8

this is the standard reference, but as you see there are lot of studies in India as well as South-
East Asia plus across the globe there are more studies is not a total list of the whole thing.

And each one of it more or less if you see it is like 0.3, 0.15or close to 0.2 of globe
temperature most of these studies I have collected were based on globe temperature. A plus or
minus some variable and the neutral temperature also we find that it is considerably different.
For example, if you take a colder climate like Nepal the mean the neutral temperature was
around 22 degrees as a contrary if you see a composite climate or a hot humid climate, you
find neutral temperature as high as close to 30 degrees 29 degrees present.

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(Refer Slide Time: 41:40)

So, there are lots of more comfort models, but more or less they are like regression models
developed based on field evidences. If you compare two cities in India, I have taken the
standard comfort model the ASHRAE model and I have plotted two different cities based on
the monthly mean temperature. So, this particular thing is month here this is outdoor air
temperature this thin line show the monthly maximum mean, maximum and mean minimum
the dots represent the mean maximum and mean minimum.

Then the center one is the monthly mean and the red line shows the T comf calculated based
on this particular equation. So, this is for Ahmadabad where you find the comfort
temperature, varies somewhere from 24 degrees and it can go as high as 31 degrees during
summer. Whereas, if you take a city like Bangalore the comfort temperature is close to 25
degrees during winter and it can go up to say around 28 degrees during summer. There is not
much of a difference keeping this in mind Fanger revised his comfort model or rather provide
you know proposed the addition or add on to his own comfort model the PMV-PPD model he
introduced a factor called expectancy factor, which is nothing, but to scale down the actual
prediction of the PMV for example, if your PMV is 2.

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(Refer Slide Time: 42:55)

Which means you are feeling hot, then he says that in region where AC buildings are
common you can retain that particular vote by itself it can be just two, whereas if there is a
region where there are few very few AC buildings or you take a socio economic strata where
people are not able to afford for more air conditioners. Then he is saying that the PMV value
can be scaled down as low as 0.5, that is half of it instead of being hot it would be warm. So,
the same model he is saying can be extended using this.

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(Refer Slide Time: 43:23)

We did try to compare the actual predicted model the same graph I showed you with the
PMVs prediction always the standard PMV model tends to over predict if it is like neutral it
says it is really warm and it goes up high, but introducing a weightage of 0.6 it comes closer,
but it cannot directly align of course, this particular trend line changes from location to
location, but more or less around 0.5 to 0.6 in Indian condition PMV comes much closer to
the predicted or sorry the actual perceived thermal comfort.

One of the reason additions to the model that not so, recent, but about 6 to 8 years back this
was implemented in the European codes as well; here this is the concept of running mean
outdoor temperature instead of taking daily mean or monthly mean temperature, monthly
mean outdoor temperature.

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(Refer Slide Time: 44:11)

The concept of using running mean temperature like you say short term thermal history that
you are accounting for, take the mean temperature of the past 7 days and then like you do a
decay calculation kind of you give more weightage for yesterdays mean temperature slightly
lesser weightage for previous day and it goes on for the past 7 or 8 days. It can go longer also,
but typically five to 7 days is taken then instead of a particular daily mean you get something
called running mean temperature and compare temperature typically co relates much better
with the running mean temperature rather than the actual ambient mean. We have also
verified the same thing it has a better coincidence with the running mean temperature
compared to the actual daily mean temperature or monthly mean temperature.

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(Refer Slide Time: 45:07)

This is a thing; this is like typical outdoor air temperature mean temperature of a particular
day versus this is a running mean outdoor temperature. The corelation were much closer now
you had a better m value plus the r square values are also slightly higher here.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:24)

Similarly, this is how the band, the comfort band using the previous equation I showed you

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this is for Ahmadabad the light blue line represents the actual hourly temperature variation,
the blue one is the mean daily mean temperature. The red one is the running mean
temperature this band here tells you what is the adaptive boundary based on the running mean
temperatures.

So, it continuously varies all through the year it goes up to around 33 degrees maximum and
as low as around 20 to 23 degrees during winter. And this is the case of Bangalore the
boundary more or less lies similar, but the fluctuations and the spread is different. Why do
you have to know all this we will start more about this particular graph elaborately in further
modules, but this particular thermal adaptation has a significant impact on the actual monthly
energy consumption of a building?

(Refer Slide Time: 46:13)

We will talk about energy efficiency in those modules we will touch upon these things, but to
connect these two modules, one of the studies which we found which we did we found that
there is a considerable amount of difference for the same user group. People are similar the
houses they live in are similar orientation floor configuration design configuration are all
similar, but due to personal variables and adaptive phenomena, which they are getting into,
there is a considerable difference between their monthly energy consumption monthly bills
seem to be quite different from each other, we stop this particular module here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 46:57)

We looked at the psychological and physiological dimensions of thermal comfort. Then we

talked about thermal adaptation and major factors influencing it, which looked at how to
conduct an adaptive comfort survey and how do you measure this parameters in field and we
also looked at few adaptive comfort models in this video.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture - 06
Bioclimatic Assessment

In this session we will look at Bioclimatic Assessment and Building Bioclimatic Charts.
There are two major components that we will look at.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:34)

First I will introduce you to the basics of bioclimatic assessment; what is a bioclimatic chart,
and how to read that and how to create building bioclimatic charts, and draw inferences for
building design. And the next part I will be taking you through a software demonstration,
where there will be a working on specific climate files, and then how to draw inferences for
building design.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:00)

The first is about bioclimatic chart to itself. So, it is a very interesting chart which was
created, we talked lot about comfort zone for regular thermal comfort in psychometric chart
plus, we also talk about adaptive comfort zone. This particular bio climatic chart contains
relative humidity in its x axis, in the y axis your temperature dry bulb temperature and there
is a comfort zone; of course, this zone varies from location to location, originally it was
developed in the US. Then you have the comfort zone here, we will look at more locations
specific things in the later part of the session.

There is a comfort zone here. Once you move further right which means the relative humidity
is getting really high, then says too humid, to the left it is too dry. Above the comfort zone the
temperature is high, the humidity is also lightly increasing then it says you need better air
movement to keep yourself comfortable, which means you can get into a bigger comfort zone
marked in the dotted line.

Say with 1 meter per second air velocity, you can be comfortable within this particular
boundary. As the temperatures fall down you have with heat radiation it can be sun it can be
artificial or mechanical you know heaters where if you have this much radiation say for
example, 800 watts per minute square is available then at this particular temperature you can
be comfortable the comfort zone is drawn like this. Beyond this it is unbearable this is a very
commonly referred fine tuned bioclimatic chart you know this was proposed by Victor
Olgyay.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:26)

The comfort zone is here. Beyond this particular point shading is needed about this lane here,
you will need shading for the building you can draw lot of interesting inferences relating to
your building, but primarily this is for outdoor, we will look at indoor in a little while. For
outdoor say this is the comfort zone beyond this you need shading you can have trees, you
can have artificial, you know shades. In this part it becomes too dry here it is too humid
above this you need wind you know good air movement is needed. There is a line here, a dark
line here which says this is one limit for light verge if you are involved in light sedentary
activity not very high metabolic rate, then this will be the limit beyond which you will
probably get a heat stroke or you will be really uncomfortable.

Then in this particular dotted line says unbearable above this line. So, this is somewhere
where you get health impacts which gets really hard and really sultry and above this
particular line and the other side here you need shading you know the units sun below this
line because the temperatures really dropped, you need might sun, you need you know really
good amount of radiation and further more as the temperatures dropped down. This particular
thing was prepared mainly in the context of outdoor environment.

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:57)

Applying a similar concept in this psychometric chart this you know psychometric chart is
not highlighted, but you will see the temperatures here plus you have the relative humidity
lines running here and what is overlapped on this is the specific type of strategy passive
strategy, some of them are active strategies to modify the comfort zone. This particular thing
we will demonstrate more with the tool.

To take quick look at it as the temperatures fall down this is in Fahrenheit. So, if the
temperature is fall down you need conventionally heating passive and active solar heating,
internal heat gains will help this is an actual comfort zone, for instance if you take this is a
comfort zone. The comfort zone can be increased in the hotter seasons. If you have some of
these strategies for example, this says high thermal mass with night ventilation. If you are
building has high thermal mass then this particular comfort boundary gets increased all the
way up to here, even if the temperatures are as high as more than 100 degree Fahrenheit or
close to 40 degrees then you can still be comfortable as the person can be comfortable
because the particular building he lives in the room which he is present has high thermal mass
and it is also night ventilated.

After this find it says you need conventional air conditioning. There are different strategies
like this starting from you know simple heat gain to shading to thermal mass, evaporative
cooling is there, then you have this is dry heat so you can have a evaporative cooling, it may
not work as you know go up with higher sultriness or more pressure vapour pressure

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evaporative cooling will not work. Then you have high thermal mass and beyond certain
boundary say take a boundary of this range, beyond this you will need conventional air
conditioning system or a conventional cooling system, mechanical system. And beyond
certain point like say this dotted line you will need conventional heating system, you cannot
afford to cool your building or heat your building through passive strategies beyond this
particular boundary.

Now, I am going to introduce you to a tool which is called climate consultant it is freeware
you can download it online lot of weather data files are also available to work with it. I will
demonstrate this particular tool starting from climate analysis up to deriving building related
inferences based on just the weather data, I will be demonstrating you using this particular
software.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:24)

We will take a look at a tool which is called climate consultant which is a freeware, as I said.
This is really helpful for you know a quick climate analysis and to draw primary inference or
you know select strategies as I know it is a first cut for a conception selection, I would say
this will not give you the performance efficiency or how the strategies actually perform in the
particular building, but it will give you a generic understanding of how effective this
particular strategies actually are. So, this is climate consultant what you see on the screen
when you open then you can download it for free search for climate consultant the current
version is version 6, it has under gone you know lot of changes they are also keeping them

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self update with the you know recent ASHRAE standards and the you know the comfort
boundaries.

So, once you install this you will get you know when you open climate consultant it will
typically gets installed in your C drive not in the program, just on the C drive not in my
programs when you open this you will get screen like this it will ask you for the building type
whether it is residential or small non-residential building. So, I have chosen residential and I
would prefer a metric system. It would ask you whether you have a climate data already you
can just open it or you can download a weather data the EPW is energy plus weather data,
energy plus weather format this weather data for almost you know 35 Indian locations is also
available for free online ISHRAE that is Indian society for heating ventilation and you know
refrigeration and air conditioning engineers.

They have this particular repository from which you can download, this is Indian version of
ASHRAE Indian society for you know heating refrigeration and air conditioning engineers.
So, from their side you can download and store it in your C drive. So, I have already
downloaded some data, I am going to just click open existing EPW file I have my weather
data here, I have all these data sitting here. Let me choose one particular weather data. For
now I will chose say Jaisalmer it is a hot and dry region.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:29)

Once you chose a climate location you get a climate summary on the screen like this. So, in
which on the top you have the months then you have monthly mean summary of different

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parameters. You would you know probably you have heard about her even some of you
would have learnt about Mahoney's tables. Mahoney's table is a primary thing that we talk
about in terms of you know passive design strategy assessment.

Actually this particular tool climate consultant works on the principles of Mahoney's table
and finally, it also suggests you strategies as similar to what you get in Mahoney's table. This
is a computational version of probably you know I would say more closely a computational
version of the Mahoney's table assessment that you do, where you know in Mahoney's table
physically you will be entering these parameters saying you know what is the radiation in
terms of global horizontal, direct diffuse radiations, and stuff then you know you have your
dry bulb temperature, due point rain fall, precipitation, relative humidity, wind direction
speed, you also have ground temperature some of these things you will be entering in
Mahoney's table, but here it you know does the work for you.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:36)

Then comes choosing a specific model, this is specifically for US and apart from this you
have 3 things which we will look at today.

The first thing is ASHRAE comfort model, 55 standard, 55 have been talking about standard
55 for you know quite a few times in the lectures. ASHRAE standard 55 which is the current
book of fundamentals model or you can go with the previous version of it up to 2005 or you
can go with adaptive comfort model.

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First let us take a look at the current hand book of fundamental ASHRAE 55 model then we
will come to adaptive model. You keep clicking next.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:14)

The next particular step is feeding in the data of course, you know you have lot of things you
can input or there are default values which are already there. It has two important things one
is a clothing value it says winter clothing, it is one clo value and summer it says 0.5 clo value.
If you really want two clothing insulations to be present you can live it like this or say if it is
like you are calculating it for a office place or in residence you feel I do not need two
different clothing insulation value just put it say 0.8 or you know one for both the seasons to
avoid you know as you change this the comfort upper and lower limits changes.

For example the comfort lower versus comfort higher changes, say if I am changing it to say
1.5 clo value you note that this particular value changes, in the screen you will see this
particular thing has changed. Now I am living at 0.8 and activity is a sedentary activity it can
be 1.1 or a 1.2 and if you are interested you can change the thermal mass zone that is up to
which the thermal mass is going to be effective high thermal mass with night flushing, some
of these passive strategies you can actually said the upper and lower boundary. But by default
it calculates which is good enough if you are really confident and you have the formulas with
you please go ahead and make the changes and see. As a part of this module I am not you
know covering any changes in these things we can do, but you know with the time constraint
I am just going ahead with what is actually given in this standard values.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:48)

Next set of things you will get a climate summary.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:54)

This actually is really helpful if you are a practising person you can take a snap shot of this,
you can export it as JPEG images, you can show it to the client as a quick climate summary
this is really helpful it is free and number two, if you are a student for your climate
assessment you can actually use this I am going to explain little bit of how to interpret and
understand these number. The grey line presented here is a comfort boundary, the upper and
lower limit of the boundary this is like a statistical graft Box-and-Whisker plot typically.

136
So, what you find here is a mean value and you have the upper and lower quartile ranges,
plus you have the percentage maximum and percentage minimum and then these dots the out
layers say you know for example, temperature goes up to 46 degree this is Jaisalmer, but this
is once in a while. If you take the mean maximum temperature it is around 44 degrees
occurring in the month of June. You can also set the percentage of hours above as well as the
percentage of the hours below.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:55)

The out layer this is like a statistical thing it is 99 percentile or is it 95 percentile. So, that can
be varied.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

Similarly, you will get summaries for global horizontal direct normal and diffuse radiation
and you will also see the summary of hourly dry bulb temperature, wet bulb mean
temperature you know this is the comfort zone again summer and winter, we have not defined
two different comfort zones. So, we are getting a single simple line.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:25)

Then you get a detail of, what is that? Solar radiation you have direct normal radiation global
horizontal and total surface radiation. There are few interesting things in this you can actually
change the surface tilt. So, that you can get something for different surfaces which means

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now the thing is 0.0 which means it is a horizontal surface. So, imagine I wanted for a
vertical surface I can change it to 90.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:52)

Then I will get, what is there? Direct and dif use you know global horizontal radiation as well
as direct if you subtract you will get the defuse radiation also; you will get the summary for
90 degree that is vertical. Once you say a vertical which orientation it is? Now it is zero
which means it is south you can change it.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:15)

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For example, if you wanted in a north you say 180 degrees which means you get north 90
degrees.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:18)

So it can be varying. And you can also adjust the ground reflectance say this says 20 percent
is for grass you can increase or decrease this.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:30)

You can get hourly average or you can get daily total, the simple thing this graphs will be
really helpful for assessing the solar radiation on vertical or horizontal surfaces.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:42)

In this weather data elimination data is not available never mind sky coverage.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:45)

Then you will also get the wind velocity. We will look at chart much in detail.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:48)

This is about ground temperature, now we are not directly looking at it, I will come to this
when we talk about energy; summary of the data.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:54)

This actually gives you solar shading.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:06)

It can display a shading calculator you can actually you know adjust to what season you need
shading. Specific shading design and calculation I will cover in another module, but this has a
provision to adjust and you can actually move the shading mask. You can also specify
obstructions whether the obstructions are there in which orientation and in what height we
will look at the sometime later in the module.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:26)

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And this is about the (Refer Time: 15:28), (Refer Time: 15:28) is nothing but this is you
know sundial at what height you can adjust the height of the (Refer Time: 15:33) and this is
your sun path.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:39)

And you have a different types of summaries you can have a water fall data.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:44)

You can have it for different parameters.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:47)

Then have it daily which is much closer or you can have monthly averages.

Now, we will come to the bioclimatic assessment or the building bioclimatic chart which we
are actually interested in as a part of this module.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:52)

The previous things are of general interest to you can use them you know as well for your
projects or your design projects where ever it is relevant, but this actually is an interesting
part of the whole tool it helps you to make design decisions for a specific climatic condition.
First before looking this is psychrometric charge before getting into this you can take a look

145
at what is there in this particular module, it says how much percentage is comfortable indoor
which is not comfortable then it is asking what to plot is it comfort indoor is it dry bulb
temperature or different things. So, first I will take comfort indoor. So, I get a comfort zone, I
can plot hourly values which is what I have done you get dots here the green once you see
each dot represents one hour you have 8760 hours that is 365 into 24, 8760 hours in a year.

So, each hour the temperature versus humidity is taken I have shown you similar graphs
earlier in one of the other modules. So, there are each one represents a particular point, a
specific time instance in a day in a season or you can just plot monthly maximums and
minimums, then when you say hourly data you can have all hours that is 24 hour or we can
take selected hours say you are working for an office building, you can take the working hour
say from 8 am to 6 pm.

So, the number of dots is less the night time data is not plotted. So, if you read it closely here
it is a 4015 hours that is 8 am to 6 am daily all through the year, where as if you say all hours
it says 8760 hours this is the first thing. Then you can either go for all months or you can
specify specific you know selected months. So, if I want only for you know January, I am just
getting 744 hours just the month of January in Jaisalmer only that data points are plotted.
Then you can fit the data; now let us take a close look at what the graph itself means this is
psychrometric chart.

It has dry bulb temperature here, it has the humidity ratio here then it has the you know
relative humidity lines starting from lower you know 10 percentage up to 100 percentage
saturation line you have the wet bulb temperature of course. This blue line, this particular
blue line this represents the comfort this you know blue shaded zone represents comfort.
Actually this particular comfort zone is a factor of various aspects it you know depends on
the activity level, it depends on the clothing insulation remember we had you know chosen on
activity level of 1.2 we have chosen a clothing insulation of a 0.8, if I were to change this to
1.5 clo value or 1.5 clo value the comfort zone would move to the left or right.

Remember this is similar to the ASHRAE comfort zone which I had mentioned in the
previous module. This particular line is the actual comfort zone and there are lot of other
colour lines, you can relate this to this, this is the actual comfort zone that I told you. The
next one is sun shading of windows which represents you know which is represented in this
colour it is a violet, this is the sun shading of windows I will explain this little in detail in a

146
quick while. There is set of orange lines this is high thermal mass there is a line which is also
the number is also given number 3 and number 4. This particular line represents the
effectiveness of high thermal mass, if you are building envelope has the high thermal mass
we will talk about the definitions of thermal mass and capacity in the following modules, but
if we are using high thermal mass which means it is a massive construction it is able to hold
much of heat it is as a high heat capacity then the effectiveness this shown within this
boundary.

High thermal mass in this particular region will be effective beyond this it will not be
effective. High thermal mass along with night flushing that is night ventilated you open the
windows during night say around 7 or 8 o clock in the evening you open the windows you let
the cold air coming, it chills out the whole building. That is where actually it is a coupling
which happens between thermal mass it is a couple thermal mass with ventilation, where the
ventilation actually the convective cooling helps you know cool down the thermal mass and
day time you keep the windows closed that is the hot airs are prevented. The convective heat
gain is prevented where as convective heat losses are entertained. In that way the
effectiveness of thermal mass further increases all the way even up to 40 degrees the thermal
mass is effective, this is represented by zone number 4.

Then you have direct evaporative cooling of course, evaporative cooling works during your
dry season. So, this line particular line this represents the effectiveness of evaporative cooling
direct evaporative cooling it can be by use of say water bodies around the buildings for
instances you know classic example which people give. Direct evaporative cooling is much
effective in this particular zone that is the temperatures are higher than the relative humidity
as well as humidity ratio is typically, you know my (Refer Time: 21:22) contained in the air
is pretty less, then the effectiveness of evaporative, direct evaporative cooling this seen.

Then we have two stage evaporative cooling which works slightly for higher (Refer Time:
21:35) contents, slightly, then you have natural ventilation cooling just you know you have a
provision for good cross ventilation, your building is well ventilated naturally then you know
effectiveness lie in this area. For instance it is up to 30 degrees temperature and the relative
humidity of around 40 percent and or 50 percent relative humanity. This particular zone
naturally ventilation is effective.

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Then you have more strategies like this further down you have passive direct, direct solar
heat gain say in a colder climate or in colder season rather this is comfort zone, this is zone
10 or strategy 10. Up to this point passive direct solar heat gain is very effective or efficient,
beyond this passive direct heat gain including higher thermal mass if you are building as high
thermal capacity and it also has passive direct solar heat gains say you have you know large
glazing in the southern side and your building also as high thermal mass then up to this point
you can be comfortable that is the effectiveness stretches up to this particular point.

Then you have humidification, dehumidification, apart from this you have cooling and
dehumidification this is mechanical. Now let us look at what works and what does not work
for a place like Jaisalmer. As you see I have taken hourly all hours, all months I have not you
know demarcated any season or time of operation it is all our the whole year data is right
here. There is a provision it will just show best of strategies the rest of it will be kept a side or
you can see all the strategies as well together.

First let me cut all the strategies then I go one by one. First let us take say this is a comfort
zone for the whole space the dots have turned red which means only 12 percent is
comfortable that is 11.8 percent that is 1034 hours out of 8760 hours is comfortable which
means around 12 percent of the time you can be within comfort zone. Sun shading is not
shown here because this is air temperature versus humility this actually covers your radiation
component this is not added as a passive strategy directly this is your comfort zone the dots
are in green. Rest are all in red that means, 88 percent of the time in the year it is not
comfortable. First let us look at the first strategy it is high thermal mass just click on it you
will get another zone added up you find 7 percent more that is that you 635 hours more
getting added to the comfort. So, in place of 12 percent the comfort has increased to 19
percent.

So, if you are building as high thermal mass you are using massive you know walls or you
are introducing thermal mass to my wall systems then you can improve your comfort and for
about 19 percent of the time duration people can be comfortable, if it is a 24 hour occupied
building. Please make a note this is 24 hour occupied building which we are talking about all
24 hour people are there using the building. Go to the next strategy high thermal mass with
night ventilation then this whole particular this whole zone is covered under comfort.

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Another 12 percent gets added up totally 24 percent of the duration you are comfortable. So,
let us freeze on this particular strategy because naturally this is a sub set of this. So, I am just
keeping this into the loop for a quick movement if you just want naturally ventilation you do
not know want to adopt thermal mass because for his due to design reasons you just are
providing proper cross ventilation. Then you can add about 4 percent to the comfort 12 plus
four 16 percent of the duration will be comfortable rest will be uncomfortable. You have fan
force ventilation slightly lesser internal fans I am opting for a high thermal mass and night
ventilation this is on the warmer side.

Then on the colder side you have passive solar direct heat gain which is zone 10 primarily in
the winter season it adds another 235 hours are close to three percent of the data or if you
want passive solar direct heat gain with high thermal mass then already you have high
thermal mass here which will also work efficiently in winter. So, you are adding another 918
hours which is around 10 percentages, ten and half percentage. So, on a whole 34 percent you
have brought comfort for the people living in this particular building say house. 34 percent of
the year duration they will be comfortable that is around 2987 hours out of 8760 hours people
are going to be comfortable in this particular building.

Then what happens? 66 percent is uncomfortable, probably you can try dehumidification
which will work in this, it is not totally mechanical you also have desiccant dehumidifiers
then if you use that you can increase comfort slightly more little bit gets added up, it is only
79 hours. Humidification really does not help here then rest of it you get to cooling and
dehumidification is needed for around 52 percentage of the time you have around 14 percent
uncomfortable hours. So, if I just say. So, best of strategies it is clubbing a few strategies and
then making it 0 percent uncomfortable by defaults.

So, what are the strategies? Let us look at this it has suggested two stage evaporative cooling,
it has suggested natural ventilation, it has also suggested internal heat gains, passive direct
solar heat gain, dehumidification for some time. It is just an optimum set of selection it does
not mean the other strategies you will not work an optimum selection. So, that the strategies
are not replicated, but still you will need for about 46 percentage of the time here you will
need say around 4000 hours, you will need air conditioning cooling and dehumidification
typically an air conditioning system will be required this is for a 24 hour occupied building.

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Now, if the building is only occupied for a selected duration say this is from 8 am to 6 pm
this is a day time occupied building take a re-look at how the strategies are working there are
only 4015 hours, 4015 hours out of which typically 13 percentage is comfortable. High
thermal mass adds up around 15 percentage, high thermal mass with night flushing adds 22
percentage if you look at if you compare what we got earlier we got you know around 12-14
percentage.

Now, we are getting around 22.3 percentage around 895 hours we are getting comfort, it adds
the total 235 percentage comfortable and 65 percentage uncomfortable. Then any other
typical strategies for example, we can opt for dehumidification not very effective only 17
hours internal heat gain helps for about 11 percentage. You can have passive direct gains not
much effective this helps, but it is overlapping with internal heat gains rest of the hours it
would be cooling and dehumidification required. Best of strategies again it is suggesting
internal heat gains; it is also suggesting dehumidification along with two stage evaporative
cooling.

Now, on the contrary if the building is occupied from 6 you know say 9 pm; say it is a night
time occupied building up to 6 am in the morning. So, then what happens to the set of
strategies which we are talking about? I am just cutting down all the strategies it does not you
know need sun shading. So, that has gone automatically, about 11 percentage is comfortable
with high thermal mass it just adds another one and half percent or just 11 hours with simple
thermal mass direct evaporative cooling does add a little bit two stage evaporative cooling
naturally ventilation, internal heat gains there is a lot of help then you can opt for
dehumidification, humidification of course does not help, cooling dehumidification for about
52 percent of the time.

So, if you see the best of strategies it is suggesting you know see 25 percent effectiveness you
are getting with passive direct solar heat gain and high thermal mass because night times get
really cold internal heat gain helps by another 24 percent. Two stage evaporative cooling and
natural ventilation cooling is also beneficial marginally and about 42 percentages of the time
or 1538 hours you need cooling and dehumidification, mostly mechanical systems are
required.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:16)

So, this is particularly about the building bioclimatic chart how you draw inferences this is
the first step of it, and you know similarly if you want only for a specific season, if not for all
month only for a selected months say you take the month of January and you want to estimate
these things becomes not useful. So, you do not need high thermal mass you are on the colder
side, if you are able to provide internally heat gains and passive solar direct heat gain along
with high thermal mass you are going to be 100 percent comfortable in January. Say imagine
you are wondering to check what happens in the month of May and June in this particular
thing, this side of it does not help any way, you can opt for high thermal mass, but still you
have some sultry times.

Let us see what happens in the day time it start say around 8 o clock in the morning it goes up
to 6 pm in the evening. The data points are right here, a high thermal mass with night flushing
it gives marginal improvement direct evaporative cooling only slightly you know it is giving
you some benefit. If you see the best of strategies most part of the time around 94 percent of
the time you need say 671 out of you know 671 hours 93 you know 630 out of 671 hours you
need cooling and dehumidification, as to remain 100 percent comfortable. In short, this
particular method helps you choose which particular strategy, passive strategy is beneficial
and to what extent beyond which you need to go for active systems it can be air conditioning
system or it can be humidification or dehumidification system.

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Further more you can change the criteria from here actually we have cross all these we saw
the temperature range we saw sky coverage, sun charts then we are now here in the
psychometric chart. If you want to change any criteria for example, if you want to set a
different criteria, you want to change the clothing insulation or you want to change the
activity level then you can do so, say I am changing now quickly to 1.5 clothing insulation,
1.5 and I am saying recalculate the comfort limits will be changed I am increasing the activity
levels slightly and just for a calculation sake.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:36)

Now, you can straight go to psychometric chart. The comfort zone if you see the earlier
comfort zone was somewhere here it has moved left not much will be in comfort zone
because you are wearing a you know highly insulative clothing along with a heavy physical
activity. So, you need a colder condition to be more comfortable. If you change this for
example, if you are reducing the clothing insulation then the activity level are also being
reduced, say recalculate it will any way do the calculations by itself recalculation is
automatic.

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(Refer Slide Time: 34:14)

Now, the comfort zone has gone pretty to the right the zone has also shortly you know the
size of the zone the area of the spread has also come down. So, this is where the comfort zone
change can be incorporated, I am just getting setting it back to the default values and I am
changing this particular thing 0.8 and 0.8 which we looked at earlier this is where a
psychrometric chart currently is lying.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:47)

Now you can also change the comfort model, you are looking at the ASHRAE 55 the current
comfort model, you can also set the previous comfort model it tells you what major changes

153
or minor changes rather has happened between these two. You can also choose adaptive
comfort model chose adaptive comfort model I am going back to psychrometric chart.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:14)

Now, interestingly what you will notice there are no specific strategies which are you cannot
click on any strategy nothing will work it simply defines a boundary it says that from 20
degrees up to 31 or 31 and half degrees that is comfort. Just this whole zone you can be
comfortable, but being comfortable in this zone might involve a variety of strategies. It can
be personal adaptation or it can be opening closing or improving the ventilation or it can be
using a specific strategy of the building itself, but in this boundary you can be comfortable.

So, if you are wanting to just check what is adaptive comfort limit you can use this, but mind
it you may not able to draw any design conclusions because with the specific set up strategies
a person would be comfortable here that is what the adoptive model by itself means. Using
this particular chart in the adaptive mode you cannot really select a set of design criteria
which will help you getting back to where we were.

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(Refer Slide Time: 36:19)

The next step it will give you some handy information it lists the set up strategies which will
be really helpful for example, if you click on it you can get a sketch you can copy paste it,
this is really helpful you can adopt in your building and recent additions in the last 3-4 no 2 to
3 versions of climate consultant it also links to this 2030 website where you have case studies
actual case studies which are there.

Say imagine wherever we know working for your design project in your college or you are
wanting to show something to your client saying this particular strategy will work you can
click this it will take it you know take you know straight to the website where they have a
repository of case studies and associated information. So, this is a really handy information
apart from just copy pasting this by itself.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:08)

Variety of strategies are there.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:15)

How typically houses were built? Thermal mass, the use of it, use of vegetation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:22)

For each and every thing you will have the case study and links.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:26)

So, this is about providing radiant barrier you can rate this.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:31)

Some of them are yet to be built it says long narrow building floor plans.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:39)

This is about the perimeter to area and surface area to volume ratio, about ventilation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:43)

You can explore some of them what type of roof system what will work what will not work.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:46)

Further to this it will take you to a summary and the wind rose diagram.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:50)

Here this is a wind rose diagram we you know looked at a different form of wind rose
diagram earlier. Apart from this, this chart also has information about temperature humidity
and the number of hours. The temperature it has you know minimum maximum and average
it shows the temperature range starting from less than zero it can go up to greater than 38 this
is the temperature summary. Then you have the relative humanity summary again this tells
you the colour code tells you whether it is sultry or whether it is dry. Then these particular
internal things this gives you the wind speed and wind direction.

Similar to the previous you know psychrometric building bioclimatic assessment on

psychrometric chart, we can also take selected hours or you can go for all hours you can
selected months for example just for January.

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(Refer Slide Time: 38:45)

It will give you specific input for January alone or if you say all months I need it will give
you a summary. Apart from this it can also run a quick animation it will keep changing for
example, month to month it changes say Jan Feb March it goes on month to month it does a
simple animation or you can do a daily animation for a particular day it keeps running.

You can take snap shots which will be highly useful for you and reading this particular wind
rose chat it gives you minimum average and maximum and the duration. Number of hours is
shown here, how many number of hours percentages from which direction it will show you.
This is the very comprehensive chart, comprehensive form of you know this is this not just
the wind rose alone it also has temperature humidity information. So, as a summary climate
chart this will be really helpful for design projects.

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(Refer Slide Time: 39:41)

Apart from this you can also create your own plot you can set you know the right hand and
left hand axis that is you' are sorry your x and y axis, the lower and left right hand axis then
you can plot your images. Now getting back to say you know if you want to save this you can
save, but to compare un contrast you know, we looked at this particular psychrometric chart
we looked at a set of you know possible strategies that would work, we were looking at
different strategies passive heat gains, I will go back to all hours all months this set of
strategies.

This is already there this is for the climate of Jaisalmer, if you just quickly want to compare
this passive whether to save or not right now I am not saving. If you want compare this
particular weather with say particular climate colder climate like Srinagar, similar way I am
not going to get through all these things I am just selecting the comfort model and I am
making sure these things just for a comparison I am making sure these things are set in the
same way that we had earlier of course, no colder climate the clothing insulation will be little
bit in the higher side getting to the psychometric chat this is psychometric chart most part of
the data is in the colder side.

You know this area for example, high thermal mass and night flushing is not very you know
highly effective without this also you can go for you have to do a cost benefit and see which
is really beneficial, but here internal heat gains as well as passive solar heat gain with high
thermal mass is really helpful. Apart from this dehumidification can also be helpful for a 24

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hour operational building. If for instance you building is only operational in the night time 8
pm to about 6 in the morning most of these strategies becomes redundant they are not useful.
Mostly the strategies are near left hand side of the psychometric chart including natural
ventilation just for about 9 hour, most part of the thing you get from passive solar heat gain
through high thermal mass. If you compare this is exactly what vernacular building were
actually doing they had high thermal mass and they were building larger openings and they
were improving heat gains in the southern side internal gains can also be helpful.

Look at the best of strategies it just says you can if needed you can have high thermal mass
this can be avoided, internal heat gains are helpful or you can just have passive direct solar
heat gain it will be 100 percent comfortable. So, this is all about climate consultant software
tool.

(Refer Slide Time: 42:55)

In this session we looked at two important things one is the basics of bioclimatic assessment,
then we looked at the tool climate consultant where we had certain working examples using
which we demonstrated for different climates what are the major passive strategies and how
they actually work with.

Thank you.

163
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 07
Thermal Performance and building envelop

In this module will be looking at Thermal Performance of Building Envelop.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:38)

I will be teaching about the fundamentals of heat transfer through building envelop and I will
be showing you some applied examples in which we will be looking at how these principles
are applied in specific buildings.

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(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

Let us take a look at this particular image. There is a cross section of a wall; it can be any
material for now we are not getting into what are the thermal and physical properties of this
wall. There is cross section imagine it is 200 mm thick wall and here what you see is the time
line, its starts from 12 o clock on a particular this a night, then it goes on to the 1 day cyclic
24 hours and then this is a second day

So, there is totally 48 hours covered here starting from 12 in the night goes on to 24 hours
that is the second day. What we were trying to show is a heat buildup heat transfer and then
heat re-emission; that is how the wall is getting heat in and how it is getting heat out of the
building, so this is outside and inside of the building. Let us start looking at somewhere from
this point, say take about 8 a clock where you start getting imagine this is an east facing wall
it can be any surface later we will look at the details.

But imagine this is east facing wall, you start getting solar incidents somewhere around 6:30
in the morning it depends on the season as well, so imagine you get some solar incidents here
then this walls starts getting heated up. What happens there is a heat buildup this you know
the depth of this bars show how much of amount of heat is getting buildup.

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So, there is a heat buildup here, then depending on the thermo physical properties of the wall;
the wall is going to store some amount of heat and then pass some amount of heat into the
room. This process takes a while that is the solar radiation needs some time to heat up the
wall. Then it needs some time to pass through this particular distance say now it is 200 mm,
then after while you start getting a realizing say when there is a you know initial heat buildup
you do not say anything here, say if you apply heat here if you touch this surface immediately
you are not going to feel anything.

After about an hour, that is what we tried depicting here. After about an hour or slightly more
in this particular wall it depends again how insulate the wall is. We were going to look at this
precisely in this module. After while you start getting the heat passing into the build surface
that is into the room, so there is a peak here this particular peak after say 1, 1 and half hour
you get the peak inside the magnitude may be different that is why the colors are different.
Now you are getting heat into the pumped into the build space.

So, after this heat sources is gone that is after the sun has gone to the other side of the
building or after the sunset this particular wall; now there is no heat source eventually its
starts minimizing the intensity of invert heat pumping. After this there is a reverse
phenomena the magnitude is not the same if you look at this there is a good amount of heat
gain, whereas the reverse process it is pretty less. So, what happens here there is a eventual
reverse flow of heat.

Similarly, this takes a while and after this particular time the wall also losses heat to the
ambient. The same phenomena if you look at any particular surface there is a heat buildup,
second day there is a heat buildup, there is a heat loss, there is a heat loss and this is for the
third day that is going to be a heat loss. Inside similarly during the day time later in the day
there is a heat gain, and then again the second day later in the day there is a heat gain. So, this
particular peak to peak this is what is of interest to any building designer.

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(Refer Slide Time: 04:18)

Now, we are going to look at how these mechanisms work and what are the fundamentals
behind it. Just brushing up the basics what we studied in school. There are three modes of
heat transfer; conduction, convection, radiation. Heat flow depends on the temperature
difference that is delta T. What happens on one side of the wall, what happens on the other
side of the wall, what is ambient temperature, what is indoor temperature? Say if your air
condition in your room for the same summer day the heat transfer is going different, whereas
if you leave the building in a free running mode are unconditioned or naturally ventilated
mode then the heat transfer is going to be different, because the delta T is different.

Then it depends on the surface area; how much wall surface or how much window surface is?
What is the integrated surface area which is exposed between the two temperature
differences? Outside is 45 degrees inside is a 24 degree set point temperature, so you have
about roughly 21 degree difference that is the delta T. Then you have this much amount of
wall area, say for example a 4 meter long 3 meter high 12 meter square of wall area, probably
you have a about 10 percent window wall ratio in that. Then in that case this is an amount of
wall surface which is involved in the heat exchange.

Then it depends on the distance traveled, say a thick surface or a thick wall versus a thin wall
it depends on the distance traveled and then it depends on the surface characteristics, whether

167
the surface is reflective whether it is absorptive (Refer Time: 05:40). These are few properties
that are of interest towards which we will be looking more closely in this particular module.

Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when they have same temperature; that is say you
have a chamber both side it is 25 degrees then this particular wall or a particular solid is set to
be or any fluid is set to be in thermal equilibrium. So, these two sides there is no heat transfer
which is happening. Naturally heat flows from the hotter sides to colder side. These are basic
principles which we will already know. If it has to happen from the other side you need a heat
pump.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:23)

First let us take a look at conduction. It has a transfer of heat when two particles or two
bodies are directly in contact with each other. A hotter surface is in touch with the colder
surface then you start realizing the conductive heat transfer. Looking into the micro structure
what happens with in a body like we saw the wall case one side is getting heated up
eventually there are smaller particles which are getting in touch with each other they are
getting exited, and then because of that direct contact there is a heat transfer happening from
one side of the other.

168
This particular heat transfer is the efficiency of conductive heat transfer is primarily
dependent on the amount of air trapped into this particular material. We can refer it in terms
of porosity or indirectly we can refer it in terms of density that is how porous a material is.
Take dense steel sheet; the material is really dense, the particles are so compactly place the
density is high, porosity will be pretty minimum then the heat transfer is going to happen
much faster.

On the other hand you take a like a glass wool the material like glass wool which is much; the
internally the particles are much more dispersed or you take a aerated concrete foam concrete
where you have lot of air bubbles which embedded into the concrete and cement paste
basically. In that case the mode of heat transfer keeps changing first you know the heat will
encounter a cement block then it will have an air void.

Alternately it has to keep transferring from one medium to the other medium and there are
lots of losses because of this. So, these particular air bubbles embedding them makes a lot of
difference in the conductive heat transfer. Typically solids are better conductors than liquids
on liquids are better conductor then gases. Typically we look at this in terms of insulated
windows, again when you go far rare gases like, Argon, sealed windows then. the conductive
heat transfer gets further lower.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:26)

169
Further, about conduction the conductor gate transfer depends more on the structure of the
material than the material itself, like precisely when I told you what happens with the glass
block the same material is used in a glass block which is commonly used for internal
partitions and all that you have a glass block say 100 mm thick glass block, you have the
same material, the mode of heat transfer let us take just conduction for now. The mode of heat
transfer through a glass block is going to considerably more than through a fine fiber in the
form of glass wool. This also has a similar material, but it is fur in the form of fibers.

So, the material remains the same, but the internal micro structure of the material more
precisely is considerably the different. There are lot of air voids built in the built of the
structure itself is micro structure itself is different. So, because of this there is a considerable
difference in conductive heat transfer. This is a very simple you know most commonly use
the equation where for heat load cooling load determination the use this equation pretty
commonly in buildings.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:43)

Q=U × A × ∆ T

Where
Q:Heat flow; U:transmission coefficient (W/m2K); A: Area and ΔT: temperature difference

170
This is what actually gives you conductive heat transfer. There are two other modes of heat
transfer this is primarily for how conductive heat transfer happens. So, when we talk about
conductive heat transfer we have to in the process remember few terms and terminology
which are in field commonly more confusing because this sound similar.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:37)

Some of the commonly use parameters that is conductivity, conductance and thermal
transmittance; these three parameters are quite frequently used, but they are more interchange
quite often confusingly. First let us take a look at what conductivity means; it can be express
commonly it is express that k, but the denotion can be anything. It is heat flow through a
material per unit thickness.

So, the first thing we have to understand is conductivity is a materials property; it is a

inherent materials thermal property. It is not dependent on thickness because thickness factor
is negated here it is per unit thickness whatever it is, so when we say conductivity of the
material is expressed in watt per meter Kelvin. It is amount of heat getting transferred from
one side of the material to the other side of the material. It is commonly measured in
laboratories. There are methods like hot plate apparatus, hot box apparatus these are
apparatus used for ASTM codes are available.

171
For these testing I can tell you few examples. For example, if you want to say test the
conductivity of brick. You slice the brick put them in between two plates; one is the hot plate
other is the cold plate there are standards for setting these temperature dimensions and
proportions, so from one side the hotter side to the colder side heat transfer happens and how
much amount of heat is getting transferred through this slice of brick is measured as its
conductivity or the k value as I said it is expressed in watt per meter Kelvin.

In hot box apparatus you can test larger material wall (Refer Time: 12:04). There are two
chambers; one chamber is a hot chamber another is a cold chamber. So, from one chamber to
the other chamber heat transfer happens. Hot box apparatus gives you more realistic estimates
of heat transfer compare to hot plate, because it is more an idealistic condition. But, it is easy
to test materials for say example you want to know what is the conductivity of a thin glass
sheet or conductivity of a aerated concrete block then you can simply put it in a hot plate
apparatus test, it you will know what is the conductive heat flow or the conductivity

The next parameter which is important is the conductance. Here, this is the heat flow through
a material for a stated thickness. Now we are starting to include the cross sectional thickness
of the particular material. So here this is like conductivity k by x is a unit thickness, so the
unit is watt per meter square Kelvin.

So, this is where when example when somebody says conductance of a material, the first
thing you should asking them is for what thickness. Conductance for a 100 mm thick brick
wall 110 mm thick brick wall would be different from at 220 or 230 mm thick brick wall,
because conductance is a includes a factor of thickness here. As the material gets thicker and
thicker the conductance value is going to come down, because thickness is your denominator.
Thermal resistance countries like US they do not refer to conductivity and conductance or the
transmittance value rather they talk about r value or the resistance value it is the inverse of
conductance.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:46)

Actually this plot though I have plotted in x axis you have density of different material, these
are common construction material. It starts from very low density material like glass wool
insulation material and it goes as highest 25 100 thick dense concrete kind of material. I have
taken different density material which are commonly used for building envelop it can be solid
opaque, structural material versus insulation material from one end to the other end, here you
have a thermal conductivity watt per meter Kelvin conductivity not conductance.

There is a strong relation between density of a material and conductivity of a material. As a

density increases there is a proportional increase in conductivity. I would not say density is
only factor determining thermal conductivity, there are other properties and it is but directly
proportionate. In the most of the cases that is most of the materials there can be differences
that is what I actually you see it is not like a linear relation it is a exponential relation, but
typically as the density increases for most of the construction material used in building
envelop the thermal conductivity is going to go up.

The next important parameter of the most commonly used parameter term is the U value. U
value typically is referred as thermal transmittance, but more technically more precisely it is
air to air thermal transmittance. So, you have a wall surface, if you carefully look at the cross
section what are all the cross sections through which cross sectional elements through which

173
is going to get transferred the most common thing you know take a brick wall 210 among
thick brick wall with 10 mm plaster around both sides. Totally it makes it 230 mm thick.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:30)

Now if you draw a cross section is going to look like this. You have a layer of pasture, then
you have the brick layer, then you have the internal plaster. So, there is conductivity value for
this, there is a connectivity value for this, and there is a connectivity value for this. Converse
you have the thermal resistance. And the reverse you have a thermal resistance. But apart
from this there are two other parameters which are here h not and h i if you say this is outside
and this is inside. Then you have a thin layer of air fill which adores to this particular surface,
both outside surface as well as inside surface.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:23)

Actually, the resistance of this particular film has a quite a significant impact on the total
conductive heat transfer from outside to inside. This particular film coefficient also primarily
depends on the surface characteristics of the wall as well as the environmental condition. We
look at it more in detail. But, now to quickly understand there is k 1 which on the reverse if
you include the thickness say now it is 10 mm, this is 210 mm and this is another 10 mm, this
is out this is in.

Together this gets you 230 mm brick wall, but apart from this you have a film coefficient out
and film coefficient in. This exactly is what we are trying to look at. First we were trying to
sum the r values that are the thermal resistance on total. Then we are taking a one by thermal
resistance one by the sum of thermal resistance which becomes your U value or air to air
thermal transmittance that is why we say now this is outside air to inside air that is overall air
to air thermal transmittance is what is referred as U value.

The unit per U values watts per meter square Kelvin say must conductance take a close look
at air films; you have an outdoor air film, you have an indoor air film it is determine by the
surface characteristics as well as environmental condition. There are lot of reference table is
as per as formulas to calculate lot of reference table is as full as formulas to calculate lot of
people are conducting detail research in this field, but for a simple understanding of the

175
subject there is a significant amount of variation in this film conductance outside as well as
inside, for a rough surface versus a smooth surface, for a reflective surface or a emissive
surface versus a less emissive surface.

It also depends on what is the relative humidity outside; it also depends on, how much air
velocity, how much velocity of air is impinging in this particular surface. Their film
coefficient is going to be different when it is windy versus when it is a stale air (Refer Time:
18:22). There is a considerable amount of difference here.

Another important factor we have to understand; though for simple building calculations are
even some of the simulations we typically take a constant U value for a particular wall. Say
the take the same case of 230 mm brick wall we often take U value something between 2.1 to
2.3 watts per meter square Kelvin. And this is a single value which is used for calculation
through the year, but what happens with respect to the surface finished, with respect to the
change in ambient temperature, ambient humidity, and ambient air velocity.

Then one needs to understand that the U value is not constant, but is it dynamic although the
year. It varies from hour to hour, it varies from day to days season to season, but for total
building calculations are load calculation say heating cooling load the impact of this film
coefficient on the changing U value because of these ambient as well as surface
characteristics is say about 4 to 5 percent; are still it is being research roughly about 4 to 5
percent which is not a heavy impact compare to the other contributors. For example, I want to
introduce c insulation here the effect of this versus the effect of insulation is considerably
different. Insulation has very high impact compare to the change in film coefficient.

So, often it is ignored, but still as a scientific number this has good amount of significance in
the calculation of U value.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:01)

Then about convection, we often know, we always talk about air velocity and how it
improves comfort. Convective heat transfer you have a simple formula again,

Ph =h× A ×(T 2 −T 1 )

Where
Ph:Heat flow; h: heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K); A: Area and T2 -T1: temperature
difference

177
(Refer Slide Time: 20:24)

Two types of convections are there; free convection, when the transfer of heat occurs or the
moment of flow of gas are liquid occurs because of density and temperature difference the
other is forced convection, where you have a mechanical system or a pump which is forcing
the convective heat exchange. This is typically happening in air conditioning system where
you have a mechanical system where you have a mechanical system forcing the heat transfer
or forcing the flow of fluid on subsequently the heat transfer. This for example can be
referred to the stack effect where the hot air raises up on the cold air settles down. This is a
natural phenomena because of density and temperature difference of the air.

The convection efficiency depends on the speed of fluid movement. Simple example the
more breezy the air you get more comfortable pretty fast compared to stale layer. Say you
have an air velocity of 0.5 meter per second versus air velocity of 1.5 meter per second, so
the comfort level considerably improves.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:32)

The next mode of heat transfer is a radiate heat transfer, it is electromagnetic waves through
which the heat is getting transferred it does not need a medium. Typically we know we get
direct solar radiation it passes through the space without any medium. Thermal radiation is an
electromagnet wave which includes light, some of the radiations we are able to see we call
visible spectrum. We have ultra violet we have infrared short wave or long wave infrared and
the thermal radiation varies with a respect to that temperature of the emitting surface, the
higher the temperature of the object the more thermal radiation and it gives off.

As the temperature rises the thermal radiation produces more short wave length radiation. For
example, typically the 1000 degree centigrade the color of light will be yellow orange and it
would to turn white as the emitting surface increases in temperature. You should remember
the heat transfer depends on the temperature of the emitting surface and the surface area
which is receiving it. There are two types as we said, we are interested as per building
applications; it is short wave of infrared and long wave infrared. Ultra violet the ozone layer
is more or less observing the ultra violet radiation. As per buildings infrared is important,
short wave as well as long wave radiations are important. The direct solar radiation which is
impinging in a surface is short wave radiation a buildings surface observe it. And then while
storing after storing it start reemitting it.

179
Once the reemit; the reemit in the form of long wave radiation, this is typically we refer in the
form of glass houses are the green house effect in buildings. So, you have a glazed window,
the glasses transparent in to short wave radiation it let us in short wave radiation. The internal
surfaces get heated up and they reemit long wave radiation. Now the glasses more insulating
towards long wave radiation, it does not allow the long wave radiation to go out. Because of
this reason the indoor environments get heated up, this long wave radiations are trapped
inside the room. Because of this you have warmer or hotter indoor environment.

So, typically use of glass is not or else simple glass without treatment non treated glasses are
not advisable in the hotter region is mainly because they trap the reemitted long wave
radiation.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:59)

Radiate heat transfer can be calculated, you need a Stefan Boltzmann constant then the
surface area and the absolute temperature of the emitting surface.

4
P=s × A ×T

Where
P:Heat flow; h: Steffan-Boltzman constant; A: Area and T: absolute temperature

180
(Refer Slide Time: 24:00)

We have two important terms here; one is the absorption other is the emission. You know
often you get to see a term called absorptivity, it is expressed as or alpha commonly people
say the absorptivity of the material or if you want to calculate or you want to simulate there is
always of parameter or a space where you need to enter the absorptivity of the material. And
there is also another term emissivity; you commonly hear term emissivity, low emissive
glasses (Refer Time: 24:30) glasses.

This is an emissive property; these are the two properties which determined the radiant
exchange of a surface with its environment. It depends on the wave length of the radiation as
well. Say you know white roof versus grey roof or a painted surface versus unpainted surface,
a black color painted surface versus a white painted surface, a matt finished surface versus a
reflective surface.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:57)

So, absorptivity is the main factor which determines the temperature response in the short
wave radiation, and it is dependent largely on the color. This is where we talk about a white
painted surface versus a dark color painted surface. We say it as a absorb lot of solar
radiation.

The next important properties is emissivity, is determines the long wave or the thermal
radiation exchange. So, that is where the effect of low emissive or (Refer Time: 25:19)
coatings come into application.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:24)

Let us take a look at quick a small experiment that we can imagine. Let us you know I have
termed it an emission experiment, imagine there are 4 containers; one is the shiny metal
container it can be like an aluminum or a (Refer Time: 25:37) shiny metal container. Then
this is a dull metal container, it is not shiny. Third is a dull black container and the forth is a
shiny black container. Imagine you are filling warm water similar temperature water in all
these 4 containers, say take a 10 to 15 minutes times.

Now which of these surface which of these containers will still have slightly warmer water
and which will have cooler water? If we able to understand this in a small scale then we will
be able to have a better clarity and what happens in the buildings.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:22)

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The shiny metal container would have the warmest water after 10 minutes comparatively
among the 4 containers, because the shiny surface reflects like the heat radiation back into the
containers, so not much of heat loss happens. Whereas, the dull black container would be the
coolest because it is based in emitting heat radiation. We have the black body radiator. So, it
emits the lot of heat in that reason for that reason this shiny metal contain, water in this
container retains more heat compared to the other one.

Similarly, you keep in the same part that is the same vessel you have warm water, but you are
placing it equidistant from a heater. Say it is a radiant heater you are placing these container
next to a heater at similar distances. Now, which will have warmest water after 10 minutes?

184
(Refer Slide Time: 27:07)

Now it is an other way round the dull black container would be the warmest, because it is
also absorption you know it is a black body observer. It observes of radiant heat because of
this the water gets warmer or at least it is able to maintain its temperature. Whereas the shiny
container would be the coolest because it reflects most part of the heat it is poorest in
absorbing heat radiation. The similar phenomena happen in a large scale in actual buildings.

Typically, connecting whatever we have studied so far conductive, convective and radiative
mechanism.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:05)

What happens through the wall simple conduction phenomena that will looked at first it can
happened through wall, it can happen through window, it can happen through roof or through
the ground there can be conduction. Then the next thing is convection, where it can happen
through open window or it can happen through mechanical system or it can happen through
cracks in the doors and windows.

The third is radiation, the ambient is hotter that is a lot of short wave radiation is going to
enter through the glass or glaze surfaces. Then indoor is getting heated up find a green house
effect. Alternately the wall is also getting exposed to direct solar radiation it gets heated up
and then you will find the wall reemitting in to the inside. This is also part of radiative heat
transfer. Similarly, the opposite phenomena happen in winter.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:54)

Now looking at the types of thermal insulation, so the whole interest for us in studding these
heat transfer in building envelop is to provide a better thermal envelop which can resist heat
during summers and it can enhance heat transfer through during winter. It can gain more heat
in winter and it can resist more heat during summer. The most common type of thermal
insulation which is used or which is often refered one and half in the field is a resistive
insulation.

So, you have a always a companies selling products, they say this product has very low U
value or the resistance value pretty high, r value of this much. We often talk about resistive
insulation, here the primary mode of heat transfer which it attacks the conductive heat
transfer. So, this is the first thing because of the thermal resistance there is inertia in heat
transfer, so this particular wall has a U value. Now I am going to insulate this wall, then the
conductive transfer is going to minimize. So, this is the type of resistive insulation.

The second type of insulation is reflective insulation. Imagine you have a reflective coating
here which is going to reflect back the direct solar radiation. In this case the mode of the first
shield you know becomes the first shield, alternately you have a wall, you have the second
wall it is a double layer wall. Simple what happens now you have a air film you have a air
film there is a third thing here. So, this is layer 1, layer 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. So, the heat

187
transfers through seven different layers. Now let us introduce a thermal insulation here, this
becomes resistive insulation. Next thing is for example, if I am painting this surface with the
reflective coating. So, if I am able to say this particular membrane is going to be a reflective
coat, I am introducing reflective thermal insulation.

The third or most rarely used insulation type is a capacitive insulation traditional.
Architecture India especially has been relying on capacitive insulation. You see materials like
you know granite, thick walls, massive (Refer Time: 31:13) walls being used in buildings.
They were kind of capacitive insulation; they were taking advantage of the materials thermal
capacity and its density in storing heat. They were using massive walls because the wall get
heated up it stores a lot heat inside before transmitting it to indoor and evenings when the
diurnal you know the range there were diurnal heat range is much larger temperature range,
the night time temperature is pretty low. Before it gets transferred inside it is re-radiator
outside.

So, this particular capacitive insulation was valuably used in our traditional architecture. But
modern architecture we mostly rely and resistive insulation, you have some insulation
material you can put it inside the wall outsider and center of the wall. Some cases reflective
insulation is starting to the use now this is also effective, but capacity insulation say when
you use a material like concrete. Typically people look at concrete as not so useful material
because they think U value was of concrete is high. Say imagine concrete wall of 200 mm
thick are 230 mm thick brick 230 mm has a U value of 2.1 watts per meter square Kelvin,
whereas similar thickness 230 mm concrete wall whatever U value of around 3.5 or 3.6 watts
per meter square Kelvin.

So, naturally if you do conductive heat transfer calculation, concrete wall will give you more
heat load or cooling load because it is transmitting lot of heat inside. But what one needs to
realize there is a lot of difference between the insulated wall say for example, imagine you
have a gypsum wall which is a thin sheet plus glass wool insulation 50 mm you can manage
the U value of something close to 1 or 1.2 watts per meter square Kelvin. Compare this is was
the concrete wall 230 mm which has U value of 3.5. Now I am talking about two different
things; first is a gypsum wall, one is a gypsum panel and then you have insulation imagine
the U value is 1.2 watts per meter square Kelvin. Then I have a concrete wall, this will be

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about 65 mm, the concrete wall is to 200 mm, here the U value is 3.5 watts per meter square
Kelvin.

Now, this U value is more or less three times of the gypsum wall. Advantage is if you
calculate conductive heat transfer this is really advantage. If it is air condition, if it is (Refer
Time: 33:55) the whole thing works really in a good way. But if you talking about a naturally
ventilated space what happens a part from this conductive mode there is also a capacitive
insulation or the thermal capacity of this particular wall is high compare to when insulated
gypsum wall panel. In this sense this particular material or any massive material is able to
store a lot of heat one then reemitted back to the outside compare to what a thin insulated
wall can do.

So, the third mode of heat transfer or a capacity mode of heat transfer is really valuable. This
is exactly what we were doing in our traditional building. We are going to look at these types
more in detail along with some indices which are really use for us.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:50)

Before going into the next section one important thing we should understand while we discus
about heat transfer through building envelop is a concept of sol-air temperature. We did
discuss about sol-air temperature in one of the previous module, this is a very valuable

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indicator. When we talk about delta T, you know what happens to the temperature here
outside temperature outside versus temperature inside we were talking about T o and T i, but
what is more important is what happens on the surface, what happens in this particular
surface, what is a surface outside temperature and what is a Tsi, what is the inside surface
temperature.

These two parameters are crucially important. The ambient temperature say in summers in a
hot drive climate may go up to 45 degree centigrade. But what happens there is a concept
calls sol-air temperature where you have to add the effect of ambient air temperature along
with the incident solar radiation which is following in a surface. Naturally when sun falls the
solar radiation short wave radiation falls in a surface it also enough through radiative heat
gain it also increases the surface temperature.

So, the surface gets pretty hot, when ambient temperature is 45 degrees on a say typically a
grey or white colors surfaced all even the surface temperature in a east or south facing wall
during summer is bound to go up has highest 55 to 58 degree centigrade. It considerably
varies based on the surface property as well as the solar irradiance and third is the heat
transfer coefficients. This particular equation is really important. There is a factor of outside
air temperature T out plus you have absorptivity of the surface.

So, here is where you a white color surface versus reflect you know that dark color surface.
Then the global solar irradiance watts per meter square, the amount of solar radiation; as the
amount of solar radiation goes up the sol-air temperature is going to go up. At dark color
surface then the sol-air temperature is going to go up. The light color surface the absorptivity
is less, so the sol-air temperature is going to come down. Then you have heat transfer
coefficient for radiation and convection on the outside surface. So, as this going to increase
sol-air temperature is going to come down. This has a slight effect marginally lower effect.
This is a particularly important thing we are going to look at this further more in the next
modules.

One quick information I wanted to give you as the sol-air temperature increases the
discomfort hours, we talked about degree discomfort hours; the discomfort hours drastically
goes up even with the different U value, the U value can be lower or higher but as the sol-air

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temperature increases that is the surface temperature here is going to up that is delta T is
increasing the discomfort is going to considerably increase.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:36)

Looking back at what we were seeing in the first slide; imagine a material with a high
thermal transmittance and low thermal transmittance the heat built up considerably varies
because of which the heat transmitted indoor varies along with that the time taken for heat
transfer also varies. We look at this further more in detail.

This is how connective heat transfer happens, the same wall with the closed window, the
same wall with open window. How much amount of heat is gained or lost because of cross
ventilation. This is about radiative heat transfer. The time taken for radiative heat transfer also
considerably varies; there is sol-air temperature. Apart from this; this is going reemit into the
building and then it is going to absorb and reemit it outside the building. So, three modes of
heat transfer and how it is used in buildings.

To quickly wrap up we looked at the fundamentals of heat transfer through building envelop
and we looked at few applied examples for a better understanding of heat transfer.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

In the previous session, we looked at Thermal Performance of Building Envelopes. That was
a section one where, we started with different modes of heat transfer. The principles and
basics we looked at and some of the building application examples that I was showing you.

In this particular module we will look at the Indices and Measures that we primarily use to
assess thermal performance of building envelope. We will look at specific types of insulation
and how to assess it is performance. We will primarily focus on the Indian standards and
codes and how we assess it using our national building code. I will also show you some
applied examples. So, to get a quick recap we looked at 3 types of insulation.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:04

First was the resistive insulation, the common index which we uses is U-value or thermal
transmittance. Then are the r value of course, then we have a second type of insulation which
is a reflective insulation and the third type which is capacitive insulation which goes on with
the thermal capacity of a particular building envelope.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:28)

So, we looked at this picture, we are talking about the intensities and the pattern of heat gains
and losses through a particular wall. So, this is a wall cross section again, this wall has a high
thermal transmittance or highly conducting wall. This is a low thermal transmittance or
probably an insulated wall, more closely an insulated wall. So, here we looked at what rate
the heat gain happens during the day time; this is a 48 hour that is 2 day cycle, where the heat
gain happens and then how it is transmitted indoor and then how it is reabsorbed and
retransmitted outside.

So few important things that we need to further note in order to evaluate the thermal
performance this is again a conductive heat flow, I showed you 2 other images, you know
which correspond to convective as well as radiative heat flow. This particular thing, where 2
things are important; one is a magnitude where the bars indicate the magnitude, the next
important thing is the time which takes for the wall to conduct it inside.

So, between the ambient peak of the peak heat gain verses the indoor peak are to what extent
a heat gain happens indoor. This considerably varies from one wall section to the other wall
section. It varies based on the orientation, it varies based on the material properties, and it
varies based on the ambient as well as indoor conditions.

So, we will look little more in detail about these things in the current module. So, how do we
assess the effectiveness of thermal performance? So, you know as a designer we need to
choose materials we need to choose wall system and we have to also ensure these materials or

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the systems or components are performing well. So, the common way people use is certain
indicators or numbers. So, you are going to buy a product, you are going to buy a material
thermal insulation material or a wall system or a window component. You know the company
would be showing you a booklet, a technical data sheet, which as lot of number, how do we
understand which number is essential, which is less essential, which we have to look at and
which is more representative or indicative.

So, we will get little more understanding develop little more understanding on this side. So,
the thermal efficiency of a building envelope can be looked at in 3 levels. The first is the
element level, second is a component level and third is an assembly level. So, when I say
element level it starts from basically the micro structure it does like a inherent property of the
material. At the component level say for example, what is a performance of thermal
efficiency of a brick or a brick wall or a particular block, you know aerated concrete block for
an insulated system. Then the third level is the assembly level. So, when I have a whole
system when I have the whole wall then the thermal efficiency can be looked at.

What are the merits and demerits we will look more closer today.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:26)

Apart from this there are other things there is a hygro-thermal efficiency of overall building
enclosure. When I say hygro-thermal it is thermal as well as moisture, more or less both of
these are very closely related to each other. When, I say moisture what happens when the
wall system or a particular material gets wet. You know pores within the material absorb

194
water they get little more dense than their regular. Say material soaked in water is slightly
higher in density than dry material. Then the type of heat transfer happening through that
particular medium considerably varies.

Apart from this though we do not look more in detail about the moisture related things or
problems in most part of the India it is a specific importance in places where it is more moist
as well as colder climates. For example, much of the countries in close to the polar region,
say lot of European countries, Canadian Northern parts of US, moisture is a major problems
they look at moisture movement hygric movement across the wall sections more critically. It
is as critical as the thermal itself. For 2 reasons; one is the type of material they use by itself,
there is a lot of wooden construction, light weight construction, happening. And number 2
there is snow outside; it freezes out so the internal areas the spaces are heated. So, the kind of
moisture transfer is very crucial there.

Another important thing is air tightness of building enclosure this applies to a tightly sealed
and condition buildings. Lot of people have presented, if you search online surf online you
will find images on thermal imaging. If you take a close look at it there is a lot of heat loss
which happens through the improperly sealed windows or wall junctions. When the joints and
seals are not proper there is a lot of air movement seepage outside. On the other hand, it is
infiltration heat gain inside which considerably increases both the heating and cooling load.
As far this module is concerned we will primarily focus on the thermal efficiency at 3 levels.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:36)

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First when I said element level or next the component level, this is the cross section of a
frame we did a thermal analysis of the frame, how heat moves through a frame? This is a
transom or mullion it can be anything in this case this is a transom where this is a glass, this
is a total frame surface outside versus inside, the mode of heat transfer from one end to the
other end it is get heated up and eventually the heat builds up and then it moves on to the
other.

This can be a wall surface where you can assess 1 dimensional, 2 dimensional or 3
dimensional heat transfers. Primarily we will talk about 1 and 2 dimensional heat transfer in
terms of elemental performance. How one surface is heated up and eventually it passes on the
heat or it flows to the other side in course of time. Most of the element level performance
deal with the static level factors.

Next is the component level performance. What happens when you have a glazing assembly?
The next thing is when you have 2 glasses put together or the whole thickness say there is a
glass layer there is air layer and then there is a next level of glass, so what happens with this
performance? We will look at as a component.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:58)

So, element level properties primarily give an idea about the thermal resistance to the heat
flowing from one side to the other. Simple example, common example is the thermal
conductivity; it is a material level property, it gives you the indicative idea about whether the
material is resistive to the heat flow or not.

196
Next is the component level property. It gives you slightly much better idea about or more
precise idea about the thermal performance of the component. Say an example can be thermal
transmittance, when I say thermal transmittance or thermal conductance, resistance, we talk
about material in it is thickness. Say thermal transmittance of a 230 mm brick wall, thermal
transmittance of a 200 mm thick solid concrete wall. So, these kinds of things will give you
slightly better idea than the element level performance about the heat flow.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:08)

The next level is the assembly level properties. For example, you have a window, frame, and
wall assembly. What happens to the overall performance of this wall system? In this set this
is more critical and this gives you a very clear picture about 3 types of heat transfer. It gives
you an idea about the resistive properties of the whole system, it gives you reflective
properties of the whole assembly and then it gives you the capacitive or the heat storing
capacity of the whole assembly. Examples can be the whole wall thermal transmittance.

I am introducing two new terms; time lag and decrement factor. We will look at these two
terms more in detail, but to have a clear understanding we should get much closer to the
assembly level properties. But to take a practical note of what we actually get primarily we
get inputs regarding the component level properties as well as element level properties.
Element level properties are more easy to test their static tests done in laboratories. People
conduct you know thermal conductivity test hotplate apparatus, I was talking about. You

197
have hot and cold sheet you pass on heat and find out how insulative or resistive the material
is.

This tests are commonly done you buy any material thermal conductivity values are
spontaneously given. The next property which is more commonly available in field is a
component level property, where people can estimate it or compute it as well it involves 2 3
or 3, 1 2 or 3 dimensional heat transfers something are measured, but most of it is computed.
For example, a particular seller may give you a component level property of an insulated wall
system. He will say my wall system has 100 mm thick block work plus 50 mm thick
insulation or 100 mm thick insulation, the overall component level U-value or thermal
transmittance such and such.

So, this particular property might have been measured or he would have measured individual
properties and computed it. So, component level properties are also increasingly available at
least for more of the products used in building envelope. But what is less available is the
whole assembly level property which is more or less computed. And the moment you start
computing them there is a lot of uncertainty which happens in this values.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:04)

We look at why they are happening and what actually the differences are; before that
National Building Code of India; NBC prescribes some of these things in detail. It has
recommendations for U-value that is thermal transmittance. It tells you which climate zone
you are, with respect to that what is a recommended U-value? What is a maximum u value

198
you can go for? Your wall or any system that you use should have values less than what NBC
is prescribing.

The next important thing it talks about is something called thermal damping. We will define
and look at some examples more closely. Thermal damping depends on outdoor as well as
indoor temperatures. The next property is thermal performance index; TPI it is based on Ts or
the surface temperature, inside surface temperature of walls are taken into account when
thermal performance index is calculated. Next is thermal time constant; TTC, it is also a
material property we look more in detail about this. Then the last thing is building index it is
a overall heat gain through the enclosure whichever wall window fenestration area is
exposed, you calculate the heat gains and cumulate them call it building index.

So, we will take a look at capacitive isolation. So, we looked at resistance isolation and
reflective isolation, before getting into what these indexes is mean. First let us take closer
look at what happens with the capacitive isolation. As I said we have been traditionally using
this type of isolation much commonly most of our old buildings, especially palaces bigger
you know occupying the residential places, even had adobe walls you are you know thick
granite slabs they had a high thermal capacity. What is a thermal capacity all about?

It refers to the material which can store thermal energy and then for an extended period of
course, and then give it back outside, release it outside. So, what happens is a consequence.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:07)

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It can absorbs a lot of daytime heat, it can be due to temperature as well as solar radiation, it
absorbs and then it release or re release it during the night time to the ambient itself rather
than passing it on inside. It is by virtue of the materials density, specific heat capacity as well
as the thickness of the whole system. As a consequence it reduces the daytime cooling load as
well as it reduces the night time heating load.

So, here one thing we have to understand, imagine this is a case with hard and dry climates
the ambient temperature may go as highest say 45 or 46 degree and the night time
temperatures drops to 25 degrees. One thing we need to understand as an effect of thermal
capacity this is an outside temperature as I said, this is a inside temperature. So, this much
amount of thermal energy is dampened, this is absorbed and the inside temperature fluctuates
here. So, you are saved this much amount of cooling energy rather than cooling they are from
45 degrees to 24 degrees effectively you are only cooling it from this particular temperature;
say it may be around 30 degrees or 32 degrees.

Then other side of it, what happens when the ambient temperature drops well below the
inside is also kept more or less warm, so the inside temperature fluctuation is much lesser.
Always we look at time lag, the major parameter that we look at based on capacity isolation
is how much time it takes for the maximum to occur compare to the outside maximum. So, if
this is outside maximum, this is a inside maximum, this for example happens at 2 o’clock in
the afternoon, this is a ambient maximum on a particular surfaces.

Remember this is a sol temperature which is a cumulate value including air temperature it
includes the absorptive of the wall surface and it includes the solar radiation. This is a solar
temperature maximum and this is inside wall surface temperature. So, the outside surface
temperature versus the inside surface temperature; say around 1 and half to 2 hours are as the
thermal capacity increases say thick adobe wall it can go as far as 4 to 5 hours in terms of
thermal lag. There are wall systems which are even more you know which have a larger
thermal lag also.

But the other side of it we should not be missing what happens the same effect happens in the
night time also. It may be advantages in some cases; it may be disadvantages in some cases.
As I said imagine this is 45 degrees this is coming down to 35 degrees, instead of rising up to
45 there is a 10 degree reduction in the daytime maxima. So, this is now 35 degrees. The

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minimum temperature drops to say 25 degrees, so the diurnal variation is somewhere around
20 degrees. The inside here drops say 30 degrees.

So, what happens when you are comfort are the prefer temperature we were looking at
thermal comfort in the previous sessions; our comfort and prefer temperature somewhere lie
between near 26, 29 degrees depends on season, age, gender, etc. So, imagine it is
somewhere around 26, 28 degrees. Daytime you are saved it is getting as close to 35 degrees.
Further you can enhance it with air movement or you can have some passive as well as active
cooling, so here you are saving energy and you are being comfortable, but night time it is also
not dissipating the heat it is still holding this much amount of heat; so the temperatures are
higher.

This particular place traditionally what people did they were coupling it with night
ventilation. So, they use to open the windows, they use to ventilate the houses so that the
indoor temperature gets as close as possible to the ambient temperature. So, in this case the
night time performance will not be as cyclic as this, but it will get closer to the ambient
temperature.

So, primarily when you have to learn about capacitive insulation the first thing we look at it
the time lag and the second important thing is the amplitude reduction.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:09)

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As I said time lag this is an ambient variation from minimum to maximum and the indoor
there is a reduction in amplitude as well as the difference in time. This is recorded in terms of
time lag and the amplitude reduction. So, we have lot of traditional examples, I have put this
Egyptian storage areas, but we do not have to go all the far to Egypt; we had a lot of
individual example starting from poor man’s mud house to palatial spaces where thermal
mass are the capacitive insulation as been all the more effectively implied.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:47)

Some measurements that we took; there are two types of wall systems, we are not getting into
what wall they are, but typically the grey line represents a wall system and the red represents
another wall system. Recording for two days again like last time it goes from 0 and 1 day,
sorry this is 3 days this is the first day second day and third day; we will look at the second
day’s data more closely.

So, what happens? This dark thick line this represents the outside surfaces temperature, it
goes as highest 47 degrees, and this is inside surfaces temperature claims up to 43 degrees.
And this are test measurements so we do not have to worry about what intensity actually they
are it may go up or it may be lesser than this. In this case it went up to 47 degrees inside is
43, so the difference what we see here is 3 and half degrees. This is like a thin wall system.

Then again we take a 110 mm thin brick wall system. In this case sorry this is a 230 mm thick
you know slightly thicker sections, where the ambient temperature maxima are the outside
surface temperature sol air temperature went up to 49 degrees, and the inside amplitude was

202
41 close to 41. So, there was more or less an 8 degree reduction in the maximum temperature,
this is a peak temperature.

Apart from this, what we need to know? On the other side of this we also notice a similar
difference. So, the ambient temperatures this was night ventilated, so the ambient temperature
goes as close to where one 35 degrees, 34 and half degrees precisely, but the indoor
temperature also gets closer it is around 35 and half 35 and half degrees here. But in this case
the ambient temperature surfaces temperature drops to 34, whereas the inside surfaces
temperature is 36, there is a 2 degrees temperature difference. So, there is a reduction in
amplitude. If you take the time lag calculation or the reduction in amplitude calculation first
there is a considerable difference between what happens in the daytime and what happens in
the night time.

Another important thing here is the time difference. So, if you look at what is the shift; that is
a phase shift, this is a maximum peak temperature occurring at somewhere around 16 - 30 or
17, then for the inside peak to happen I am talking about this grey line here it happens 2 hours
after the outside surface peak has occurred.

On the other hand, here it is more than 3 hours, similar thing happens in the night time also.
So, what we need to understand. This wall system one heats up faster which is not really
good so we have to do something. But in the process of doing something say you want to
increase the thickness, you want to change the material insulate, in this process we should
also not forget by doing that the heat loss or the dissipation also increases.

Imagine this is a living room or an office space, which is occupied from 9 o’clock in the
morning 6 o’clock it is closed air conditioner is running so at case insulating or increasing the
thickness or doing some material change might be beneficial in this case. Whereas for
residential buildings mainly you where you would get into the room to sleep say around 9
o’clock you turn on air conditioner you go to bed at 10 o’clock. Then if you still have a
longer time lag you know your heat is not getting dissipated much faster as you increase the
thickness insulate, it more this is going to go up instead of two it becomes 3 it may become 5
in that case the wall will still be holding lot of heat and getting back to the interiors, in that
sense this is going to consume slightly more energy compare to the other wall system.

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Here another important thing that we need to understand; we have to always look at time lag
and decrement factor more closely with respect to each other. This is not independent; it is
the phase shift as well as the amplitude shift which is important here.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:51)

It is not just the factor of wall system itself, here it is also assist varying based on the type of
insulation where you put the insulation. If you have internal insulation the time lag and
decrement factor considerably varies. If you have an external insulation it considerably
varies. Now for the moment omit the grey lines, again the grey line is an uninsulated wall
system. The one you see here this line this is outside insulation this is external insulation
outside versus inside temperature the orange one is inside or internal insulation outside versus
inside surfaces temperature.

So, what we see closely here, when the wall as an external insulation the sol air temperature
outside goes really high, but the inside surface temperature is damped, it is more or less flat.
Whereas, in the case of internal insulation the solar temperature is slightly lesser, whereas the
internal temperature also fluctuates little bit more. This graph and the previous one, one
crucial thing we should not forget the effect of ventilation. Your windows and the ventilation
efficiency really play crucial role in determining how effective your insulation or the
capacitive insulation precisely functions.

In this case, the indoor temperature is more or less damped and it is flat revolving around 34
and half degrees and 35 degrees, it goes to 35 and half in the third day. So, in this case if you

204
consider around 35 as an average indoor temperature, even in the night time the temperature
are going to be much higher. You will set your air conditioner probably at 22 or 23 degrees.
So, you will have to still be cooling it down much more than what you will do for an
uninsulated wall system. Sometimes that would perform much better than insulated wall
system especially in the night time.

So keeping this in mind, if you ventilate your building properly, if your windows are so
oriented and if you are ventilation effectiveness is much higher than you can have benefit of
this insulation system during daytime. And ventilation will play it is role convective cooling
will happen during evenings and the night time, before turning on the air conditioner. More
details about the amplitude reduction and the time reduction.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:15)

Apart from insulation another important factor which affects this time lag and decrement
factor could be your shading especially the presence or absence of balconies. They not only
affect the magnitude, say here this is without balcony this is with balcony, you know
magnitude of solar temperature the peak sol air temperature reduces which affects the indoor
surfaces temperature. Apart from this it also in facts here ventilation efficiency, the time lag
and the amplitude reduction is considerable here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:34)

Now I am going introduce you to an important factor which is called Decrement Factor. So,
far we have been talking about time lag straight forward, so you have outside peak and the
time associated. And the inside peak and the time associated. Next thing I was talking about
is a amplitude reduction, we saw 3 degree reduction, 8 degree reduction, 14 degree reduction
in some cases. Now how do you quantify this number? There is an indicator called decrement
factor which is very simple

T i−max −T i −min
D ecremental factor =
T o−max −T o−min

Where
Ti-min: indoor minimum temperature, Ti-max: indoor maximum temperature, To-max: outoor minimum
temperature and To-min: outdoor minimum temperature

So, if you take this ratio you get a number between 0 and 1 which gives you the decrement
factor. As far national code or national building code is concerned we refer to a 1 minus
factor that is thermal damping which is almost the same it is a reverse of it where you have

∆ T o −∆ T i
Thermal Damping= ×100
∆ To

Where
ΔTo: outside temperature range and ΔTi: inside temperature range

206
This actually takes into account the varying amplitude. This is not surface temperature based,
but this is the ambient air temperature and the indoor air temperature based.

So, what happens here? You take the outside peak say 45 degrees maximum 25 degrees is
minimum, so you have a delta T of 20. Inside you have a delta T similarly 10 degrees for
examples. Say it is fluctuating somewhere between say 40 degrees to 30 degrees, so you have
a delta T of 10 degrees. If you substitute you will get a thermal damping of about 50
percentages, so it is 50 percent damped. So, our national building code prescribes certain
damping value which has to adhere be minimum damping this is. So, you are to be higher
than what is prescribed in the national code. We will look at the numbers more in detail in the
following sessions.

I will wrap up the sessions at this point. In the following session we will look more in detail
about how this indices impact.

207
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 09
Thermal Performance of Building Envelop – Indices and Measures – 2

In previous session we stopped looking at decrement factor which is the outside surface. Now
inside surface delta Ti max minus Ti min by outside surface delta To max minus To min
which is the number between 0 and 1. Then whatever Indian codes, national building codes
talks about it is about thermal damping it has delta To which is outside air temperature range
it is not surface temperature, it is outside temperature amplitude versus the inside temperature
air temperature dry bulb temperature amplitude.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:08)

So, we said if the ambient temperature diurnal variation is delta T is 20 degrees versus indoor
10 degrees then you will get a thermal damping of above 50 percentages. National building
code tells you how much is the minimum required thermal damping for you know places
where diurnal variations is quite high, then you will need more thermal damping. Whereas,
places where you have less diurnal variations like humid areas coastal areas where the
amplitude of variation diurnal cycle variation about say 6 to 7 degrees or some cases lesser

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than that, where you will need or you will may not need much of thermal damping they may
not be use to you.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:57)

To continue with some examples thermal damping and the time lag also varies with respect to
orientation of the particular room or the space. Say for examples, for a north versus east
versus south exposed wall surfaces the time lag and decrement factor in this case time lag
remain the same, but there can be differences also. The decrement factor considerably varies
because it is a surface temperature value, so the ambient outside surface solar temperature
can go peak at a particular time cycle and it may vary little bit between one side to the other
orientation; one orientation to the other orientation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:17)

It strongly depends on a fenestration area on the compactness of the space. Thermal damping
especially if you look at what you know our national code talks about I have drawn a line
here, because for this particular climate it is hard and dry climate which we did the
assessment the minimum required thermal damping was 60 percentage. It said minimum you
are enveloped should give 60 percentage thermal damping, below which it says it is not
compliant to the national building code.

So, most of the materials that we tested this is a concrete wall 150 mm, brick wall, aerated
concrete, you have a insulated wall, outside versus inside insulation, you have cavity wall
system, you have a solid blocks cement block system. Most of them had thermal damping
which is above the prescribed limit, but please make a note of one thing it is very critically or
strongly dependent upon the fenestration area. So, you take a room at 10 foot by 10 foot or 12
foot by 12 foot room which has very large window surface which is open, then the damping
is going to be really low.

Naturally the convective mechanism sets in and the indoor is more closely connected or
closely correspondence with the ambient temperature cycle. So, in that sense it depends on
the fenestration area number of surfaces exposed and the overall compactness of the space. If
the space is more compactly design you know three sides are enclosed, just one side is

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exposed or partly exposed which is also shaded a small window. Imagine a case of how
traditional buildings were built in hard dry climates or even colder climate. We looked at
some examples. Connecting those examples if you look at these things are compact with very
low fenestration area, they used to have high thermal damping. That is the indoor cycle of
variation was much lesser come back to the compare to the ambient diurnal cycle.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:21)

So it depends on the material, it depends on where you put your insulation and whether you
have insulation or not, thermal damping considerably varies. Apart from this it varies from
month to month day to day, because precisely day to day that is what we have shown in this
box and whisker plot (Refer Time: 04:30). The main value lies somewhere around 85, in this
case 80 it goes as high as 88 then it drops down, but there is also a considerable variation
across. You know it ranges somewhere from 68 to 88 and all the way to height 90.

So, 20 to 25 percent difference can be observed, because it is daily phenomena. What is a

delta T today may not be there tomorrow and the wall has to respond to it or the space rather
has to respond to it. So, thermal damping though national building code draws line at 60 for
this particular climate zone it does not mean it is going to remain a single number all through.
You may have to representative day and then calculate this thermal damping as a number. If it
is above 60 which means it is compliant.

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Before getting into the next thing another important factor that we have to understand here,
thermal damping requirements. Whether all the climate require thermal damping as I said
when the diurnal temperature variation are much lower you may not need thermal damping at
all or another tricky case is the case of composite climates there for the extreme dry spells of
summer where have more or less it is mimicking the hot dry climate diurnal variation are
much high solar radiation is also high, in that case you will require thermal damping.

Again during extreme winter you will require thermal damping. But there are other two spells
where you have the monsoon seasons which is really sultry, the diurnal variations are not that
high as summers and winters you will need more breezy less damped surfaces as well as the
moderate season where you do not need the thermal damping effects in the building. So,
design has to take into account these factors.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:14)

Another term which is commonly in use is the diurnal heat capacity or the DHC. It is also
indicator capacity insulation; I am not getting into the formulas because in during this course
I do not want to put too many equations or numbers here. To develop a fundamental
understanding it is a function of building material density, specific heat, conductivity and
thickness. If you have to calculate the diurnal key capacity of a particular build form or a
space you have to calculate it by talking a sigma or summing of the DHC values of each

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surface which is exposed to the interior air. It is like a representative of a how much thermal
mass is available for heat storage. That is why we are talking each surface expose to the
interior surface, indoor air, for heat gains and losses heat takes into take place.

In this there is a small equation which gives you the required heat capacity. We have been
talking about capacity insulation, so let us also try to understand how much we will require
for a particular location. You are building in a place, so you are building your house in Delhi
where you are building your house in hot dry place like Jaisalmer, then how much amount of
thermal capacity you have to build in into your envelop. So, what capacity should the wall
contain? There is a simple equation, of course this is not physically validate for Indian
contexts it is developed in some other country, but still it gives you a very good or fair
indicator.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:48)

There are follow ups which are available in improved versions for different climatic zones are
also available, but to give you a basic understanding of it this is Q require that is the heat
capacity required is a factor of the outside delta To max that is outside temperature

Q req =2.5× ¿

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Where
T (o)max : outside maximum temperature a: absorptivity and I max : solar intensity

So, what happens when the delta T is high? You are in a hot dry climate in summer the
ambient delta T goes as highest 20 22 degrees. So, when this is high the heat capacity
requires going to be high. Take a coastal region where the delta T is of the order of 6 to 8
degrees relatively the Q is going to come down much considerably because this is a crucial
factor 2.5 into delta T. So, this crucial factor determines how much increase or decrease is
required in terms of your required heat capacity. I have you know substituted this in the case
of Ahmadabad hot and dry climate as per our national building code.

We took one particular day where the ambient temperature delta T was to be found to be 13
degree and the solar radiation Imax was 925 watts per meter square. We have taken a wall
surface which is you know the absorption is 0.3. That it is more or less is white painted
glossy surface which is reflecting enough amount of solar it is only, 30 percent absorptive. In
that case you get a Q required that is solar sorry, the heat capacity required is around 60 watt
per hour meter square degrees centigrade. Imagine solar radiation is going to go up again it
will have some implication on the required heat capacity this will go up as solar radiation
intensity goes up.

What if the wall gets more absorptive? Instead of a white painted surface which is 30 percent
reflective that is 0.3 absorption coefficients inside of this I am substituting say a mat black
surface which is 0.85 or 0.9 absorption. Then as a consequence the Q required is going to go
up. Say dark surface versus light surface, dark surfaces requires became more thermal
capacity whereas a light surface this will come down as a diurnal difference in delta T
increases this will go up and as the intensity of solar radiation increases the required heat
capacity will go up.

As I said this is not a prissily validated equation for Indian contexts, but it is gives us a fair
idea about where thermal capacity or the heat capacity comes to use and to what proportion
we need or we do not need in specific seasons and locations.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:34)

The next factor which national building code talks about is a thermal time constant; TTC.
Simple term it is sigma Q that is a heat gain the total by the thermal transmitters U value. To
get it more in detail this is the surface coefficient which we looked at in the last class sigma
so as many layers are there. For a single homogeneous layer it is just 1, but as many layers
this will be calculated and then totaled out. Where you have other things like thickness so it is
a factor of thickness, it is a factor of conductivity.

Effectively this gives you the thermal conductance value resistance value, so then you also
have the density as well as specific heat into peaks in the pictures. As the density and specific
heat increases your thermal time constant value is going to go up. As the thickness of the wall
increases, thermal time constant is going to go up. As the conductivity of the wall increases,
thermal time constant is going to get down further.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:26)

Take two examples, this is the same wall system thickness is same 150 mm, 150 mm I am
going to introduce a very thin slender insulation system here it is a just a 12 mm thin
insulation sheet. If I am introducing this on the outside surface versus the inside surface the U
value or the thermal transmittance will remain the same. It is coming close to 2.5 or 2.6 watts
per meter per Kelvin. So, this is the restive or conductive heat flow which is accounted in the
U value.

So, you may not know the different between an outside insulation versus the inside
insulation, whereas where will you find the different you will find the difference in terms of
thermal time constant. If it is put in the outside surface you get thermal time constant of 18.4,
whereas if you put it inside you get a thermal time constant of 12.5, 16 I put in brackets
because 16 is what national building code recommends for this location. There is a
considerable variation depending on where you put your insulation. It has an impact on heat
gain and loss where you may not be able to understand it if you look at the U value.

This is where I said there are technical data sheets available, but if you do not have a
fundamental understanding of which number to choose look at and what to choose we will
not be ending up with the right product most of the time. So, apart from U value we also have

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keep a tag of the thermal time constant which is a crucial indicator of the heat transfer
between outside to inside. The next indicator is thermal performance index.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:04)

This equation thermal performance index gives you T in peak that is inside peak surface
temperature. So, if this is a wall surface the peak surface temperature says it may go to 35
degrees minus 30, I will explain what 30 and this 8 means, minus 30 by 8 into 100. This 30
comes from a series of calculation it goes all the way to the next index that is the building
index it is also accounts for the maximum heat gain and it is done for a specific wall system
say brick wall and a standard compliant wall system under room space along with the given
amount of fenestration area.

Then they found 30 degree as the comfort temperature in that range that is the maximum
allowable temperature 30 degrees and 8 because they found that when the wall surface
temperature rises above 8 degree say it can go up to 38 degrees then it will be not causing
you discomfort. So, 38 minus 30 this gives us 8 as a number so this particular thing again
expressed in percentage. Now getting little back to one of the previous module where we
talked about thermal comfort, we talked about radiant asymmetry. We talked about what is
the horizontal radiant asymmetry permitted, that is what is cold wall versus hot wall there
also the IS code that is the recent ISO codes international code as well as ASHRAE they

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specify what does the allowable increase in the surfaces temperature of wall compared to the
air temperature. Say air temperature is the 25 degree up to what to extent the surface
temperature of the wall can go so that the maximum beyond which you will start feeling the
radiant discomfort.

So, this exactly was being talked about in our national code. This was developed somewhere
in the 70’s and 80’s, where you know they have estimated that up to 38 degrees this
component of radiant discomfort will not be much impact full beyond which say when the
wall temperature touches 39-40 degrees then this going to cause more problems. Based on
this there is a limit which is set. They are basically classified the wall system into good, fair,
poor, very poor, and extremely poor. If the thermal performance rating is less than or equal to
75 in this particular context you require 36 degrees peak surface temperature or lesser. The
peak heat gain will be 34 and half you know watts per meter square. This is termed as class a
building are good performing system. This primarily now you will understand since we
talking about the peak inside surface temperature we are you know actually talking about a
particular wall system.

Now, you know to brush up little bit more we talked about element level property, we will
talked about component level property and we also talked about assembly level property.
Here, this thermal performance index more closely talks about the whole wall system or the
assembly level property. When the wall is in place it is plastered it is painted it is put in place
it is not a static indicator, it is a dynamic indicator. The peak surface temperature is obtained
as a part of different sets of phenomena. Finally, the result is ts surface inside peak, so you
substitute this if you are able to get less than 75 it means you are peak heat gain will not go
above 34.5 watts per meter square. Then your wall system the total assembly is deemed to be
performing good.

On the other hand, if the TPI is greater than 225 which mean the inside surface temperature
goes above 48 degree. That means, if you touch the wall surface if you measure the surface
temperature inside it is going to as high as 48 or above which is really not comfortable. As a
consequence you have a very high heat gain more than 103.5 watt per meter square heat gain
will be there which is extremely poor. Imagine a thin metal sheet what will be the inside peak

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surface temperature it may go as high as 50-52 degree, outside of course will be much higher;
gets heated up then it is extremely poor thermal classification.

So, this is developed, apart from this there are correction factor I am not presenting all the
table I will recommend you to read SP 41 that is the hand book of functional efficiency in
buildings special publication 41 of national building code. There they have also cited a set up
correction factors where you can substitute this and find out location specific. Say if you are
climate zone is different or if your wall surface absorptive is different then there is a
correction factor which is given substituting that you will get that actual thermal performance
index. What you need to understand here? Thermal performance index in this case essentially
takes conductive, capacitive as well as reflective insulation in picture.

Since, they are given correction factors for absorptivity it takes the reflective component also.
They have taken inside peak surface temperature which is a factor of here conductive heat
flow as well as it gives you the capacity storage and limiting capacity of the wall. So,
effectively this gives a comprehensive idea about the whole wall assembly.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:23)

Some examples; most of the materials were fair performing material you can take a brick
wall, you can take a aerated concrete, you can take a cement block wall, some insulated wall

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system, most of them are lying somewhere between the band of a fair performing or (Refer
Time: 18:32) class B material further you insulate it or improve upon it you may be able to
get a class A or good performing material. This is for a naturally ventilated building.

In case of air condition building, you have another version of TPI; thermal performance
index. Inside of these peak surface temperature and this temperature numbers here you get
the peak heat gain that is Q and the maximum allowable heat gain so which I am not
presenting here, but there is an alternate version for air condition building where again you
have a classification between good and poor.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:07)

It also varies from orientation to orientation. This we tested for three different orientations,
the same wall performs differently in 3 different orientations. To some up this is what
national building codes give you.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:23)

It gives you standards for exposed wall as well as roof for different climatic conditions. Say
let us take exposed wall first if it is a hot dry or hot humid climate then you have a maximum
U value of a 2.56 so your wall or a system that you choose should have a U value less than
2.56. Now, this is not end of the story.

The next thing is the TPI; thermal performance index maximum of 125 if you recollect it, 125
here means above in this range. So, they say that at least the wall should be a fairly
performing wall. So, 125 gives you a cutoff that is where they have given here TPI maximum
of 125 it should not exceed it then T this is the thermal time constant they have given a 16
this is minimum, so thermal time constant should be higher than this. Here you also get where
to put your insulation and how to place your system, shaded wall versus unshaded walls
orientation everything affects both TPI as well as thermal time constant. Then they also give
you another clause for damping where we saw minimum of 60 percentage this is where they
give for hotter regions they say at least you need 60 percent thermal damping.

Apart from this if it is warm humid zone or a moderated zone there is there is relaxation U
value you can go as high as 2.9. You can also have higher TPI value; thermal performance
index can be 175. Thermal time constant is retained it is 16 and thermal damping is retained
to 60 which actually varies day to day as I said. Next is the building index building indexes

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cumulates the heat gain from various surfaces, fenestrations, wall roof put together they
calculate what is the overall watts per meter square that is the heat gain through the overall
building system into a particular space.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:25)

So, there is range which is given building index from 0 to 50 you can expect an ambient you
know indoor air temperature of around 32 degrees or lesser deemed to be comfortable. 51 to
100 you can expect 32 to 36 degrees slightly warm condition. If it goes above 100 you can
have a very high indoor air temperature which is pursued to be hard.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:36)

They also worked out some examples. Take a multistoried construction you take you know
top floor unshaded glass area 15 percent of the floor area. That is you know floor area to
fenestration that ratio you know fenestration to floor area ratio is 15 percent, it is north
orientation. The building index is 85. This is straightly warm condition, but then getting here
with a south orientation and the glass area shaded you can bring it down to 73 which is again
slightly warm. Further same as 5 that are 15 percent shaded window south facing, but it is on
the ground floor.

Now, the roof is not exposed then your building index drastically drops down. From 85 we
have come all the way to 56 where it is comfortable and slightly warm. Based on this what
inference we draw we have a building index and we tentatively know as a designer this space
is going to be partly comfortable and slightly warm then we can try adjusting the orientations.
We can try adjusting the shading systems, we can try and enhance the shading system
provided or we can try insulating the roof system. If you are not able to get to a lower floors,
naturally you have a top floor you can try insulating it minimize the heat gain so that you can
bring the building index value down and improve the comfort indoor.

To get a quick recap of the indices that we looked at what they actually mean.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:05)

First we looked at U value, what I have here is the material property the impact on design and
zoning and the impact of solar exposure. What I am trying to present here, whether these
indices take into account these three things or not and to what extent. For example, a value
like simple value like thermal transmittance or U value it only takes into consideration the
material property it takes the density of the material, it takes the thickness of material and the
surface property. It takes into account only the material property it does not really give
importance as there is no weightage for which orientation where you put your material, what
is your window area, what is your wall area these things are not accounted this is a basic
material property.

Similarly, thermal time constant is a material property. Apart from there is the conductivity it
also includes the density as well as the thermal capacity of the material specific heat, capacity
is also included but still this is also only the material property two things are there. Next
when you talk about thermal damping it has importance for material property, but it also
gives importance for design and zoning. So, moment you change the design compactness
your zoning is different thermal damping is going to vary. It also gives weightage for solar
exposure that is orientation of the particular space, one side versus two sided oriented or
north versus south orientated space will have an impact on thermal damping.

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The next important thing thermal performance index it gives you know weightage to the solar
exposure that is the orientation to which the particular wall is facing and whether it is shaded
or not, because if the sol air temperature or the outside surfaces is getting higher the inside
surface is going to go high. Because of this thermal performance index might considerably
vary. The next weightage is given to material property followed by design and zoning.

Building index again gives more importance to the design and zoning. How do you reshape
or reconfiguring your building (Refer Time: 25:05), then it gives weightage to solar exposure
and at last to the material property.

So, you know to get a consolidated idea we might need U value which is critically essential,
but we also need 2 or 3 other numbers minimum to take a proper decision on which material
to choose and actually how to design our building by itself. Let us you know take peak at
what other countries are doing before getting into the slide. We talked about thermal capacity,
use of thermal mass we have been traditionally doing, but most of the existing practices we
do not look at thermal capacity as a crucial indicator. But recently you know few years back
Australia introduced a new substitute or annex (Refer Time: 25:49) for U value they have a
stringent U value requirement for their buildings. They introduced the new factor that is
thermal mass enhanced U value. For example, if you have a thin wall system your wall
system.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:02)

For examples has the thin gypsum board and thermal insulation backing (Refer Time: 26:10)
plus inside finish, so overall wall thickness probably would be say 60 or 75 mm wall. These
are two thin sheets; if you look at the U value probably you will get around say 0.6 or 0.5
watts per meter square Kelvin. This will be wall system 1. The next wall system for examples
you have a sheet this is the outside facing for example, then you have the insulation, then you
have a inside block work or say brick wall, any masonry construction or concrete anything if
you have a wall system. Here you may have overall thickness might be say 200 mm, your U
value could go up to say for example 2 watts per meter square Kelvin or say let us say 1.5
watts per meter square Kelvin.

As per the regular code if they say minimum required U value is say 0.8; required value is 0.8
for example assume this wall system is meeting the code, whereas this wall system is not
meeting the code. As per the new enhancement which they have introduced they found that
though this wall system does not have the resistive insulative property this has a crucial factor
of capacitive insulation. Once you have capacitive insulation, this is storing heat, it is re
releasing heat, it can be inside, it can be outside, it is varies considerably of course your
thermal constant or damping values will considerably vary but apart from that this has
capacitive insulation.

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So, to give this allowance for using capacitive material like dense concrete blocks or a
concrete masonry wall system itself, the code says mass enhanced U value. If you have
thermal mass they give you relaxation in terms U value. Of course, you cannot go as high as
you know 33.5, but still you have a consideration for introducing thermal mass into the wall
system. Similarly there are other countries Brazil which also have relaxation in U values if
you using thermal mass material.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:55)

Let us take peak at what Singapore does why closely because it is a tropical country more so
they have been rigorously working on the thermal codes on building performance standard.
They have been realizing at quiet you know consistently. They talk about a number called
RETV; that is effective thermal transfer value. Earlier it is OTTV; overall thermal transfer
value.

First cut they say that if the building window wall ratio that is the size of windows are less
than 30 percent and the shading coefficient. We will talk about shading coefficient little later
in next session less than 0.7. Then you have satisfied the coddle requirement. But in case if it
is more then they give an empirical formula which is essential contains U value of the walls,
the window wall ratio U value of fenestration, then certain correction factors to be included.
Overall you will get the net heat gain through the building envelope watts per meter square.

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Now the current code is around 22 watts per meter square is permitted. So, you can have a
larger window they say that you have to have smaller window, but if you have to meet the
code your overall heat gain should not exceed 22 watts for meter square. Now think back
with our building index example, what did our code say; it says that building index between 0
to 50 watts per meter square is deemed to be comfortable.

Similarly, in terms of the other factors like thermal performance index when they say 125 is
allowable they also said the peak heat gain will be 32 to 40. In this slide when you have a TPI
of less than or equal to 75 peak heat gain is 34.4 watts per meter square which is a good
quality construction. So, our standard also says critical gives critical weightage for the
maximum heat gain and allowable heat transfer through the particular system. So, we
essentially looked at 3 different levels, element level, component level and assembly level.
We primarily looked that what our national building code says part from just one or two
examples are brought.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:49)

As I said there are two other important things that is a (Refer Time: 30:52) transmission
through building envelope or the enclosure and the air tightness of the building enclosure. As
a part of this module we are not looking at it, but essentially they play an important role or a
significant role in the overall performance or thermal performance of the building enclosure.

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Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 10
Glazing and Shading Systems

In this module we will look at Glazing and Shading System. So far, we have talked about the
opaque component, opaque wall system; here we will look more closely in to the glazing and
shading system.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:39)

So, we will talk about thermal properties of glazing which is important. Then the next thing
we will talk about is shading system, designing shading system primarily. So, what
determines the thermal efficiency of glazing system? This first thing of course is thermal
transmittance of glass, same as we talk about wall thermal transmittance U value of wall but
most commonly referred thing is thermal transmittance of glass.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:03)

The next important factor is solar heat gain through glass. This is a important factor which
ranges from 0 to 1, we will look at this factor more closely; this tells much amount of you
know radiant heat gets in to the particular system apart from the conductive heat transfer.
Next thing is thermal transmittance of the frame which is you know nothing less than and
more or less important than the glass itself; it is also crucial. And the last thing is the air
tightness of the glass frame assembly. How well you are glazing system is sealed.

If you have lot of infiltration as we discuss in the previous module we will have heat gains
and losses you know hot air coming in as when you heat your building, the hot air will go out
there will be you know heat gains and losses which is not intended. So, in that case your
cooling load or heating load will considerably go up.

So, four parameters are there apart from other things four are very crucial. First is the U value
or thermal transmittance of the glass, second is the solar heat gain through the glass, third is
thermal transmittance of the frame, and the last is air tightness of the glass frame assembly.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:12)

First, the glazing U value which we commonly know the first property usually we refer to; it
is a heat transfer through conduction as we saw same as your opaque wall system as well. It
tells you how much amount of conductive heat flow happens through the glazing system.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:35)

Say, imagine you have a single glass system you have a 6 mm glass single glass system
versus you have an air gap and you have a double glass system, you have a DGU or double
glass unit. So, 6 mm, this is 12 mm, another 6 mm. So, as you increase the number of layers
or a triple glass system another layer then you will keep the U=value starts coming down. It

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essentially tells you how much conductive heat flow happens, so this matters then the next
conductive property of this air gap or if it is inert gas fill like argon filled then this brings
down your U-value further the next layer, next layer, next layer apart from in the film
coefficient outside and inside. So, the more number of layers are the thickness of glass itself
varies or the type of infill whether it is air or a inert gas like argon filled then your U value
considerably reduces.

An air you know air filled versus argon versus a vacuum insulated system, the U value
considerably comes down. Apart from this, another important factor is the solar heat gain
coefficient that is commonly referred as SHGC. Some of the older codes are text standard
referred it as SC or shading coefficient we will look at the relation. It simply gives you the
ratio of solar heat gain through the glass relative to the incident solar radiations.

So, what happens when the solar incidence happens on the glass, it is a proportion of the solar
energy directly transmitted as well as observed and reemitted. So, moment you have the long
wave of solar radiation you know shortwave sorry the shortwave of radiation heating your
glass then it absorbs first partly it is transmitted then some of it is observed and then
retransmitted each layer retransmits it. Effectively, it is given using a number called SHGC or
solar heat gain coefficient; it ranges from 0 to 1 the lesser or more closer to 0 it tells you the
efficiency of the glazing system.

So, today we talk about you know highly efficient low e, low (Refer Time: 05:04) glazing
system, we will talk about them. But they will have SHGC more close to say something like
0.15 or 0.25; this will be efficient system versus you will have something like 0.7 or 0.8 for
single clear glazing system, which means more amount of radiant heat is getting transmitted
into the space compare to this particular glazing system.

So, how does it matter, imagine you are designing a building in a colder climate, the place
like Srinagar where the ambient is getting really close inside your heating the building. The
primary mode of heat transfer which is of importance is the heat you know conductive
because you are heating the building you do not want the heat to be lost outside; ambient is
really cold or imagine the outside is frozen; it is at minus 10 degree. So, you are heating your
building say inside is you know plus 20 degrees, ambient is at minus 10 degrees. So, the
gradient is inside to outside in this case, you are heating it the ambient it is snow, conductive
heat loss takes the primary thing.

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On the other hand during summers you really want more direct solar heat gain to come
because the temperatures are not going to go very high except for certain extreme cases
where you know both summers as well as winter are both harsh. Mostly you know the
summer sun is always welcome. So, you want more glazing surface the radiant heat is
welcome. So, in that case, you will want the U-value as a primary indicator SHGC is also
important because you do not want your building to get over heated as we looked at the green
house effect where the glass is more transparent to shortwave solar radiation. But when the
internal surfaces observe and start reemitting it, it is opaque to it. So, the heat gets trapped
inside which is called green house effect which we do not want to happen. So, in that case we
try and restrict the radiant property or the radiant transfer through the glass as well.

Imagine, you are designing in a hotter climate or a hot season where the indoor is set 24
degrees, you are conditioning it to 24 degree, and ambient is at 45 degrees. You have a
glazing system; similarly, you have a double glass system. So, essentially what happens you
have a lot of apart from conductive heat gain you also have a direct solar heat gain which
considerably impacts the radiant gain and the cooling efficient in comfort indoor. So, when
you design for hotter climate or hotter seasons, in fact solar heat gain coefficient becomes a
crucial factor. There is a lot of difference if you take a particular Indian location any location
most of it is warm or hot locations except for the northern part, which is really cold.

Solar heat gain coefficient has higher impact as compare to U value most of the tests and you
know the experiments we conducted we found the higher impact. Say for example, when I
am reducing a solar heat gain coefficient from 0.8 to 0.2 there is a drastic reduction in the
cooling energy as well as the com improvement in comfort is also much higher compare to
reduction in U value. U value is also crucial, but solar heat gain coefficient takes the front
seat, if you are designing for a hotter location. It is improved by two different you know
things; first is if you are able to minimize or cut off the direct solar radiation. You have sun
here; if you have a shading device which is cutting the solar incidence then you can actually
improve the performance; actually you are not doing much to the glass here still the
conductive heat flow will happen, whereas you are cutting off the direct solar incidence. So,
your radiant transfer will be minimized this is the indirect way of controlling the solar heat
gain through the window.

So, for this case, we do not look at SHGC or just the glass of the window alone, but we will
look at something called the composite SHGC, where the glazing and shading together is

234
accounted for. Other way of looking at is to go for selective or spectrally selective coating
where we talked about low e glasses - low emission glasses. So, instead of providing a
shading system here I am trying to give you a solution where for example, this is a
commercial building facade, where the designer is not interested in providing shading system.

This is your building; this is in, this is out. You apply a specific coating on this particular
glazing system a low e coating. Essentially, it is a silver coat, which certain you know nano
particles associated. What this does is this is spectrally selective. As we know solar radiation
has a wider spectrum from ultra violet to visible to infrared; solar radiation is a short way of
infrared and then the re radiation is a long wave.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:31)

This particular coating will be this can be applied on this surface or this surface.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:36)

There are variation associated we generally do not do the coating here because of wear and
tear, same reason here. It can be done on this face or this face what essentially this does this
coating allows visible radiation while it reflects the shortwave. The short wave radiations are
reflected back, while the visible spectrum is allowed in that means, it allows light to pass
through, but it cuts down in the short way radiation. If you go back you know 25-30 years
back in time, moment when people realize that this clear glass or clear glazing system are
highly radiative they have a lot of radiant heat gain, they started using a coated glass or a
tinted glass. Essentially, it is a mix bronze or some kind of metal, which is mixed in the glass.
So, the glass gets darker.

As a consequence, what happens? The light transmittance through the glass came down
drastically. Say, when I said 0.7 or 0.8 for a clear glass, the light transmittance are visible
light transmittance that is VLT here will be around 75 percentage that is 75 percent of light is
transmitted in to the building which will actually help you in reducing your lighting energy or
lighting loads. So, number of lights can be less or less light can be turned on.

Whereas, when you want to reduce this particular thing instead of going for a spectrally
selective coating, if you are going for a tinted glass the dark color tinted glass say bronze
colored glass then your SHGC might come down; say instead of 0.7, it can go to say 0.5.
Whereas, your visible light transmittance becomes 30 percent; so only 30 percent of the

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available outdoor light can come in to your building; whereas, this has come down
marginally. So, there is improvement here, but this is leading to problem.

And the other hand when you use a low e coated or a spectrally selective glazing, this does
not happen; even for a glazing with 0.2 SHGC you may be able to get a VLT or visible light
transmittance up 50 to 55 percent or with you know the modern day coating it can even be
higher. It depends on the type of products or the coating material which is used. The
conventional way of referring was shading coefficient some of the data sheets still refer
shading coefficient, because some test standards are able to demonstrate shading coefficient
SHGC is a factor of shading coefficient you can you know for a quick working you can
multiply it by 0.85.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:27)

When I said you know spectrally selective coating this is what actually happens this is a
demonstration which I illustration which I referred from another book textbook. This is a
total solar spectrum, it starts from ultra violet you have a visible spectrum and then this is a
solar infrared. This is the transmittance of the system. What happens with the spectrally
selective coating, this particular spectrum is reflected back while this particular spectrum is
allowed. So, if you take wave length, it allows the wave length in this range, while it
considerably blocks. Say this is clear glazing , it allows the lot of day light but it also allows
shortwave radiation. Number 2 is a bronze tinted glazing, it cuts down drastically on the light
visible light transmittance, but it also cuts little bit on here shortwave radiations. So, here for

237
clear glass, it is around 85 percent visible light transmittance whereas, it is 85 percent solar
radiation transmittance shortwave transmittance also.

On the other hand, if you go for also spectrally selective or low e coated, this is number 5; to
get a visible light transmittance as highest 80 percentage; you can minimize the shortwave or
solar radiation transmittance up to 15 or 20 percentage. It varies as I said depending on the
coating and the tint of the glass as well. So, this is more effective in controlling, but one thing
we need to note with the effect of coating it is possible, but apart from this by the use of
shading system also, but cutting down the source itself that is direct incidence by avoiding
using this particular strategy it is also much effective. If you are willing to go for shading
system, it is much more you know effective and economic to provide improved efficiency for
the glazing system.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:25)

I have referred one of the commercially available catalogues this corresponds to one
company. There are lot of glazing companies everybody has an extensive data sheet one of
this things. Typically, if you look at the brochures you will have commercial names, which is
essentially not important in this section. We will have solar transmittance, visible
transmittance, solar transmittance and UV transmittance; some of them give this, but not all.
Here we have visible, so this particular glass 76 percent visible transmittance, solar
transmittance is 48 percent, reflectance out and in reflection. This actually gives you an idea

238
about whether you know a particular glass say when you see through glass, but still you will
be able to see the reflections of your own self, when the other side is not that bright.

Imagine, you are working in an office in a night time, you will be seeing your own images if
the inside reflections are higher. Then there is a U value which is for winter again it is you
know specific standard some of them give you winter, summer U value, different test
conditions. When you say U value, typically, you will get NFRCR - National Fenestration
Rating Counselor of US standard tested U value. So, there is the set outdoor temperature and
set inside temperature for which the U value is calculated. Some calculation procedures
require you to test for different conditions also, but most of these brochures you know data
sheets that you get correspond to NFRC standard tested U values then you have shading
coefficient and SHGC.

Let us take this first glass. It has a visible transmittance; it is a clear glass 76 percent visible
transmittance and about 60 percent or 0.59 solar heat gain coefficient – SHGC. On the other
side take another glass where you have an SHGC of 0.22 that is you have brought down
SHGC to pretty less than half of what it was here. The U value more or less remains the same
with air it is 0.3 U values; here it is 0.3, again U value did not change, but the SHGC has
considerably come down.

Please remember the U value does not you know significantly get affected when you do a low
e coating, it is essential it reflective coating now please recollect the type of thermal
insulations we talked about we have resisting insulation which is given by U value. Here, we
have talking about reflective insulation which is SHGC effect of coating where you have
brought down the efficiency you know brought up the efficiency pretty higher solar heat gain
coefficient or the radiant you know cut off radiant has been brought to 0.22.

Visible transmittance also has gone down, but there are also some other glasses, where you
have more or less of trade off. You can see for all of them the U value remain the same while
the SHGC considerably varies depending on the coating; depending on this the visible light
transmittance also considerably varies. So, what are the major challenges, yes, we have an
excessive data sheet more or less all the glass manufacturers would give you an exhaustive
data sheet which were you will have series of numbers. Most of them you may not even you
know look at or take as a criteria for selecting, yes 2 or 3 crucial parameters you will look at

239
and you will choose a glass, but what are the challenges practically. The first major challenge
is what you get from this data sheet is something called center of glass U-value.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:42)

So, if you have a glass like this, you have frame all around, this is your glass. In this case,
what actually happens? The value that they give you they would have tested this glass panel
through typically hot plate apparatus what I was talking about. So, essentially, the value - the
U value that they give you is something called center of glass U value somewhere taken
corresponding to what happens in this the edge effects are the effect of the interaction with
the typical frame system is not considered. There is the minor difference though it is not huge
impact, but still there is an impact between the centers of glass U value to edge of the glass U
value.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:26)

Number 2, the need for U value of the frame itself, imagine you have a UPVC frame versus
an aluminum frame versus a highly insulated thermal barrier aluminum frame or different
type of structural facade system versus non-structural facade system with thermal insulation
without thermal insulation. So, see you have a highly insulated glass here if the frame itself is
not thermally insulated then you will have a lot of gains and losses happening at this
particular juncture. So, this particular thing becomes a weaker link, this will create problems
for you.

Number 3 is computation of whole assembly U value. So, imagine, the next step hurdle you
have crossed, you have the glass U value you also have the frame U value. Now, how do you
compute the whole assembly U value? Do you think for each of these combinations, so you
have chosen a frame out of 1000 option available and you have chosen a glass out of 1000
glasses available in the market? Do you think somebody is going to test the whole system and
give you, no, for specific projects for larger projects you might be required to test you know
in the laboratory a glass frame assembly also. Some sophisticated projects depending and the
requirement might demand you to test this as well, but some of the projects you can compute
them. If a standard you know good tested value reliable value is available for glass and frame
then it is possible to compute the whole assembly U value. Again you know please remember
here we talked about the material level property; here we are talking about the assembly level
property.

241
The next important thing is the effect of shading system on SHGC. Naturally, you know you
buy this from a separate company this is sold by a separate company, and essentially when
you have a shading system that is sold by a separate company. So, whose you know either it
is a hand you know cast (Refer Time: 21:22) shading device concrete or you know masonry
shading device or it may be a aluminum or steel section which is available like louvers or
blinds that we are going to install. So, the effect of this particular shading system on the glass
is another crucial thing, which needs to be accounted.

Apart from all this whether we are doing steady state computation, a particular instance in
which U value and SHGC are determined versus the dynamic site performance. What
happens to the solar movements, what happens to the insulation versus how much is getting
transmitted is highly dynamic. These are challenges, but with all this the industry has
proceeded much faster so we have more or less standard values available.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:09)

Now, just to give you better picture what I have been talking about. Two different frame
systems this particular frame versus the other one I am not getting in to details of what frame
it is and what they actually mean, but typically the heat transfer through this frame is
relatively higher compare to this.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:20)

And the effective different frames actually we took ten different glasses five different frames
and how much amount of energy saving happened, yes glass has a lot of impact compare to
this versus this. The savings has gone up say here you get about 8 to you know 9 percent
saving, whereas you get around 2 1 to 2 percent saving in this particular glass. But what we
need to note even with this glass, if you go for an efficient frame, you can go as highest as 4
percent as saving. Even if the glass is really good, even the frame is not good, you will lose
1.5 to 2 percent of your estimated energy saving. So, frame has a crucial role in the effect of
the energy efficiency you know impact of the overall system.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:08)

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How do you design shading device a quick overview of the process involving in designing
shading system. We have you know looked at the solar charts what I have super imposed
here, you know in a following session I will also demonstrate how to compute this using
certain tools, but to take a quick look at it. You have a solar chart sun path diagram, this is for
Bangalore, the window size is 2400 by 1200, and this is facing south. So, you see a thin you
know set of gray lines it gets darker as it goes here. This is on December 21 that is winter
solstice.

So, this particular window which is you know imagine the window is located here. There is a
shading system a simple horizontal shading device 450 mm thick, it is going to cast a set of
shadow; after a while you will not get much shade, when the sun is here you will get shade.
So, this typically gives you an estimate. I will show you a more details about this.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:57)

This is for a west-facing. The same window located on a west-facing wall. Take a closer look
at this. This is a uniform over cast sky the amount of shading the percentage efficiency of the
shading percentage shading is 40 percent for a south-facing wall with a 450 mm shading
device. Whereas, almost you get no shading if is a west-facing wall yes horizontal shading
devices are not effective.

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:20)

We will look at more in detail. The conventional method of calculating shading was using a
shadow angle protractor on sun path diagram. Typically, this is like you know you have
radial lines marked 0 at the center and goes up to plus 90 and minus 90. Then you have this
arch line; they coincide with the altitude angle and here it coincides with the 90 plus 90 and
minus 90. You typically mark the duration and time in which season and duration in which
shading is required. You put this over super impose it and then I will show you some
examples of how to do this, but before that few angles are important.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:58)

245
We need to you know recollect assume at this you know this is like a trigonometric projection
of the 3D sun movement on 2 dimension. It gives you the azimuth angle on which orientation
relative to north or south where the sun is located. And altitude tells you relative to the
horizon at what angle the sun is located. Shading system requirement vary with respect to
climate, latitude, longitude of a place facade orientation and typical shading requirements.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:24)

Apart from this altitude and azimuth angle, we have three other important parameters; one is
the wall or surface azimuth angle that is to which particular orientation the wall is tilted to
can be referred to from north or south. Then you have something called horizontal shadow
angle and you have something called vertical shadow angle. We will look at these two things
more in details.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:50)

Now horizontal shadow angle is a difference between the azimuth of the suns position and
the wall orientation that is wall azimuth and the solar azimuth, it gives you the difference that
is effectively it takes in to consideration the orientation of the wall surface. So, this gives you
the horizontal shadow angle; the difference actually gives you the horizontal shadow angle.
So, how to understand this, if horizontal shadow angle see if this is the line drawn this
actually gives you how much projection you will need. So, the lesser the horizontal shadow
angle, this line converges and this projection is going in to come further ahead. So, this is a
vertical shading system the effectiveness of the vertical shading system is given by horizontal
shadow angle.

So, if you have two see you know this is us for example, south-facing surface you have sun
moving from this side to this side as this gets further the cut off duration increases. So, you
want for example, 8 am in the morning to 6 pm in the evening you want cut off; the depth of
this over hand the vertical shading device this is plan-view, this will further depend. So, the
cut off will be more, similarly, for the afternoon hours. Alternately if you want the cut off
only from 10 o’clock in the morning to the 3 o’clock in the evening this can be shorter or if
the latitude of the place you do not get deep southern sun, this can be lower. If the sun is just
passing on like this then you may not need a deep vertical over hang, this is as per horizontal
shadow angle considered.

HSA (θ)=solar azimuth (α)−wall azimuth(ω)

247
(Refer Slide Time: 27:21)

Once you have this number, horizontal shadow angle, you can actually find out what is a PV
that is that is the projection depth the depth of the projection required for which you will need
the window dimension. Mostly you will have the window dimension. In this formula, then
you will know the left hand side.

HSA (θ)=solar azimuth (α)−wall azimuth(ω)

HST (Sw )=P v tan (θ)

Where

P w : width of enclosing side of vertical projection ; Sw : width of shadow beyond vertical position

So, I know what is the width of the window say imagine I have a 2 meter long window then I
only do not know what should be the projection required. So, to know this, you will take this
in this side, it will be the width of the window by tan horizontal shadow angle. So, the
horizontal shadow angle gets to the denominator, the lesser it is the deeper the shading you
are going to get.

248
(Refer Slide Time: 28:05)

The next is the vertical shadow angle this is the reverse of it is more or less the altitude versus
the cut off. So, the lower the altitude of the sun, you are going to get more solar incidence on
your window surface. So, the vertical shadow angle will vary accordingly similarly here
lesser vertical shadow this is taken between the horizontal plan and the range where you need
the cut off. It can be same a s altitude angle provided you want to cut off the whole of the
sun. If you do not want the sun on this particular day then your shading device will be this
deep, for example, you have a window this is a south oriented window sun is here during
October, you have sun coming here.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:45)

249
So, you want a cut off you have provided a shading system like this. Then this is October; in
December you are going to get sun at this point you may not want to cut off the December
sun. So, you can just curtail your shading system at this point. So, you will be getting sunlight
during December. But if you further want this to be cut off even during December then you
need a deeper shading system. As the vertical shadow angle comes down the shading depth
increases similar to what we saw in the previous example.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:28)

Same as that if you will know the height of the window, what you need to know is a depth of
the projection you will know; what is the vertical shadow angle. Once you know the vertical
shadow angle you can determine the cut off and how much width is required or alternatively
if you know the width you can find out what is a shadow throw how much shadow it is going
to throw on a particular fenestration.

VST (Sh )=Ph tan (ε)

Where

P h : height of enclosing side of horizontal projection ; Sh : height of shadow beyond vertical position

'
A A =width of horizontal shading × tan( HSA)

250
(Refer Slide Time: 29:54)

Apart from this another small step which is needed in shading calculation even if you provide
a proper horizontal shading system, the sun is moving from this end to this end then you will
have sun guiding from this sides. So, to cut this off you need a slight projection there is a
formula here the depth are AA dash I have mentioned here this particular depth shown in the
red line.

'
A A =width of horizontal shading × tan( HSA)

This will give you how much projection extra is required.

251
(Refer Slide Time: 30:27)

So, if you have a window this long whether I should curtail it here or should I extend it
further and if so how much extension is required this particular depth that is AA dash which I
have mentioned in the formula is given by this simple equation. How do we go step by step,
first is to determine the cutoff date, to take a solar chart, determine the cutoff date to which
you need you know you want to exclude sun and start and end time whether you want it for
all through the sunshine hours or specific duration. Say you want from 9 to 1:30 or say 4
o’clock in the evening for our ease of working let us say 9 to 4 o’clock in the evening, we
want cutoff on a particular day up to a particular day.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:07)

252
Then calculate azimuth and altitude angle calculate the shadow angle and further estimate the
width and depth of shading system.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:20)

To show you graphically, the first step is 9 o’clock in the morning to 4 o’clock in the evening
I am saying this is a south-facing wall. So, I want to exclude sun all through the year up to
December 21st up to winter solstice I will prefer excluding the sun. The altitude, I have taken
Delhi as a location the altitude on that particular extreme. So, I have to find out the extreme
case December 21st at these 0.123 I have to find out. Altitude angle and azimuth angle are
known; suns position, this is at 9 o’clock, this is at 4 o’clock in the evening, same altitude and
azimuth angle is determined.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:53)

Next, determine the shadow angle horizontal and vertical shadow angle. Once side determine
what is a horizontal and what is a vertical shadow angle, as I said I know the window height
and width with that I can calculate the projection which is required horizontally as well as
vertically. So, this is a traditional way of calculating. Another approach using computational
tools I will be demonstrating in one of the following sessions if you take a code like energy
consideration building code which is most commonly used for building applications today. It
gives you very simple approach or simplified approach rather you may not be able to
precisely find out the shading projection and depth for any specific location, but overall it
gives you two conditions.

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(Refer Slide Time: 32:33)

One is north latitude 15 degrees or greater, and less than 15 degree north latitude that is
below 15 degrees and above 15 degree to specific instances are given and 4 orientations are
addressed - north, east or west and south. First thing is it asks you to calculate something
called projection factor which is nothing but this versus the vertical you know how tall is
your window plus the small you know gap that you provide here the masonry provide here.
And what is a depth this particular thing usually you will want to determine this so the
formula turns the other way.

Then if you know the projection factor, you can substitute it here; for different projection
factors, you have something called M factor or you know which is needed for the shading
calculation. So, once you know the projection factor, they give you how much factor of
amount of M factor is given is taken from this table. If you substitute then you will get a
desired amount of shading depth. What I will do in the subsequence section, I will
demonstrate software with which you can determine the shading and one or two worked
examples using this projection factors as well.

So, we looked at the thermal properties of glazing, what is important glass frame and
assemblies, then we looked at shading systems typically what angles are involved and how do
we design a quick estimate of the shading depths vertical and horizontal shading devices.

Thank you.

255
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 11
Shading Analysis- Demo

In the previous module we looked at the basics of the principles of shading design. Apart
from the glazing systems we also talked about what does a methodology with which
theoretically you do the shading calculations, what is the shadow protractor, how to use it
along with the sun path diagrams. In this module, I will be demonstrating you the same
shading analysis using a software tool.

So, we will take an example a specific location and wall window example using the tool I
will be demonstrating how to you know derive the defined required shading conditions and
how to present the data for your projects.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:02)

Quick recap of some of the indices that we need to remember apart from this altitude and
azimuth angle which determines the position of sun in two dimensions, we also need to
remember something called wall azimuth. We saw in the previous module it is nothing but
the orientation of the wall it can be with reference to the north are from the south and we
have to remember horizontal shadow angle and vertical shadow angle. Horizontal shadow
angle determines the efficiency of vertical shading system, and a vertical shadow angle

256
determines the efficiency of horizontal shading systems. So, these three parameters are the
angles dimensions have to be kept in mind.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:41)

We will move on to the tool the use of the tool itself. We saw this the different steps involved
first; we have to determine the cutoff date start and end times say for example, if it is like say
9 o clock to 4 o clock in the evening or 6 o clock in the evening depends on when you want to
really cut off sun on a particular day as well as when do we need to cut off the sun during a
particular season of the year. It can be one in summer solstice to winter solstice are do not go
further to winter solstice may be just during summer, maybe 3 to 4 months in summer I need
shading for this window rest can be exposed to sun it depends.

Then calculating azimuth and altitude angle, calculation of shadow angle and then calculate
the width and the depth of shading devices. The same four steps will be applied in the
software tool as well, but it gives you more hands on numbers rather than letting you do the
graphic our theoretical calculations itself. We will move on to the tool now.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:41)

I will take you through a demonstration of a software tool using which you can easily design
shading system or you can assess the performance of shading system. This is solar tool this is
part of Ecotect software program. Now this is you know promoted by Autodesk. First now let
us take a look at the interface what we have on screen. So, this basically if you see there is a
bar which is in the left hand side you have the time and date plus the month can be set. You
have the global position latitude and longitude plus this is the time zone you have a list of
time zones, moment you set latitude and longitude the time zone gets adjusted automatically.

Apart from this you have different types of projections. You have spherical liquid distance
we will take a look at it shortly, then you can have a fully shaded percentage shade center
point and no shading, then you can calculate shading coefficient this is what we see in the left
hand bar.

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:40)

Plus you can see a 3D model. If you click on it the 3D model will appear, you cannot do you
know building models here you will get a wall and you can design certain fenestration
systems. So we will come back to this shortly plus you have an image capture option you can
capture it as Meta file or bitmap file. Now the main screen what we have here this is a
stereographic diagram because this tab is selected the same thing that you get in your drop
down, we are in stereographic projection. What you see here is a sun path diagram. We
looked at it in one of the previous modules.

Now this is a sun path diagram where you have the lines which represent the months plus
these lines represent the curvilinear lines these represents the day, so it is a trigonometric
projection of solar movement into a horizontal axis. Here you have the orientation the starting
from north 360 degrees are mark. Once let me know set the latitude and longitude for
example, let us take a latitude of say 13 degrees the sun movement the whole thing has not
adjusted, let us set a longitude of say 78 degrees now the time zone as seen to plus 5.0 you
know 5 hours 30 minutes that is 5.5 this is you know India Delhi time zone. What we see
here is a sun path diagram for this particular location 13 degrees this is some where in the
southern part of India say it can be Bangalore, Chennai or if you want to see a northern name
is if u say 29 degrees you will further have some movement to the south. So, let us now work
with this.

259
What you see here this one represents the sun actually you can click and drag this your date
and time will automatically change here or you can actually set this say if I want at 12 o clock
on 21st of June say summer solstice, I will find where the sun is located for this particular
latitude and longitude. Similarly, if I wanted for December it would move on, if I wanted at
say 5 pm, 17 hours the sun is somewhere here. This gives you location suns position in terms
of degrees. Apart from this you also see the horizontal shadow angle and vertical shadow
angle.

In the previous module I you know demonstrated how do we calculate this horizontal shadow
angle and vertical shadow angle using which further we calculate the shadow projections.
Now this tool simply gives this number on screen, this is horizontal shadow angle this is a
vertical shadow angle. Horizontal shadow angle gives you the effectiveness of vertical
shading device VSA are vertical shadow angle gives you the effectiveness of a horizontal
shading device, time data and the numbers are set here.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:50)

As I said there are different types of projections; first is spherical projection, then we have
equidistant projection, stereographic this is what most commonly we use, then we have the
building research establishment BRE sun path projection.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:55)

Then we have the orthographic projection.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:01)

You can have a Waldram (Refer Time: 06:58) diagram or you can see the whole of it in terms
of tabular data. During this demonstration primarily we will look at stereographic projection
and the corresponding tabular data. So, now let us take a look at this you know our numbers
this is a graphical representation, what corresponds to in terms of tabular data. Here the
latitude longitude is set the orientation is 00 that is north now we are not changing the
orientation. Date is 21st December, you have the sun rise and sun set time, you have the local

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time correction, and equation of time correction is also there. This also we saw in one of the
modules how do we convert the global time to local correction in terms of longitude this is
also given here straight and declination is given.

So, for this particular day that is 21st December winter solstice at this latitude 29 degrees
north latitude the local time sun rise at 7:30 so every half an hour you get the numbers here.
Local time, solar time then you have azimuth angle, you have the altitude angle for each hour
then you get the horizontal shadow angle and vertical shadow angle. So, we are not
calculating any shading right know we will come back to this in course of our calculation.

Now, if I change from December to say June during summer solstice the sun rise happens
quite early it is 5:20 sets at 7:15. Similarly for each of these hours you get the horizontal and
vertical shadow angle. Orientation, please note this would be zero that is north facing we can
reset the orientation we cannot adjust different orientations we will come back to this as I
said.

Getting back to where we were, this gives you a simple sun path diagram. Now we will go
back to the model which we saw little while ago. Initially it gives you a simple wall, if you
click on this wall the right hand panel the term wall will appear there is a drop down, you can
choose the window, you can choose the wall, you can choose the horizontal shade vertical
shade solar pergola it can be detached shading up to eight detached shadings can be provided.
If you click on the wall you can adjust the height of the wall you can adjust the width of the
wall and you can also adjust the depth of the wall.

Depth is crucial because if you give recess window kind of arrangements where your wall is
say 500-600 mm thick a bulk wall where you have a recess window or you are giving certain
you know cupboards and all that the window is recessed you do not have a shading system
actually, but it is a recess wall system. You can use this depth you can increase the depth then
your window will be on the inside, so you can calculate the shading efficiency. Right now I
am taking it 200 mm deep wall here the orientation is 00 this is a north facing wall. If I want
say east facing set it to 90 degree will just turn around. It is a very simple tool to use. Now
this is east facing window. If you get back to this tabular data the orientation would have
changed this is the east facing.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:25)

Similarly in the stereographic projection this particular shade this is center point if you say
percentage shaded you will get a series of shades this is due by virtue of the horizontal
shading device that we have provided. We will work on the shading efficiency shortly. For
now I am just removing the horizontal shade there is no shade here. If you go to the model
you do not see shading there is no shading earlier there was some shadow now that is
missing. You have 0 percent shading and it also says after 12:30 the sun goes behind that is it
is on the rear side of the wall. Contrarily, if I change the orientation to 270 degrees that this
west facing wall or the wall is facing this is north up this way is north.

Now the reverse will happen, morning time it will say sun is behind and afternoon you do not
have any shading. From changing this here to 180 degree this will be the south facing; the
wall is facing south getting back it says for some time it is behind and then full day it is
facing the surface. If you quickly change the latitude now it is 29 degree say if you are
making it is a 12 degree you will have sun behind the wall that is it is a south facing wall sun
is to the north. Again if you change the wall orientation you can work around by changing
certain parameters it goes behind, but still morning and evening you have direct solar
incidence and changing it back to 29 degrees north latitude 178 degree longitude, this is what
I am working with right now.

Now, let us start assembling a set of shading systems. The orientation is again north let us
make it is a no for now let it be south facing wall, right now there is no horizontal shading

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device. The window it has the dimension of height of 1200, width is 2400, sill level is 900
you can adjust the sill level if you want what window on the higher side the (Refer Time:
12:36) to be higher you can adjust it as well. You can adjust it on the side where which side
you want to move top and bottom. You know every single adjustment as possible in the
window.

Now let us add one single horizontal shading device. Right now if you select horizontal shade
number of shades is 0 just increase it to 1 by default there is a shading device either you can
click and drag this or you have the dimension here. Now let us just go for a 450 mm typical
shading device. There is no angle you can tilt it, if you want right now let us just keep it
straight it is not a tilted shading device 0 degrees. You want some extension to the right
yesterday you know the last session we calculated it in terms of AA dash that is how much
projection is needed to the left and right.

You can do that right now I am leaving it like this. The single shading device if you want to
check how efficient this particular shading device is, simply go back graphically this is a
duration in which you are getting full shade and in the months of say June July August and in
the months of April and May during 11 o clock to 2 pm, 11 am to 2 pm you are getting more
or less 90 percent shading. After that further hours say for example, if you are taking ten o
clock or 9 o clock in a month of say March you will have only a part shading it will be 20 to
25 percent shaded. It is not very effective shading it is a south facing surface.

If you have to look at it now we are let us take summer solstice June 21st look at the tabular
data this will clearly tell you how much percentage you have shading sun is behind here and
then you have 100 percent shading like we said somewhere from 11:30 12 o clock you have
100 percent shading for about 2 hours you have complete shading, up to 11:30 you have fully
shading after that the efficiency eventually goes down. It varies somewhere between 87-88
percentage to 90 percentage. And after that there is no direct solar incidence.

On the other side if you look at December. This shading device may not be effective because
you have direct solar incidence most part of the day, this is December in the table the
maximum efficiency are getting with this shading device is 22 percentage. And some part of
the day it is 0 that is there is no use of this particular shading device or it is not offering any
effective shading. So, it is slightly increases during noon it is close to 20-22 percentage then

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eventually it drops down. You also get corresponding horizontal shadow angle and vertical
shadow angle you will go back to the model.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:45)

There is another thing before that; we were looking at the stereographic projection and
tabular data if you click on shading coefficients, just click on shading coefficient tab you will
get a summary of shading coefficients monthly average shading coefficients; that is during
January February up to December you will have an average shading coefficient that the
windows providing. If you look at it January February are later in the year like October to
December, efficiency is almost the minimum efficiency 0 maximum you get is around 22
percentage, average is only 12 percentage.

The best efficiency it is giving is during summer May and June say it can be from April if
you take 80 as a cut off it can be from April all the way to August. It is giving up to 80
percent it looks promising, but we also have to note in the month of April. The maximum you
get is 100 percent average is 82 percent, but minimum is 48 which means 50 percent shading
efficiencies also there in part of the day. We may not be able to call it a completely effective
shading system.

In summer you have a good efficiency winter it is just 18 percentages. For a quick calculation
if you have to present your client that this is the shading system this is what its efficiencies
this table will surface, but if you want to do a detailed calculation or day in day out
calculation then it is a good idea to go for a particular day. If you just click on the

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stereographic and come back to tabular you will get the daily data. You can tabulate summer
solstice as well as winter solstice separately.

We will go back to the model this shading device is there, if you want to increase the number
of shading devices now we have a horizontal shading device make it to 2 horizontal it evenly
spreads out want to make it 3 instead of 450 mm say let us go for a 300 mm shading device
the thin one, but I can go for 3 numbers. We will go back and see what we have got
December 21st same numbers are slightly changed you get around 44 percent. And the earlier
one, we had almost 0 percent efficient, but now the shading efficiency is slightly increased.

Look at the shading coefficient it also provides you slightly improved version during the
winters as well and during summer it gives you almost 100 percent shading efficiency. You
can do the tilting you can now tilt the angle say is very minimum tilt say ten degree tilt I want
to introduce 10 degree tilt I have introduced. Looking at the numbers, this is slightly gone up
look at the stereographic projection you get a considerably good amount of time in which you
get 80 percent or above shading. Lot of you know the months date and month points you will
find a darker shade which means the shading system is slightly more efficient than the
previous one.

Let us look at an alternate orientation I will revert back to one shading device in 450 mm
deep the tilt angle is 0, but I am going to change the orientation. I will put it west oriented a
west facing wall the window is the same dimension the window remains the same, but you
have a shading device 450 mm simple horizontal. Just go back to this, so it is a west facing so
the shading that you get the highlighted in your left hand side of the sun path diagram. So
here is your efficiency, if you look at the table sun is behind the morning then the shading
device this is you are looking at say let us say June 21st, a shading device is effective up to
1:30 then eventually drops down and say somewhere around 3 o clock 3:30 the efficiency
drops below 50 percent goes further low.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:12)

So, what do we do know, I have given it morning so you are getting the shade on the other
side 17 hours I am making it look at the image, so sun will be on this side you can go to
display options. You can set the daily sun path it will also tell you where the sun movement is
happening there are certain sketch options you can adjust the sketchy things if you want if
you are interested doing that you can do it, but this is where your sun is you can record
animations in this as well. So, now this is a sun path diagram.

Now, let us look at December 21st that is winter solstice. The sun is moving somewhere here
take a look at the shading coefficients you have less than average that is most part of the year
are almost all of the year you have average shading coefficient which is less than 50 percent
and the minimum is like most part of the year the shading is not effective this is the west
facing wall it is a thin 450 mm deep shading system, if you want to let us try and improve the
efficiency of this particular system. Let us get back to the previous example we had three you
know louver slats 300 mm deep each there is no tilt right know, take a look at this there is a
marginal improvement from 35-40 percentage the shading average shading coefficients have
gone up to around 55-60 percentage, but still you have the minimum shading coefficients
much lesser than which is desirable.

Further if you want to improve we can improve by increasing the number of slats introduce a
little bit of tilt, but still we find the minimum shading coefficients are further below the mark.
If you resent it out clearly the sun is towards the south you have sun over the horizon, but you

267
have direct incidence from the southern side. So, ideally you will need a vertical shading
device as well. If you look at the horizontal and vertical shadow angles you will get the
answer.

You will need a vertical shading device let us go to vertical shading device that is 0 number,
first add a vertical shading device take it as a 300 mm only right now. If you add more
vertical shading devices the next will appear on the other side, the more you add it will give
you an (Refer Time: 22:32) egg crate shading system. I have added 5 devices for now each
one is 300 mm deep. The horizontal shading system I will cut the angle this is not angular
anymore, so ideally I am getting an egg crate system. Now take a look at what happens on
December 21st you have almost 100 percent shading up to 3 o clock in the evening even after
that you have about 50 percent shaded till 4 o'clock in the evening.

If you look what happen in the summer solstice December June 21st, you have a very
effective shading up till around 4:30 in the evening even after that up to 5 5:30 you have 50
percent shading available.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:21)

You can introduce tilts both for horizontal as well as vertical shading system or if you want to
introduce a pergola this is possible, if you want to provide a detached shading system you can
also do that using this. The simple way to tabulate as I said you can click the shading
coefficients you can get this thing or you can take the stereographic projection. This is as
good as calculating using your sun path diagram as well as the solar protractor. The manual

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way that we discussed about in the previous module you will get the similar thing animated
here you can record animations as well or alternately you can go to the tabular value set the
date and time specifically for the whole day you will get all the desired values starting from
azimuth altitude, horizontal shadow, angle vertical shadow angle and the percentage shading
available.

So far in this module we looked at the shading system design and analysis. I demonstrated the
use of solar tool which is a part of Autodesk Studio. It actually tags along with Ecotect you
can also use the shading tool results or you can model the whole thing in Ecotect you can do
the shading assessment parallel. It goes hands in hand with Ecotect software tool. So, using
that you can more quickly or seamlessly do the shading system design as well as analysis of a
pre-designed shading system.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 12
Energy Efficiency and Simulation

In the previous modules we have been talking more about the climate responsive building,
building envelopes, we talked about the heat transfer, we talked about thermal comfort, and
we also talked about thermal adaptation, design of shading system, properties of glazing
systems. Now we will take a look at energy efficiency, then we touch upon what building
simulation is all about.

As a part of this particular course I may not be able to exhaustively gives you hands on
tutorial on simulations, but I will introduce you to the concept of energy efficiency and how
do we compute energy efficiency and simulate; what is the basic concept behind building
simulation, what are the various tools available, where to apply and how to apply. You will
be getting a basic idea about these things.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:16)

Primarily I will be covering energy use and energy efficiency in buildings, type of simulation
tools and I will be giving you demonstration of one of the leading energy simulation tools.
We will be looking at it the quick demonstration provided. Before getting in to energy and
energy simulation we use energy primarily for comfort conditioning, that is first thing it can

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be the use of fans or it can be the use of air conditioners or heaters depends on the climate
and the indoor requirements of indoor conditions thermal conditions. So, first is for comfort
conditioning then for appliances. So, typically when you will look at the energy load in
buildings we talk about appliance load or connected loads; it can be from your laptop,
computers to household kitchen equipment like, ovens and microwaves or refrigerators.

So, two major things go in; one is appliance, load second is a comfort conditioning load. As a
climate and climate responsive designers we are more interested in the comfort conditioning
part of it, how much really we are spending energy to condition the whole building to be
thermally comfortable. As I said we have been talking about thermal comfort, but there is a
threshold beyond which the building cannot offer much say, we saw some climate example
where even with all passive strategies put in place 20 to 30 percent of the occupied hours you
will need conditioning even a best possible design would need some more, at least minimum
use of the fan ceiling fans.

In these cases we have to really look at where to start optimizing, is there further any
optimization method. One goes with directly the efficiency of the system itself say when you
buy an air conditioner what is the EER you know efficiency ratio of the system itself whether
it is three star rated whether it is five star rated and what is the efficiency it has to offer. It is
like how much power it is taking and how much amount of cooling energy it is producing,
same with the heaters as well. Then as a designer we are concerned about how do we make
our building envelop itself; do we need insulate it, do we need to provide more thermally
sealed envelopes or do we have to enhance ventilation in some cases what is that we need to
do.

Now let us look at the context of simulation. There are lot of benchmarks now even
benchmarks are being developed say for commercial buildings for example, there are
standard benchmark available different standards provide different benchmarks, different
building typology say for a 24 hour operated building verus 8 hour operational building. Like
for example, Bureau of energy efficiency provides an interesting case of baseline for health
care building, say if you want to find out what is the efficiency you need to provide for a
hospital building you can choose the number of beds. There are certain criteria you can look
online based on that it says this is the baseline criteria and how do you improve it. Likewise,
for residential building it is a very challenging thing to define baselines for residential

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building energy, performance baselines there are lots of research and projects going around
evolving certain baselines for this.

Coming to the simulation part of it; simulation is primarily mimicking the actual performance
of building so that you can derive quick and cost effective solutions, rather than doing a field
test and trial and pilot monitoring. Before all that you minimize your effort instead of doing
10 different tests you do the whole thing in your system virtually model it let it behave the
same way or at least closely mimic what the actual building is doing. Then test all the options
here chose two or three tested in field and then take the right one.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:57)

So, what is the context for simulation? You can do simulations for three different parties; first
let us say occupants’ interest as a building occupant you will need a good visual comfort;
visual activity is needed, you need thermal comfort, you need a good air quality, you need
acoustical quality, ergonomic factors are there, spatial design factors are there. Out of all
these primarily we do simulations for visual performance, we can do day light or artificial
lighting simulation, you do simulation for thermal comfort, yes air quality also simulations
are done, acoustical quality lot of simulations are done.

Then next perspective is owner’s interest, say if you are simulation consultant you are
working for a building’s owner, the owner will be interested in an optimum investment
versus lower operational cost. So, the result of your simulation will vary or the way you have
to present your result will vary. What kind of results you have to look for? For example,

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building owner may not be really interested to know what is the actual temperature and its
variations and the space, he will be interested in what is the system you are asking me to buy,
what is the investment I have to make and what is the minimization or reduction and
operational cost and what is my payback period, will be more commercial for a building’s
owner.

Whereas, if you are trying to specify or trying to convince the building standard or building
occupant you will have to talk in terms of this will improve your visual comfort this will
improve your thermal comfort this will also have to talk about energy efficiency. Of course, it
is not exclusive, but the primary thing would be about comfort inside the building. Owner’s
interest, yes of course owners are interested in comfort, but the primary interest is what else is
needed. We have done this now I have to invest this much and this many years I will be
getting the payback.

Then the primary area today where lots of simulations are happening is for these
environmental things, where we have to prove energy efficiency. You take any code like
(Refer Time: 06:53) Griha, LEED, any international code as well ECBC, any complaints is
you want to say you want to prove the building is efficient by say 20 percent 30 percent
relating to the baseline building. So, I really have a base case or you generate a base case, you
put your building now compare this with the base case, try to prove that this is 20 percent
efficient 30 percent efficient. You talk more about energy efficiency and partly about comfort
as well.

Then there are also simulations which are done for environmental impact like CO 2 emissions.
You can simulate what is the overall life cycle energy, life cycle assessment is separate then
life cycle energy can be totally estimated, tools are getting more and more capabilities.
Earlier tools with just had simple comfort simulations, now have energy as a dimension.
Apart from energy they also predict the CO2 emissions; you can enter input lot of values with
which you will be also able to predict environmental impact. And they also have a cost
dimension where you can do the cost benefit assessment can also be done. Before getting
hands on with the simulation you should understand the context and the party for which you
are simulating.

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The process remains the same; there is no change in the methodology. The kind of input
output remains the same, but the way you express it and what you derive out of the results
that is considerably going to vary depending on who you do the work for.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:53)

As for building simulation, building means it is a thermodynamic object. Heat exchanges are
happening. Movement you put a window there is a heat exchange which is happening, from
the opaque wall you are taking 10 percent and you are calling this as a transparent or
translucent fenestration, then the heat exchanges are going to vary. Apart from the window
then you are providing a frame, you are changing certain things, you are providing shading to
the window to thermodynamic balance is considerably getting affected.

Essentially, you are changing an equation you have to look at the whole building as a long
stretch of equation with which any single modification is going to change a variable in the
equation. It accommodates a constantly changing set of energy flows between different
thermal zones, when you say thermal zone each room or each space in a building be refer to
as thermal zones as I said it is a thermodynamic object each room means a zone which is a
thermal zone. There are two types; thermal as well as non-thermal zones. Say if you are
defining a specific shading system or something like that it does not have to be a zone by
itself. We will look at some of these things in the demonstrations.

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There will be a constant set of changing energy flows. It is not static you are talking about
dynamic every minute every hour there is going to be change in external condition change in
internal condition and the gradient of heat flow is also going to vary.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:51)

What is a model? As I said it is a simplified representation of a mathematical expression, it is

representing a real world system or an event. As I said we have to keep in mind 4 important
things. What are the desired results? Are we looking for comfort, are we looking for detailed
assessment of air flow or are we looking for energy estimate or are we interested in the
costing. So, what are our primary results which are essential? Then what design questions we
want to answer? It can be lot of what if questions; what if there are shading, what if there is
insulated glass, what if the wall is insulated. So, there is lots of what if question’s you can
answer using simulations.

But specific to the question your choice of simulation tool will vary and the type of analysis
you do with the same tool itself can vary. Now tools are capable of various different aspects,
they are in module. So, if you want to use, say for example you want to find out what is the
efficiency of the window in terms of ventilation the tool choice itself can be different and the
type of analysis you do with the tool it will be different and the presentations of the results
will be different.

How expensive and time consuming can it get? This is a crucial question especially if you are
in the field if somebody asks you for a quick energy estimate versus a detailed energy

275
simulation results, whether you want a calibrated simulations or you just need a validated
simulations or you do not even need to validate it. As I said there are 3 steps here; first is a
very rough way of estimate of energy. If somebody is asking I have a thousand square foot
building, single storey building there is a large space office space I need to find out what is
the efficiency of a particular system insulating it not insulating it. So, you do not have much
estimate you just know the climate location, you know the space and the type of occupancy.
With that you can derive a very rough estimate, but it will not be any closer to the actual
performance data, but still it is an apple to apple comparison you have the base case you have
the predicted case more or less you can say there is 5 percent efficiency 10 percent efficiency.

The next level is a validated simulation. You will need an actual number of same building or
a similar building type then you can say the predictions are more or less valid. If the actual
number is 1000 I am getting somewhere between 900 to 1100, so there is a little bit of say 10
percent variation in the prediction accuracy. You are kind of validating the trend summer to
winter to monsoon how the trend in energy consumption are comfort or temperatures vary, so
validated simulations.

The third is calibrated simulations, where you have an actual building this is running, you are
trying to help the facility manager to improve the efficiency of the building, you are getting
real time data continuously it is getting feed fed in to the system, now you run the simulation,
you kind of tune the simulation tool to predict as closely as possible the actual results. This is
a process called calibration. So, you are calibrating the whole model to predict as closely as
possible to the actual system. Then you alter various possibilities; it can be building
insulation, it can be changing of operation procedures anything like that addition
introduction, deletion of certain features, then you find out what is the impact of it.

The last thing how to communicate the information? Lot of people do simulation; there are
lots of software tools and each tool also customize and give you a report. If you say print
report, any leading tool you take you can finally after simulating you can say print a report it
will customize and give you a standard format template in which all the results are
sequentially presented. But is that exhaustive thing what we need or we just need one or two
aspects of it which needs to be highlighted.

So, what information you pick from the whole simulation? After you simulate you will be
having an ocean of data. So, what kind of information you pick from that and how do you

276
communicate it. You have two certain post processing. The thing called post processing is
very crucial in the success of simulation results.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:09)

Typically you will get certain breakups. You know what a HVAC is, load this is like comfort
conditioning load, then what is the lighting load, then what is the equipment load and within
that you can get certain segments. If you want to do energy efficiency first thing you need to
do is find out in which area you are working on. Say let me give you an example, total
equipment load is this, imagine this is an office building you have computers plus printing
and reprography machines. If it is around 30 percentages you may not have very big control
on this internal loads or kind of connector loads. Yes, to certain extent you can advise that
you can minimize it, but this is not the field where you have a direct control on.

You will have control on two things; one you will have control on the comfort conditioning
site, number two on the lighting loads. For example, change of one light to the other light.
Say from a florescent light or to CFL or to sorry to LED light then you will say 5 percent
reduction in the lighting load, 10 percent reduction in the lighting load or introduction of a
sensor an occupancy sensor or a light censor you know day light sensor; where it controls on
off or dimming control is provided. Then you will say I have minimize the lighting load in
this kind of you know into this much amount of magnitude.

Then you take a look at the HVAC load. HVAC load is partly due to the building envelope,
partly due to the internal occupancy internal loads we call. Then it also depends on the

277
efficiency of the system. So, in three contexts you can do. In case you are working on
building envelope you have to optimize the envelope itself the choice of software and the
kind of results you need to pick from the same tool can be different. While, if you are
interested in the internal loads the choice can be different, if you are interested in the
equipment side of it you want to model the fans and pumps component to component the
choice of tool or the level of detail you work in the same tool could be considerably different.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:00)

There are different software tools available you have; today it is pretty nice that you have
exhaustive tools for day light and artificial lighting modeling, you have CFD tools fluid
dynamic tools for air flow modeling both air-conditioned spaces as well as naturally
ventilated spaces. Then you have tools for building component level analysis, for example if
you want to estimate the U-value or heat transfer for example through a frame then you have
a specific component tool through which you can assess how much heat gets transferred
through a buildings frame or you want to access what is the air flow distribution through a
particular diffuser. So, specific component level you can analysis.

Overall HVAC analysis you have lot of tools today. Then building thermal analysis heat
exchanges 1 dimensions, 2 dimensions, 3 dimensional or whole building simulations tool are
also available. If you are leading packages which give you combination of these modules,
you can buy certain modules or they will give you all the modules you can use or do not have
to use certain modules some of them are custom made.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:06)

As I said there are specialized components tool we have to quickly take a look at them. For
example, as I said calculation of heat flow through frames. The crucial thing it is a weaker
link we have things for the whole building whole wall thing, but again if you want to get in to
the details of the frames for example, you can have a specific set of tools are available
through which commonly used this is tool called Therm; T H E R M where detailed frame
model can be made indoor outdoor conditions can be set. It is not a whole building thing it is
just an element or component modeling tool. Then you can also model thermal bridges 2-D
heat transfer through window wall interfaces, the junctions joints can be model. Air flow
models can be built fenestration system can be model. So, it depends on the level to which
you have to work on.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:53)

To give overall picture, in the site level you have certain tools then in the building level you
have cooling efficiency and quick estimate can be made. Component level, to the level of
glass frame specifics assemblies you can model. You can have tools for energy efficiency
overall split up can be given or indoor comfort modeling in terms of air flow in terms of
thermal distribution radiation or lighting levels or costing calculations anything can be model
or overall operational efficiency and environmental impact. You can choose pick and choose
tool that you actually need.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:35)

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The general overview of the process associated the first thing start with the database. If you
have to do good modeling the best practice is to first develop a data set. You need 3 different
types of data; first is a material data, you will need thermo physical properties, what is the
density of the material, what is its conductivity specific heat, emissivity, absorptivity, surface
properties this basic material data is a primary requirement.

Next is the construction data. How do you construct wall system, which wall systems you
will primarily use, what is the thickness, what are the different layers associated, what
insulations you are using, where are you putting it. So, you can kind of make a library which
we call the construction systems, wall system, and window system. You can model the frame
separately then you can constitute the whole window glass frame assembly.

Next crucial thing is a climate data. You can generate your own climate data or for standard
specific major locations in any country. Say if you take India around 30 to 35 locations you
have weather data easily available. Weather data I mean a climate data I mean an hourly data
most of the detail software tool will require an hour to hour weather data 8760 hours for the
whole year, the weather data is required. Some standard data’s are available or you can also
develop your own weather data sets.

The next step is, so once you have the database you have a library from which you can pick
next will be the composition of the model. So, first you need the basics drawing, physical
dimensions and drawings are needed. Some tools allow you to import the drawings some of
the tools you will have to model it from scratch, from coordinates you have to start modeling.
So, you need a basic geometry, you need the attributes which size is exposed which is used
which is not used. Then the construction details can be picked from here.

Important thing is the operational details, how many people are there when are they using the
building whether they are opening closing the windows they are operating the shades, what is
the set point temperature is it remaining whole through the day is it remaining the same or
they modifying it. So, you are starting to put in equipment you are starting to put in
equipments in the virtual model. So, occupancy lighting and equipment and how things get
modulated with time. You can feed the schedules very clearly. Then it goes to developing
shading systems, then putting sensors if there are certain sensors where things will be
controlled. Is there are lighting sensor, is there are a temperature control, it can be modeled.

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After this there is an option if you are really going for an air flow modeling or specific
software where you are also taking a natural ventilated air flow, then you have to define
something called a flow connection. It will involve nodes and connections connected through
components. Say you have a room, one single room you are modeling there will be for
example I will call it a node in the center of the room there will be one more node in the
outside it will be connected through a component which is window in this case; an open
window can be a component, open door can be a component a crack which is a infiltration
connection can be a component.

So there are two nodes; internal node and external node which are connected through a
component. This modeling happens fluid flow network modeling, some of the tools allow
you to skip this, some of them if you do not need an air flow thing it is a sealed air
conditioned building you can avoid this. Then the controls, how people use it what are the
sensors actuators what time AC turns on turns off, occupancy sensor light sensor it involves
modeling this things. Then you do an integrated simulation.

Now you have virtually modeled the whole system. You are letting the whole machine run, it
will be giving you results. As I said the major challenge is taking these results picking the
right information from the large repository of results available and then post processing it.
Post processing is a crucial step in this whole process. It is a complex interaction, as we said
building envelope it interacts with the whole lot of thing external environmental is there,
rules regulations are there, plus internal operational patterns are there. So, it is a complex
intervening thing which most of the tools today available leading tools are able to take care
of.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:49)

We will be mainly focusing on one tool today which is energy plus, which is a called engine.
This functions as engine or the core for lot of leading commercial software tools. The tools
available today are front ends of energy plus energy is a core engine I will be showing you in
the demo the screen of energy plus how it looks. You can either do direct modeling in energy
plus which is a freeware it gets updated very constantly you know 5 to 6 times a year you
gets updates it is a very frequently updated tool it has come a long way.

It helps you model heating cooling loads, lighting loads, ventilation model and other energy
flows can also be model. Newer version of it allows you for cost based modeling. You can
also get certain environmental quantities CO 2 emissions etcetera can be obtained. This is a
basic core, lot of leading front commercial softwares take this energy plus as a core either it
can be stand alone or there are cloud based tools, but the commercial front end is sold to you.

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:52)

It has a simulation manager; it has a basic heat mass balance simulation. Then you have a
building description, and then you have the calculation result. This is a core engine. You have
commercial front ends which will interface with it. The basic advantage you get is energy
plus does not have a very good graphic interface you have to go with numerical inputs one by
one. Whereas, this third party tools have graphic interfaces where they kind of pre built
libraries are available, so you can pick and choose it is very simple more or less simplified
approaches that is what actually you are paying for.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:59)

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Lot of tools are available, starting from sketch up you have OpenStudio. If you have sketch
up you can directly use energy plus or there is a tool called OpenStudio with which it tags
EnergyPlus along, so you do not have to spend really lot of money to model or to do energy
simulation. Then you have leading tool DesignBuilder which is available which is also
getting revise quite often. Lot of templates libraries are available it interfaces well with
EnergyPlus. Then Ecotect also interfaces, but you do not find much updates for recent energy
plus version. Every time there is an upgrade in energy plus these tools also update themselves
so as to tag with it more accurately.

We will now go to the demo of this software tools couple of them I will be demonstrating I
will be primarily looking at EnergyPlus I will show you what is the interface looking like,
then I will be showing you how DesignBuilder software tool looks like and what are the
major components and what is the interface and how to work along with this DesignBuilder.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:59)

Now, we will take a look at energy plus which is one of the core engines that I was
mentioning about. There are two three other things or the other commonly used you know
core engine in the ESPR; it is environmental system performance by research. It forms the
basis core for software tools like IES-VE (Refer Time: 25:48). Now we are looking at energy
plus which forms the core engine for OpenStudio which tags with sketch up are
DesignBuilder this things run on or Autodesk Green building studio. This primarily runs on
energy plus as their core. Moment this is freely available for download the current version is

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8.7 it gets updated quite frequently minor to major updates are happening versions update
like 7 to 8, 8 to 9 there will be a major migration in the certain coding patterns also, You
know kind of data exchanges will slightly differ, but then minor variations and bugs fixing
will happen within the same revisions among the same version itself; say 8.1 to 8.2. There
will be minimum variations.

So, once you download install it you will get a screen like this, once you launch it this is
called energy plus launch this is like a launch pad you can run simulations on this. Essentially
you have to choose input file if you have one already or you can create a new one. You can
also do group simulations say you have hundred files together you can tag them together and
simulate it; you can simulate one file with 10 different weather locations. Like you know you
also have few other utilities we will look at them, but before this how to create a simulation
thing itself, how to virtually model the building.

There is something called IDF editor, click on this will open a screen, this is what we call
IDF editor. Here I am opening IDF for an existing file so have you are finding certain inputs
which are already there, you know certain things are already built in. If you open a blank file
say if you want a new IDF file this will be an empty file here you will find a series of inputs
starting from simulation parameters like building shadow calculation and what is that you
need what time if you need the calculations at.

Then you also have location and climate, you can define the sites location, you can start
doing latitude and longitude. So, here if you want to input say take an example here location
and climate I want to input the location, I will say new object more objects get added up say I
can start typing New Delhi then I will give the latitude longitude here I will start entering the
values one by one time zone I have to enter elevation I have to enter, everything manually
you have to be feeding it.

Similarly, the next thing would be the schedule what type of schedule, when people are
coming, what is the day daily morning to evening hourly schedule, how many days of week
people are working, how many weeks in a year, what are the holidays, what is the working
pattern basically, so you define this is like defining library. Like we discussed in the earlier
methodology first we are start of defining the whole set up, we are saying this is algorithm I
want to use what is a kind of heat transfer algorithm. There are different types here; you can
choose whichever is more appropriate.

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Then comes defining the library in terms of location and climate the site conditions basically
including the ground reflections what is the terrain (Refer Time: 29:08) and all that. Then you
can define the schedule library, then the construction element library you can start defining
the material. So, you can say the name of the material. Let us say it is brick what is the
roughness, what is the thickness of the material, what is the conductivity density, specific
heat, thermal observe some numbers you will find are pre built you can modify them as you
want. Then you have window components you can define roof vegetation, you can define air
gap.

Each and everything as you look at it goes by defining in terms of numbers, it is like filling
up huge excel sheet. Then you can define your construction. You have a pre-built set up
material I have brick I have plaster I have insulation layer. Then, now you can define
construction saying layer one is say external finish then there is a plaster then there is say
insulation, then there is brick, then there is internal plaster. So, I can define it layer by layer
you do not have to calculate the overall property that it will do, what you will be defining
layer to layer.

Then comes to defining the geometry; you will be defining zone by zone. If you look at this
you will have to define the x origin y origin z origin. So, it is essentially like a coordinate
system. In very old graphic editing tool kind of thing where if you are more comfortable if
you have the coordinates of the buildings relatively simple you can simply get typing this
numbers you will still have a full proof system software which is giving you good results.

Element by element you can define. Then shading definitions can be done. It goes all the way
up to defining the whole HVAC system itself, starting from coil, starting from fan pump
motors everything can be defined here heat recovery system what types. It does not mean you
have to fill all this parameters. Like we saw the earlier example which I had opened not all
the blocks are filled, some of them are left empty the software still allows you to leave certain
things which you do not need to be unfilled. You do not have to fill anything they have filled
a few things they have left certain things open. This is where you have to act smart saying
what is my required or desired result and what am I really modeling, where am I detailing. If
certain detail is not required I would suggest you leave that blank do not attempt to it. Certain
things are essential only do that and what is relevant to you. Accordingly even in HVAC
system some of them are left blank here they have some more settings they have a connection
loop.

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Then finally, you define what your output variables that you are requiring are, what are the
sets of output? Say here they have asked for outdoor air summary, zone temperature
summary; mean radiant, temperature system, sensible cooling energy, heating energy like you
know they have asked for seven different results. You can also have energy meters, how
much is energy consumption. You can also do costing you can do life cycle cost assessment
here, you can input, you know the currency variables, you can include the tariff, you can
include certain LCC related terms.

Then you will be able to get what is a payback period as well, this computes thing. It also has
parametric things. You can define a logic, you can set a define set of condition then it will be
doing a parametric iterative simulation. Now this is energy plus once you are done with
modeling it you can chose a weather data I am not modifying it much can simply say
simulates to close this, I am not saving any changes just saving simulate.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:36)

It will quickly run it just took four seconds to simulate it, but you will find the results like this
ESO is a common result folder where it is all text data; .txt files you can open it in excel you
can do analysis if you are comfortable with, but this is what essentially you will get result.
You can look at the graphic of the model that you have built; it will be showing you a .dxf
file where you can take a view of what model actually you have made because you have
inputted in terms of coordinates, so it will give you the model here. You can look at the

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model, this is what is the model that we were simulating 4 zones are there certain fenestration
components. And you will be able to see here results.

Now let us take a look at DesignBuilder which I said is a commercial front end of
EnergyPlus. Now this gives you the much more flexibility and ease of use in terms of
modeling. I quickly create a new file I have taken Delhi as a weather file, there are lots of
built in templates you can chose one of the templates or you can go for a blank template, you
can do types of analysis it can vary. So, let me quickly create a file and show you what is
inside this tool. This essentially gives you a graphic user interface where you can start
building your thermal model or a building model virtual building model. It is not as flexible
as sketch up because this is not a graphic model this is a thermal model, so there are certain
restrictions available in case of the shape, form, and the type of modeling that you do.

And one more thing you have to keep in mind the more complex you make your model you
start doing integrate detailing its a thermodynamic object, there will be more and more heat
exchanges which are happening and your modeling time will be drastically increase; some of
the models the tool cannot even handle. So, that would be that large kind of a mathematically
equation or expression to be handled by the software. Here actually you have a basic thing. If
you want to start modeling a building you simply say I had a new building, again it will take
you through a series of template what type of considerations, what are the default data, what
is it an office building or is it something else, what type of construction. Everything as I said
is a prebuilt template. You can actually build your own template before starting to model or
you can start the model then tweak around with the templates.

It will customize and give me a quick a template on which I can do further modeling. It is
preparing the building data, assembling all the libraries, because as such I have chosen the
building type what is the construction type etc. So here I have the height, it is an extruded
shape I can simply draw model finish the edges. So, it has already put in certain window and
other elements here. I am not going to detail it out further. So, this is a model for your
information, different levels are available; first is a site level then this is a building level this
is where we are then if you go the block level there will be different zones. Now, there is only
one zone, so the zone level this is in further in detail. If you click on the zone further you can
access the roof, now this is a floor, this is a roof, and wall if you want to edit further in the
wall you can reach out for the window accordingly.

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Now it has taken a template it has fixed the windows, it has predict through, now you can
start editing the libraries which you have already defined. You can have the activity library
where you can edit, you can have the construction library where you can edit materials this is
construction then the materials can be edited. Then there is a opening library in which the
glazing frame systems can be edited, either you can input a whole U-value or you can model
it component to component. Say take a look at this construction template, if I want to model
the external wall, I can edit it here first it shows the wall has four numbers of layers, brick
layer, and insulation, concrete block and gypsum plastering.

Further if I want to edit these things I can further get in to it, the next window will appear.
Here I can model or modulate the conductivity specific heat or density, I can modify the
surface property, I can define whether there are some green elements, I can input embodied
data I can input whether it is a phase change material it is a type of you know capacity of
insulation which changes phase to observe heat.

Then you can input cost data. Instead you can define the wall definition itself in a simplified
way whether you want to define layers or the whole thing you can define in terms of setting a
U-value for the whole wall. You can just say the whole U-value of the wall is something say
it may u value is 0.9, I can simply say it is 0.9 watts per meter squared Kelvin, you do not
have to get in to defining this layers. But of course, you cannot get a precise account of what
is a heat transfer heat exchanges happening through the envelope. If you want that detail then
go for layer based approach. If you want a quick estimate go for a simple setting up of U-
value and defining with it do not get in to details of modeling it and everything.

You can model infiltration, we saw the openings you can define shading separately, frames
and dividers can be modeled you can model shading system whether it is window shading or
local shading. Window shading is blinds louvers etc. Local shading means it is like overhang
fins can be modeled. Each and every change you make will get updated in the graphic part of
it, then comes the lighting load. You can change the type of lighting; you can also define
certain light you know lighting library. But if you have enough data sheets you can define
your own light fixtures, but more or less it has an exhaustive library which is already
available.

HVAC is another exhaustive you know section which DesignBuilder has. Different types of
prebuilt HVAC’s are available. Starting from generic like CAV system VAV system fan coil

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units, it goes on to. Even you can model the specific system up to fan and pump level motor
level you can do the modeling if you want or you can choose from one of the existing
template. Say if you want air cool CAV system constant air volume system you can simply
say right now it is fan coil unit. Let us choose say constant air volume, air cooled chiller, and
just say click on it the whole thing would change.

You can set your operational efficiency you can set the efficiency of the pumps heating
cooling system coefficient of performance COP can be set. You can define an operational
schedule; you have a series of schedules which are already available. If you want to modify
you can modify again, there are different types of modifying it. You can modify it like a
detailed schedule or a day schedule or a compact schedule it depends. You know the kind of
level of detailing varies. You can also define set temperature at what temperature AC is on,
AC is off. If you want natural ventilation you can define natural ventilation. Passive things
like earth tubes, you can also input certain cost variables. Is there some renewable generation,
it takes care of photo-voltaic generation at the moment.

Then at last you have to define what kind of results you are expecting. Do you want surface
level details, like do you want surface temperature. Then instead of two to three minutes the
simulation is going to take further more time. If you want specific component level heat flow
modeling it is going to take lot of time. Then if you want to define air flow you go to the next
sections CFD it again demands you to kind of model it much more in detail. This is with
heating and then cooling. Then what are the specific simulation outputs. Do you want
environmental factor HVAC energy, you want comfort.

We looked and Fanger’s model, we took at looked at pierce two node model, adaptive
comfort model. It will give you summary of comfort as well. So, movement you are done you
know picking and choosing this things you can do the heating cooling design. It will give you
a quick estimate. This is like your single number calculation, this is not a dynamic
simulations it is a quick estimate of what is a heating cooling load. It will take a particular
heating day where you do the calculations for heat loads, cooling loads and the heating loads.
You will see a quick result; you can also see a summary what is the design capacity, what is
the floor rate, total cooling load sensible latent loads.

Lots of estimate is given. This is as I said it is not hour to hour simulation, but it is a quick
quantitative estimate like were HVAC engineers do it, like a one number estimate you

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estimate the cooling quantity UA delta t plus certain other factors radiations are taken in to
consideration. Once you want detail simulation go to the next tab, similarly you can do
heating design cooling design then comes a simulation tab. Here also you have flexibility,
you can do month wise simulation. If you want for 12 months or just for 2 months just 1
monthly data like you get your energy bills if that enough you will get that alone. The
simulation is pretty faster.

If you want daily number energy consumption per day, average temperature inside
temperature per day, then you will get daily simulation maximum minimum average you get.
Or you can go for hourly simulation hour to hour it will give you data. If you say sub hourly,
how many divisions you want? Do you want it for 5 minute interval 15 minute interval the
more you go in to detail the more simulation time and machine capacity computer simulation
the engine capacity is needed machine capacity is needed.

You can also choose specific month say if you want only for say March to July. Specific set
of month and you only want monthly and daily data you can be fine with it. You have a still
an option of choosing or deleting certain additional outputs which you may want you may not
want. Slightly it is slower than EnergyPlus because there is a data exchange which is
happening between the core and the front end, but once the simulation is done this is
something what you will get. You can see the interval you have simulated for annual data,
monthly data, as well as daily. But if you choose hourly simulation is not done it will ask do
you want to re stimulate right now I am not simulating it daily data is enough.

Per day, what is a variation in fuel consumption, temperature, heat balance, loads typically,
fresh air intake parameters. Then it will give you a summary this can be taken in to HTML
tables is useful information is presented here. If you want to run parametric simulation you
can define condition I am not going to get in to these things right now, but essentially what
you get out of DesignBuilder it is like a graphic user interface plus a simplification system
which is available to you. Say if you are a designer if you are a student who do not want to go
in to the intricacy (Refer Time: 46:00) of energy plus you do not know which section to
choose which section to ignore this is a quick fix solution.

Similarly, OpenStudio also gives you flexibility. It does not have this many template built in,
but it is like a freeware you can build in your own things, takes little bit more time but still
you will have a free to use thing. Whereas, DesignBuilder though it is commercial it gives

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you customize templates much seamlessly you can done simulations the results are reliable
because EnergyPlus is a core engine it has been validated quite significantly validated tool.
Predictions are more or less closer.

Before closing the whole discussion about the demonstration and things, you have to note
that whatever accuracy and whatever precision rather we are trying to predict the buildings
energy simulation energy consumptions. First let us talk about energy consumption alone the
maximum accuracy you will be able to expect is of the order of 50 to 60 percentages
maximum, more or less most of the simulation results are 30 to 40 percent accuracy they are
only one third to around 40 percent maximum accuracy you will get the data which you are
on getting on field.

I am saying say if you are simulating a room and you are building the room running the air
conditioner or heater and finding out what is the similarity you will find around 40 to 50
percent similarity. The rest are all uncertainties, because the exact material performance can
only be proved or found out when it is actually built and actually let to interact with the
climate. Whereas, when you are simulating it virtually there are lot of control conditions
boundary conditions which are very static you do not allow them everything to modulate
dynamically.

With that sense this things are little more or little less representative of the actual scenario,
but base case versus predicted proposed case apple to apple comparison as I said it gives you
a very good fair estimate of what the actual system is going to do. If the (Refer Time: 48:06)
effect of changing certain materials strategies this is pretty much easier to do.

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(Refer Slide Time: 48:30)

So, as a part of this course we looked at the basics of energy used where energy is used in the
building what is energy efficiency, what are the type of simulation tools available or basically
simulation and what do we try to get out of simulation tools. And we also looked at
demonstration of EnergyPlus as well as DesignBuilder software tool.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 13
Building Acoustics – Basics

In this module we will look at the Basics of Building Acoustics. We will talk about basics of
sound, what fundamental things need to be understood before getting on with environmental
acoustics as well as building acoustical design. We will primarily cover the basics of sound
waves.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:47)

We will talk about the decibels scale which we commonly refer as dB sound is expressed in
decibels, and the frequency spectrum, sound spectrum. Then we will look at the difference
between sound pressure, sound power and sound intensity.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:05)

So, as we know we deal with sound in the in terms of wave propagation it is a longitudinal
wave. We have compressions and rarefaction some propagates as longitudinal waves. So, we
have three parameters; one is a velocity which is dependent on the wave length and frequency
of sound, at room temperature typically it is around 340 to 343 meter per second that is a
velocity of sound. So, velocity as well as wave length and frequency they are related in terms
of velocity is expressed as wave length in to frequency. So, what is sound? Typically it is a
compression rarefaction, it is reaching you by propagating through a medium we studied the
Bell Jar (Refer Time: 01:36) experiment during our school. Sound does not propagate
through vacuum, so it needs a medium to propagate. Then properties of the medium as well
determine the propagation of sound.

So, there is a sound source, there is a path and there is a receiver. It can be any source, it can
be equipment, it can be a bird, and it can be some event which is happening. Then there is a
medium of propagation. Typically we call it air borne or when it propagates through the
structure we called structure borne. Then it reaches human ear where the ear is the receiver.
So, three components typical components are involved as per sound is concerned. When the
sound level exceeds certain threshold value we perceive it as noise.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:23)

Typically it is unwanted sound or undesirable sound. One person sound can be other person’s
noise, so the threshold typically varies depending on the source depending on the path and
depending on the receiver, the nature of source as well. Velocity of the sound depends up on
the density of the medium as well as the temperature of the medium.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:45)

Typically it you need bulk modulus as well as the density of the medium. Then you can talk
about the velocity. As well there is a similar equation or expression which relates temperature
of the medium with the velocity of sound.

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 B
Velocity=
√ ρ

Where B: bulk modulus of the medium (Pa) and ρ:density of medium (kg/m3)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:56)

If you take simple examples air at 0 degrees, density is close to 1.3, speed of sound is around
331 meter per second. As you increase the temperature further the speed of sound slightly
goes up. Water, the density is different it is higher, with the higher density the sound speed of
sound increases. Take a material like concrete 2300 kg meter per cube. The velocity of the
sound is pretty much higher than what you see in air. Material like dense material like metal
steel bar with a high density then the speed of sound is really high.

So, how do you express sound? We always talk about sound pressure, sound levels, moment
you say level it is like a comparative term. We do not always pressure is measured in pascals,
but sound you know is not expressed in pascals. Typically you get to you know here terms
like 40 dB, 60 dB, 80 dB. So, these are like levels not the direct pressure value.

So, why do you need to develop this first? When there is a wide range within which the
numbers are varying. For example, in this case of sound which we are talking about human
ear can perceive quite a wide range of sound pressures. So, this kind of pressures this wide
variation in pressure if you are expressing directly it is a too much of long numbers, say it

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ranges from 10 power minus 5 to something like 10 power 3 in terms of pascals. So, we need
a relative term to express.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:28)

So, we always express quantity A and how much quantity B is in terms of relative. In relation
two quantity A, so if it is watts there is a reference watt, if it is a pressure there is a reference
pressure. So, typically we are expressing it as ratio. So, then we can compress it and then
scale it. In this process we are comparing compressing and then scaling it so we end up with
the decibel scale that is what we call as dB. We will look little more in detail of this.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:54)

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As I said the minimum perceptible sound levels varies somewhere as low as 10 power minus
5 pascals and it can go you know as high as more than 100 pascals. Of course, you will have
hearing related problems there will be short term long term impacts if you are exposed to
very high sound pressures.

So, in order to simplify this range you are expressing it in terms of decibel, the minimum
audible or perceptible sound level is a scale that is the scale a that we looked here quantity A
then we are waiting it with respect to what the actual sound pressure is. For example, like a
whisper this is 10 power minus 3 if you express it in terms of dB it would come somewhere
close to 30 to 35 decibels.

Like a jet propulsion it will be around 10 to 20 pascals it can be higher than it will relate to
around 100 decibels. So, this is what actually we are doing in terms on converting pressure in
terms of pressure levels. There are other terms like power and intensity we will look at them.
So, the basic thing is we have

p
L p=20 log
p0
−5 2
P 0 =2×10 Pa∨N / m

This is a threshold of hearing at 1000 hertz frequency.

We will talk more about frequencies, this is like typically a center frequency we call or we
will look at frequencies more in detail. But this is what it means this is the p reference or the
minimum threshold of hearing, below which you cannot here. So, this starts from 0 and then
goes all the way up to. It can be as high as 140 dB or further more you will actually start
losing your hearing ability if you are exposed to very high intensity sound or even intensities
of around 100 110 dB for quite a longer duration there will be temporary and permanent
hearing impairments.

I am going to show you one example, this is a physical measurement of sound that we took
and then we will proceed with what are the terms and parameters that we need to look at.

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(Refer Slide Time: 07:11)

As you see in this graph this is a sound pressure level this is on 22nd October it is 2014, what
you see here is sound pressure level there is dBA I will come to this term a little while couple
of slides this would come, this is decibel sound pressure level and what do you see here is the
time. So, this is somewhere from 5:45 to 6:5, this is 20 minutes recordings here you will see
the following thing this is like split in to 20 minutes this is the first 20 minutes this is the
second 20 minutes the same day. This is the environmental or ambient noise level recorded
from a terrace of a house.

What we find here, the sound pressure level somewhere varies around 55 decibels, dBA here.
Typically this is a suburban area residential area. So, there are not many extra you know
extensive noise sources it is around 55 decibels dB, this is a CPCB central pollution control
board limit, I will show you the you know desirable limits that they have given or permissible
limits they have given. So, CPCB limit here.

So, around you know 5:50 there is a slight increase there are certain high intensity sounds,
certain continuously increasing sounds I have highlighted some of them. As you go in time
there are lots of peaks whatever I have shown in dots versus these stars. So, eventually if you
see as the time grows ideally as the time increases like you go from 5:45 you go down to 7 o
clock 8 o clock in the night, ideally the sound pressure level has to come down because the
vehicle or traffic would come down after the peak hours it has to decay down. In this case

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what happens there is a slight increase here it has gone up above the limit which is prescribed
then it is going further up here, here you are getting something close to 85 dB.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:04)

Around 6:45 it is touching 95 dB you are also getting continuous levels here plus certain peak
values. Around 7:30 you are getting sound levels as high as 120 dB. You are wondering what
these numbers, you know what these things correspond to which recording it is. It is a
residential area in a suburb it is a Diwali.

So what happens here, it was quite here at this point people started doing the crackers these
are like continuously cracked, these are like rockets specific instances of crackers. You get as
high as 120 decibels some of these sounds are that intensity. This is what actually we do. This
is a pollution control board limit. Every year you get to see this in newspapers like, this much
level it went up to up above the prescribed level. Of course, you also have the air pollution
levels going up.

Just to touch space we were talking about sound pressures and sound pressure levels. This is
typically a man made event, series of manmade events we are experiencing somewhere
between 55 decibels to as high as 120 decibels in terms of sound pressure level just to touch
space of what it actually is. Now is this all enough to understand about the sound pressure
and sound pressure level the characteristics of sound. Already we had a good indicator of
how much variation the sound itself is causing.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:37)

But sound is like wide spectrum within which lot of variations can happen. In order to get a
closer look of the characteristic of the source itself or the propagating medium and the
receiver characteristics we need to split it in to specific segments which we call as frequency
spectrum. There are different types of frequency splitting; the simple thing or most common
thing we use is octave band that is 2 is to 1. So, you have a center frequency for example, you
have a central frequency of 500, the next central frequency would be into 2000, then it would
be 2000, 4000.

Typically our interest would lie somewhere between 31.5 hertz to 16,000 hertz and some
cases it would go from 16 hertz to 20,000 hertz or 20 kilo hertz. This is typically for building
applications we refer from 63 and half hertz on the lower end that is of low frequency it can
go as high as 16,000 hertz, but mostly we stop around 8000 hertz for our specific observation.
How do you split this octave bands? As I said different types this most commonly used is
octave band. If you want to further split it up you can split it up to third octave bands. So,
each octave get split into three I if I have you more details about it.

So, using this simple relations you can find out n is a which octave, it is this is upper limit
and lower limit of the spectrum, then if you want the center frequency when I was taking
about 500 hertz 1000 hertz these are center frequencies of bands. So, if you want the lower
limit from the center frequency you can find the lower as well as the upper limit.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:13)

So, what is all about this octave and third octave? Let us start from say 31.5 we will go up to
16 kilo hertz, so this is one band in this band the upper limit is 22 to 44 hertz, if you split that
further in to three octaves so you have one third octave band where 25 31 and half and 40.
So, three center frequencies are obtained. Then the next frequency is 63 that is this in to 2
which we saw earlier this is single octave in to 2 then you get this you can split it further in to
3. Then you have 125 all the way it goes to 16 kilo hertz.

Now while splitting the single signal in to multiple spectrums what we actually obtain, we are
able to find out which source has what type of characteristics. Now talking about this not all
sources have similar frequency characteristics if you look at this is a piano keyboard like any
instruments if you are able to appreciate music you will know you will be have a low mid and
high frequencies, typical piano keyboard this is what you know you will have the middle see
and just spread of it.

Each instrument, each source, any particular noise signal sound signal we will have a
frequency spectrum. If you take violin for example, the prominent frequency lies somewhere
between 150 hertz it goes up to close to 3500 hertz. On the other hand, if you say a bass drum
this is a low frequency side. Typically music systems we talk about you know woofer and
twitter; twitter goes on the high frequency, woofer goes on the low frequency we will start
feeling the vibrations itself. The bass drum gives you more in the low frequency, whereas
violin gives slightly on the mid and high frequency. Whereas, if you see something like a Jet

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Air Craft take off you have a really wide spectrum, it ranges from a very low frequency to a
very high frequency. Propeller air craft it is more on the low frequency compare to higher
one.

Now, look at this it is like male and female voice; male voice slightly goes to the lower
frequency spectrum it is start somewhere from 125 hertz goes all the way to slightly more
than 2000 hertz, whereas female voice does not go that low, but it has a slightly higher
frequency spectrum than the male voice. So, if you take multiple numbers of sources we will
be able to split what frequency spectrum they actually are emitting the sound levels.

This has lot of implications, but primary implication the sound propagation depends mainly
on the frequency on the wave length of the sound frequency determines the wave length
frequency is a number of cycle wave length is the distance between the compressions or
rarefactions. The frequency of the sound has a strong impact on the way the sound
propagates. So, if you have to design a say for example, an indoor acoustical design has to be
done you have an auditorium or a classroom, you have to really understand which frequency
there is a prominence of sound mean, which prominent frequency the sound is getting
emitted. Only if you know that you will be able to give a proper treatment. Similarly for a
environmental noise you want to design a noise barrier you want to arrest the sound you want
to do sound proofing the first idea you should have is about the sound pressure level, how
much intense the sound is. And number two which frequency is spectrum the sound is getting
emitted. So, if you know these two characteristics then you will be able to effectively contain
or treat the sound source.

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(Refer Slide Time: 15:53)

In continuation with the previous slide I have put certain frequencies, the frequency spectrum
of some of the mechanical equipment. This is a octave band again here you find different
mechanical equipment these are associated with air conditioning system HVAC system, it
starts from fan and pump noise typically fan and pump noises lie in the low frequency
spectrum. It can go as low as 31 and half to around 500.

Imagine you want to provide treatment for a fan or pump, if you find that the fan is emitting
more than desirable noise then if you have to provide treatment your treatment material as
well as the strategy should be attending to treat the frequency spectrum between 31 and half
hertz to around 500 or say 1000 hertz. This should be your area in which treatment the
material should be effective in this particular range, your treatment should hold effective
here. On the other hand if you go with dampers or diffusers it is on slightly on the mid and
partly high frequency ranges. Again the treatment that you need to give for diffusers or
dampers should be on mid and high frequency ranges, you do not have to worry about the
low frequency.

As the frequency levels further comes down if you can see the structure bone vibrations are
present here. Imagine you are in your sound system you are going for a woofer there is a bass
drum which is being played the woofer is really loud then you will start feeling the vibration.
This is a typical thing you notice in PA systems as well some of the systems good in low
frequency you will feel the vibrations.

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These are typically structure borne vibrations when it comes to sound propagating through
your building envelope or any particular structural system you can feel it in the relatively low
frequency range. Some of these things are really not audible, say for example when it goes
further below 16 hertz you will not be able to hear it, but you will be able to feel it. Instead of
using a sound measurement you will be doing vibration measurements for really low
frequency like 3 hertz 5 hertz and all that. These are not audible ranges; the audible range is
between 16 hertz to primarily 16,000 hertz sometimes to 20,000 hertz.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:05)

Getting back to our example these are the same crackers sound that we were talking about.
Three different frequency spectrums I have put, this is 250 hertz, this is at 1000 hertz and this
is at 8000 hertz. Different time lines indicated in different colors. To highlight why we need
this particular frequency spectrum related analysis, what you find here at different spectrum
the distribution of sound pressure level this is sound pressure level considerably varies. The
same sound pressure level at different frequencies you will find a considerable difference as
well as with respect to time.

In case you want to impose a regulation, you want to give a treatment you want to give
protect or insulate a particular system or a building you will have to really have an
understanding of where which frequency spectrum the sound is getting emitted.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:51)

Now we were talking about the source characteristics. Let us take a look at the receiver
characteristics. We had source path and receiver, moment you come to receiver that is the
human ear; the human ear is not sensitive equally to all the frequencies. Let us take a
frequency from 20 hertz all the way to 10,000 or even 20,000 hertz. The frequency spectrum
in which the ear is more sensitive the ear is actually sensitive to 1000 hertz and above as it
comes down below 1000 hertz that is as you go towards low frequency this is where you start
perceiving. That is even louder sounds are perceived to be less loud. I am using the term loud
I will come to that term in the next slide.

But before that imagine you have a sound pressure of 100 decibels at 1000 hertz if you
without telling you that this is 100 dB if I am asking a set of people to mark how much
decibel it is or to tune another source to that particular level they will be most probably
tuning it to more or less 100 decibels at 1000 hertz frequency. Imagine I am doing the same
exercise at 100 hertz frequency or 120 hertz frequency the person is going to perceive it to be
20 decibels lower than what it actually is. So, you would be probably telling that this is a 80
dB sound instead of saying that it is a 100 dB sound.

As you further go down in frequency, say if you go as low as 20 hertz you are going to
perceive it as just 50 hertz you know 50 dB sound at 20 hertz. What you know actually is in
1000 hertz the same 100 decibels here also it is the same 100 decibels, but you will perceive
it 50 decibels lower than what it actually is. As you go higher there is a slight increase that is

308
for example, a 2000 hertz the same 100 decibels sound the healthy human ear would perceive
it slightly 2 or 3 dB higher than what it actually is. But they again after say 5000 to 6000
hertz it eventually starts coming down, not as low as this slightly lower. So this particular line
this red line represents the response of human ear. This red line typically represents how
human ear perceives sound.

So, there is a weightage factor here. As I said if you have 100 dB you can apply this
particular curve and find out how human ear would actually perceive the sound. This is
represented as A and that is what typically we call dBA. It can be written dB within bracket
A or dBA. Typically it mimics how human ear perceives the sound. When I take a instrument
when I measure the sound level the spectrum each frequency I am counting I am making a
table after that the conventional way of doing it was I used to apply this correction factors at
each of these frequency and scale it down or slightly up toward the human ear actually will
be perceiving.

So, keeping this in mind a dBA scale today the sound levels meter today have a built in filter,
so if you switch from dB to dBA they will apply this correction factor and tell you what dBA
is actually. Sound pressure again is a cumulative number, you can measure it in different
frequency and then integrate it to one number finally we call it dBA. When we are talking
about different loud sounds, so you know sound at 100 dB at 1000 hertz versus the same 100
dB at 20 hertz they are not equally perceived as equally loud so we have a quantity called
loudness. We know quite well about loudness.

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(Refer Slide Time: 22:38)

There is a chart which was proposed by Fletcher and Munson, he drew equal loudness
contours at each of these frequencies how much the equivalent sound pressure level are, how
equal the sound levels. For example, it is expressed in phones, this is frequency, you have the
sound pressure level here and these are perceived to be equally loud. Say at 1000 hertz this
particular say 10 dB, at 20 hertz even the 75 dB sound will be perceived to be equally loud as
this particular number.

So, this is like equal loudness contour. In fact, this A and I did not talked about B and C
weighting these are similar weightages used for specific applications say if you have to work
with aircraft noise typically you refer to B weighted sound pressure level. C is more or like
linear, we also refer to linear sound pressure level that is more or less unweighted sound
pressure level there is no weightage. The actual thing is taken more or less we refer linear as
z weighted C weighted is also more or less equal to the linear sound pressure level. There is
not much of weighting which is given.

310
(Refer Slide Time: 23:33)

This A, B, C are other types of weighting are primarily derived as a inverse of this Fletcher
and Munson equal loudness curve.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:59)

To quickly brush up the sound pressure level, the threshold of audibility typically you do not
hear anything. There is nothing like you know even in a very peaceful quite environment you
will not be able to measure 0 decibel, because air itself is exerting some pressure frictions. It
will cause a minimum amount of 20 25 or at least 30 dB sound will be there present in any
space.

311
(Refer Slide Time: 24:11)

Then typically a rock show you can expect as high as 110 115 dBA. Railway platform and
the train is stationery again when the train moves it is different it can go to 80 85 dBA.
Pneumatic drill, I have put that at 3 meters as you get closer or as you get further the sound
pressure varies. So, we will look at the distance corrections in a little while around 90 dBA.
Typically an office environment you need it quite, when I say quite you will be expecting
something around 35 to 40 dBA where you are at peace you do not get disturbed by any other
sound pressure.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:54)

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Typical sound levels, outdoor noises like rural ambient area it will be some somewhere
between 30 to 40 dBA. And as you go up air plane at 1000 foot height you will still be able to
find depending on the air craft and the turbulence’s it can be somewhere between 90 to 120
dB. Typical house hold appliances like washing machine, dryers, chain saw is pretty you
know it is a high frequency. Then it will also have higher sound pressure level. You have
instruments within an airplane cabin rock band, hi-fi music cafeteria like you know this is for
a quick reference you can build it with multiple sources.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:43)

What is our pollution control? What is our pollution control we will talk about it gives a
simple table where different areas zones are defined; four different zones are defined
industrial area, commercial, residential and silence zone. Silence zone could be an hospital or
a school. Limits of dBA sound pressure level Leq I will talk about Leq little while. They have
given for day and night time typically for example if it is an industrial area day time can be
maximum 75 dBA, it should not exceed 75 dBA, whereas at night time it should be slightly
lower so 70 dBA. If it is like a residential zone day time maximum permissible is 55 nights
time it should come down to 45.

See you are conducting a pro show in a residential area typically you will not be permitted as
per pollution control board rules, because you are going to produce 80 to 90 dBA sound
while the maximum permissible is 45. If it is silence zone day time is 50 night time is just 40
dB. So, that is why what the prescribed values are. Lot of outdoor activities need to comply

313
with this. Simple example is you are working for a company there is a construction activity
going on, you need to monitor the construction noise level both day time and night time, you
are report it to central pollution control board only then you will be given clearance for your
construction. There is a frequency every month every quarter you have to be reporting this
noise levels. Typically for construction highway projects, even metro operations any train
operation this things has to be measured and reported.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:15)

So, we also talked about three other quantities; first we were talking about pressure we also
talked about intensity and sound power.

p
L p=20 log
p0
−5 2
P 0 =2×10 Pa∨N / m

There are two other quantities; first let us look at sound power. When you buy a speaker
typically for your music system you will ask how many wattage, how many watts your
speaker is, so this is power. We will talk about the relationship first is sound power. So, again
power in terms of acoustical terms we will refer it as sound power level.

W
Lw =20 log
W0
−12
W 0=10 W

314
Again you know it is relative scale intensity.

I
Lw =20 log
I0
−12 2
I 0 =10 W /m

We will come to the exposure quickly.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:10)

So, what is it differ from pressure and power? When you have a sound source it is having a
power, when it is emitting there is a medium this is source this is path and it can be receiver
can be an instrument or human ear. So, source path and receiver you perceive it as pressure.
A simple analogy is you have a radiant heater it has certain power, power consumption we
talk about it has certain power, it emits the heat radiant heat we are talking about the heat
transmission heat transfer, it emits heat and then you start perceiving it through a sensor or
through your human body in terms of temperature.

So, this can be equated here, there is power here and what you perceive is pressure. It needs a
medium in terms of compression and rarefaction it trans propagates and then it reaches you it
causes your tympanum to vibrate in your ear which senses it as the pressure quantity. So, you
have a sound power that is a source it can be anything says mechanical equipment,

315
propagates through the room and then it reaches you. So, what you measure or what you
perceive is a sound pressure.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:28)

We will refer further to it as sound pressure level. We will look at some of the relationships.
First let us take a look at how to find out the relation between sound power and sound
pressure. First of all why do we need to know this most of the equipment say like I told you
the speakers when you buy you buy it with the power rating, you have a fan, you have a
mechanical equipment, you have a motor you have a pump any test you know certificate or
the data sheet will give you the sound power levels.

So, first when you know the power you actually have it in the data you have to then calculate
as an acoustician you have to calculate what the sound pressure is or sound pressure level
perceived, because human is of importance where that is why we are doing this design
calculations.

2
I =W / 4 π r

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(Refer Slide Time: 30:10)

So, you take a spherical propagation you have the source here it propagates all across, so if
you take a particular area then if you take the whole thing it is W /4 π r2 this is where you can
find the intensity. Then again similarly intensity can also be said

2
¿ p / ρC

Where,

P :pressure, ρ:density, c: velocity

so you get acoustic impudence here. If you equate this and this both the right hand side like
just

2 2
W /4 π r = p / ρC

If you take log and equate it you will

L p= Lw −20 logr−11

Here this is a sound power level r, here is a distance and this is a constant.

So, what do you understand now? If I am telling you that the sound power level of a
particular pump or a motor is going to be 100 decibel. In terms of sound power level say if it
is 100 decibel as a distance varies you are going to get a difference in the sound pressure

317
level. You have to observe this is negative sign. So, as the distance increases the sound
pressure level is going to come down, as you go further the sound pressure level will drop
down there is a constant here. We will look at further about the sound propagation in the next
module, but quickly this is a relationship.

Then the next thing is how sound pressure relates with the intensity. As we looked at here,
intensity is p2 / ρC is specific acoustic impedance.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:39)

So, now, you can write this as if I want to calculate LI

I
LI=10 log
I ref

This is a logarithmic scale, so if I need to if I know the intensity I need to find out the

I
intensity level this will be We know that I ref is 10-12, Then this equation will become
I ref

2
p ref
LI =10 log
ρC I ref

. If you write it off you can term this whole thing as a constant called K

2
p ref
K=
ρC I ref

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This is reference intensity this is p square reference that is your s reference sound pressure.
This is termed as K, take a negative sign this become inverse of it.

Now, we know both p square references as well as we know I reference, p square reference is
2x10-5. So, if you substitute you will get the number 400. The only thing left is rho c if you
want to substitute value for ρC you will need the pressure as well as temperature. Let us take
air as a medium a typical atmospheric pressure let us take a temperature around 39 degrees
you get a ρC value, this can be calculated ρC value is around 400 that is the acoustic
impedance provided is 400, while the temperature reduces you get around 412 that means
impedance increases.

So, if you substitute both these values say let us first take 400, if we substitute 400 here it is
already 400 this will become 1, so the whole thing is 0. Now,

LI =L p

that is sound pressure will be equal to intensity. Even if the temperature drops down the ρC
value impedance value goes up you are getting 412, if you substitute you will get something
around 0.01 which is negligible if you take logarithm it will be a very negligible number,
even then sound pressure will be more or less equal to sound intensity.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:54)

The relation between power and intensity similarly you have

319
 Lw =10 log W /W ref

Where

−12
W ref =10

This W reference W can be expressed as I intensity in to surface area if you substitute this
number here it will become I by I reference in to yes, so this becomes plus 10 log of S by S
reference. So, this will be surface area by reference surface area.

If you take reference surface area as 1 meter square typically if you say this particular patch
is 1 square meter then this will be equal to LI that is sound intensity plus 10 log of S. So,
indirectly what it means if the surface area is 1 meter square then sound intensity will be
equal to sound power. So, this basic relation between sound pressure sound power and sound
intensity we have to be remembering.

(Refer Slide Time: 35:45)

The last thing is how do you add or subtract sound power levels. So, you have 2 fans, 2
pumps, we will look more about decibels additions, but quick thing to look at you have 1
sound power level the second sound power level 10 log W by W reference. Say you will have
W 1 and W 2, so you can find out two levels then you subtract it which ideally means in
logarithm it will be W1/W2. You know W1 -W 2, this is reference this is reference so finally
W1/W 2. With this ratio you will be able to find what are the difference between l W1 and W
2.

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(Refer Slide Time: 36:15)

As a part of this session we looked at three important things; one is we talked about basics of
sound waves, their propagation. Then decibel and frequencies levels, what is the decibel
scale, why do we need it, and then what is the frequency spectrum how to calculate the limits
of frequencies, and how common sounds have their frequencies spectrum. And at last we
looked at three relations; that is the relation between sound pressure and power, sound power
and intensity, and how they relate to each other.

Thank you.

321
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 14
Sound Propagation

In this module we will be looking at the Propagation of Sound. We looked at the basics; we
talked about decibel scale and frequency spectrum in the earlier classes. We will here look at
how sound propagates. So we will talk about the basics of it.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

Another crucial thing is about the addition of sound level. When you have two sources 3
sources how do you add decibels. Then we will talk about the directional and non-directional
sources. Then we will finally end up with the small calculation associated to noise barriers
and sound attenuation.

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(Refer Slide Time: 00:58)

We have been assuming sound as a point emitting sound in this space equally in all
directions. Imagine there is a sphere you have the sound source emitting sound equally across
all the directions it can be take any particular direction we call it Omni directional source,
take any particular direction let us assume the sound power of 0.005 watts, the sound power
level then if you substitute 10-12 watts that is W reference watts you know the reference watts
you will get around 97 dB this is a sound power level. So, you have from sound power you
have the sound power level.

If I have to calculate intensity we looked at it I is W /4 π r2 . So, now you take a sphere, so this
W I W is a source characteristic. So, this will be Lw. If I want to further investigate what is
the intensity an intensity level. First I need to find out what is the intensity from power I can
find out the intensity the same, you know source I am taking 0.005 watts, if I substitute and
take say r as 1 meter at the distance of 1 meter so the sphere this whole thing becomes 1
meter. If I want to find the intensity; intensity is 4 in to 10 power minus 5 from that if you
further want to find out the intensity level. As such you know the levels are more important
for us then the intensity itself you have the intensity reference again 10 power minus 12 watt
per meter square. You will get a sound intensity of 86 decibels.

Now, you go ahead further we talked about 1 meter; if I go further way 1 meter so the total
thing is 2 meters now. At 2 meters if you calculate the same sound source 0.005 watts

323
substitute 2 instead of 1 the sound intensity comes down. So, here you had 0.0004 watt per
meter square.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:46)

Here this is 1 1 in to 10 power minus 4 watts per meter square. Further, you find the intensity
level. See this is typically difficult to remember say instead of saying 4 in to 10 power minus
4 and 1 in to 10 power minus 4 we can simply take a level. If you substitute and take the
sound intensity level it becomes 80 decibels.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:23)

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So, instead of 86 decibel at 1 meter here it was the LI was 86 dB, if you go 2 meters this
becomes 80 dB this is again intensity level. So, 6 decibels have reduced if you go further 1
meter. Instead of 2 meter if you take 4 meters not 3 meters if you take 4 meter you will notice
that this is further coming down to 74 dB. As you double the distance from 1 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to
8, if you double the distance every doubling of distance you will find a reduction of 6
decibels that is in the free field without any obstructions. Imagining the sources of point
source and it is Omni directional source.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:18)

Now imagine there are two sources. Apart from this you are introducing another source, this
is also equal we said about 0.005 watts per meter square. Now, there are two sources take the
intensity 4 in to 10 power minus 4. So, there are two sources; I one and I two, if I am adding
it so first how will I find the total intensity levels. First I will add these two then I will take
the intensity level it is going up by another 3 dB instead of 86 dB it is coming to plus 3 dB.
So 1 plus 1, this is source 1 this is source 2 if you add that you get an addition of 3 decibels
which means increase of sound from 86 to 89 dB means one more source have got added up.

Similarly, if you are able to reduce the sound level from 89 to 86 dB it means that you have
totally turned off one of the sources. There are 2 pumps, 2 motors in a room each one is
emitting 86, 86 dB you add them you will end up with 89. If you turn off one of the pumps or
one of the motors you will reduce 3 decibels which means one of the sources is turned off.

325
Now, imagine there are 3 sources first two sources have the same intensity, but the third
source is almost like one quarter. It is like pretty quitter than what these two things are; it is
like adding another decimal here. If you sum it up you are getting 86 as a number here, if you
take the intensity you do not see a difference in the sound intensity level it still remains as 89.
What does this mean? I have put additional source this is source number 3.

So, imagine now there are 3 sources; one source is 100 dB the second source is also 100 dB.
Now if I add this I am going to get 103 dB in the logarithmic addition we will look more
examples of it. If I am adding another source which is about say 60 dB and turning on
another source which is 60 dB if I further add this to this I will still be getting only 103 dB I
will not be finding further increase to it. If there are equal sources or if one source is more
than slightly more than slightly less than the other we will look at the specific numbers, but
this is what it amounts to. If the threshold the difference between this and this or any of the
sources is pretty much lesser you will not find a reduction or increase in overall sound
pressure level. Imagine you are adding 100 dB plus 60 dB there are two sources, the overall
number will be still be 100 decibel the lower sound pressure or sound intensity level source
will not be heard.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:15)

How does it get added up? L p1, now we are looking at sound pressure L p1 plus L p2 x it
will become 3 decibel.

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(Refer Slide Time: 07:23)

Simple logarithmic addition, one source two source plus 4 sources each doubling of the
source is 3 decibel increase will be perceived.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:28)

L1/10
Simple logarithmic addition as I said you have to take 10 by 10 antilogs taking simple
thing. This is the second sound pressure L2/10 etcetera by Ln/10 overall if you sum it up you
will get the total cumulative value. Simple way if you have equal sources, like we said here
there are 200 decibel sources or 10 number of 100 decibel sources you have motors 10

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motors operating each one is producing 100 dB it is much more simpler you can just say 10
x log n, n is a number of equal loud sources you will find what is the level difference.

So, when the level changes by 1 decibels say you know 80 to 81 dB 90 to 91 dB it is

noticeable; 3 decibel is very noticeable and as per as high it is almost doubling or halving the
sound level. If you recollect in the pollution control board table we refer to a term called
equivalent sound pressure level.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:30)

This is exactly what we will be looking here, we have L equivalent which means equivalent
sound pressure level. Two terms will be commonly occurring that is L equivalent that is
linear equivalent sound pressure level another is La or A weighted sound pressure level
equivalent.

The moment you see the term equivalent which means that it is a time integrated sound
pressure level. As we know reported some of the measurement I showed you two three
measurements that were taken during the occasion of Diwali. The measurements were taken
at specific every second in the sound pressure level was significantly varying. So, this was
measured for 20 minutes duration that I showed you. For the 20 minutes there is a lot of data,
so if I have to tabulate every second how is the sound pressure level variation. So, every
second there will be a time stamp and there will be sound pressure level at different
frequency.

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Right now let us keep the frequency aside; you have a linear sound pressure level. So, there is
a time stamp 1 you have L 1, you have the time stamp 2 you have L 2, so it goes on up to L n.
What do we do if I have to report the whole thing as table, what pollution control board wants
if I have to report a value or if I have to submit a report to pollution control board? I have to
prove that the activity which I am doing does not create more sound and it does not pollute
the ambient. Say if I am like I said if you are conducting some show in the residential area in
the night time, the night time sound pressure level should not exceed 45 dB as per the
pollution control board terms.

In that instance what you will do, you will take a series of sound pressure level measurements
across different times so you will be measuring at continuously at specific intervals;
continuous measurements are needed. Then you tabulate it take a time integration sum it up
you will get the equivalent sound pressure level. So, it is like a average value, but it is not
typical average value it is a time integrated value which you will get one single number
which is called equivalent sound pressure.

So, if you are working on A weighted scale you will get a weighted equivalent sound
pressure level.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:40)

Other than these three parameters are important that is L10 L50 and L90. These are called
percentile sound pressure level, percentile levels. These are commonly used in environmental
noise measurements. Apart from Leq and LAeq you also will be coming across terms like

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L10 L50 and L90. These are like 10 percent of the time there is a exceedance. These are
exceedance sound pressure level and this is nothing but the sigma or the mean value. If I say
L50 during this 1 hour duration or 8 hour duration the sigma or L50, 50 percentile values say
70 dB it means the average sound pressure level is 70 dB during that 1 hour or 8 hour
duration in which I have taken the measurement.

On the other hand when I say 90 percentile it means that for 90 percent of the duration during
which the sound pressure levels are measured, for 90 percent of the time the particular value
existed. In this case it could be like say 60 dB, for 90 percent of the time the sound pressure
level was around 60 decibels. 10 percentile means what is exceeding for 10 percent of the
time? If I measured for 8 hours for 10 percent of the total duration the sound pressure level
was say 95 decibel. This is a slightly more detailed way of representing the sound pressure
level. Apart from simply saying equivalent or A equivalent value.

So, if I say L10 is 95, L50 is 70, L90 is 60 dB typically for pollution control board number
what I will be giving I will be giving the number 70 dB. Say if it is a industrial area I will say
that sound pressure level recorded was 70 decibel which says that average it is 70 dB. But
how high it went for 10 percent of the time it went above 95 dB, it was above 95 dB. And for
90 percent of the time it was around 60 decibel which is still agreeable. The average gives
you a more or lesser rough estimate of what the sound pressure is, but actual number the
sensitivity of it the impact of it you will get with L10 or L90 these two things are also
important. Some relation between each of them if you know one you can calculate the other
simple statistical relationships I have put here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:05)

The other term which is important is a sound exposure level. This depends on how much
impact it causes you, for how much time you are a person as a person are exposed to it. Say
you are operating particular machinery, the machinery is producing 90 dB sounds if you are
just going to operate it for example, 5 minutes the impact which it causes to you or your ear
hearing ability is different, when you are going to operate it for 8 hours a day. The same
machinery when you operate for 5 minutes versus the same machinery you operating it for 8
hours. So, the impact that causes you the exposure you have for the sound varies. So that
exactly is given by the sound exposure level.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:58)

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If you know equivalent sound pressure level you can determine SEL along with the time you
have to know how much time it is or if you know one the other equivalent sound pressure
level can be determined.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:58)

So, what actually happens? Let us start from this 82 decibel sound, these are studies done
with industry workers. If it is 82 decibel sound if a person is experiencing or exposed for 16
hours after 16 hours he will start getting impacted in terms of temporary and permanent
hearing ability related problems. As sound pressure level increases, say as it goes to 100
decibel if he is exposed to more than 15 minutes he is going to have hearing related problems.
If he is exposed to 115 dB sound like jet propulsion, less than 30 seconds he will be having
hearing related problems.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

So, when I say hearing related problem typical cross section two things are important; one is
a cochlea, then you have you know the ear drums.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:49)

These are two closer looks of the images of this particular portion the cochlea. This is a
healthy ear this is after an exposure of 120 dB for 5 hours. More or less these hairs are the
receptors have been lost which means there is a permanent hearing loss which is going to
happen for this particular person.

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How does sound propagates outdoor? We looked at this equation the relation between L p
and L W that is sound pressure will be equal to

L p= Lw −20 logr−11

r is the distance here. So, we also talked about last time how sound varies as it travels
through distance.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:31)

We are talking about first non-directional sources. Again similar you know the spherical
point here it propagates across, there is no barrigation around it can propagate in all the 360
degrees. So, if you take the first distance as r 1, if you have second distance as r 2 what will
be the pressure difference between the sound pressure 1 and sound pressure 2 the difference
will be r2 by r1.

If you substitute say for example, you have a sound pressure of level of 98 dB at 5 meters
after 20 meters that is you are actually first it is 1 doubling and 2 doubling after 5 meter it is
10 you are doubling it then you have another one you will have about 6 decibel reduction in
sound pressure level.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:16)

We talked about the non-directional sources, but most of the sources we experience are non-
directional. There is no single point in the space from which you are going to hear sound.
Most of the building and building related or transport related sounds are directional. Simple
example of directional source you put a motor in the center of the room like this you are
suspending the motor it is emitting the sound again it will be directional because motor has
lot of components each component has directional factor, but imagine you are fixing the
motor on the floor plate. Now there is one dimension in which the total sound propagation is
blocked. So, it only hemispherical in which there is a directional quantity introduced.

The same kind of equipment it can be a motor or a pump fixed at 90 degree wall angle here
you are fixing it, then it is only a segment of this hemisphere in which the sound is getting
propagated. Instead you are putting it in a room corner the same source then the directionality
of the sound it is blocked in three sides, so this same thing will be reflected and re reflected it
will be coming back to the same direction. Ideally the perceived sound pressure level should
be increasing from this to this to this and then to this.

This is expressed in terms of two quantities; one is directivity factor and directivity index. Q
we refer to typically as directivity factor, it is nothing but the ratio of the intensity of Omni
directional source. You know a directional source with respect to Omni directional source.

Directivity Index=10 log10 Q θ

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:04)

We will substitute it and see it in the equation. This fits in to the equation there is a series of
derivation which I am not presenting right now. This fits in to this whole equation the same
equation, it adds as another factor plus DI theta that is directivity index adds up as another
factor. Now let us substitute some numbers and see this. Let us take a constant sound power
level of 110 dB and let us also fix the distance let us take 2 meter distance we are not
propagating further we are holding a 2 meter distance.

At this particular point a 110 dB sound power source if you have to find this on pressure level
first for a Omni directional source the sound pressure level this will be nullified the effect of
DI theta will be nullified because Q is 0, now Q is 1 DI theta will be 0, so the effect is
nullified. Then for a particular floor plate the pump fixed on a floor plate one direction it is
totally cut off. The directivity factor becomes 2, log of this you will get 3 there is a 3 dB
addition. Then the next case Q is 4 here two sides are blocked you get 6 dB addition here,
instead of 90 3 it becomes 96 then it is 99. Then when you have 3 side enclosures only one
side sound is going to propagate you have a Q of 8 which means it is nine dB additions.

The same distance, the same sound power source as the directivity varies if you are curtailing
more and more direction if it is focused on one side the sound pressure level is going to
increase. The same pump put in the center of the room versus fixed on the floor plate versus
fixed on a wall corner and fixed on a room corner the sound pressure level at 2 meter is
considerably going to vary. This is what we need to first understand.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:02)

Apart from this there are 3 types of sound sources. So far we have been talking about sound
as a point in the center of the space or point with a direction fix to some point. We you know
sound is getting emitted from a particular point. There are two types of other sources which
are of importance apart from point source. Next is a line source, third is a planar source.

I can give you specific examples for each of these sources the propagation pattern differs. As
a part of this course I am not introducing you equations or derivation related to line or planar
sources, we will start by point source alone we have to precede further with building
acoustical related, design related things. So, first is point source which we have been looking
at. To differentiate it I will give you some example.

Imagine you are located at the point you have a train which is passing by, you have a train
which is getting along when you stand here. This particular thing is not a point it is a linear
source or you are at certain distance, you have a traffic corridor, and you have a series of
vehicles. So, when you have a traffic corridor on one side you have vehicles each one is a
vehicle for example, each of this vehicle is going to emit some sound you are located at this
point. So, now at this point you will be hearing distinctly each of these vehicles. Now this
train again you will be able to hear this is one single source.

In this case now if I am moving further from a particular distance say I am at 10 meter
instead I am going to say 40 meter distance what is this feel like, they merge with each other
and you will be able to get one single sound pressure. You will not be able to distinguish

337
between which vehicle is emitting which sound, but as you get closer and closer the source
characteristics are revealed so you will start feeling each of them as specific point sources,
each one is a point emitting sound. As you go further and further they merge together and you
start hearing them as line sources. Really far off this will further merge in to one single
source. Like the same train example instead of this point if you are really far off say around
50 60 meter or even more you will get this as one single point you will be listening to this as
a point source.

For specific example say if you are working with the chiller unit or you are working with the
air handling unit the whole machinery is emitting some sound, if you have to measure it some
cases the planar sources the total sounds get emitted from a particular plane or a particular
surface you can treat it as a planar source. It depends on certain industrial calculation or even
environmental calculation they use planar sources, some cases depending on the distance we
will use line sources or point sources. For simple calculation I have used point sources and I
have been demonstrating you.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:10)

When we talk about environmental noise propagation simple thing we can understand it
varies with respect to the wind speed and the wind direction say if there is a point source here
it is emitting, this is a windward side as it propagates against the wind it tends to bend up, as
it propagates away from the wind it tends to bend down.

338
If you look at the old roman amphitheaters these principles where nicely applied the source
versus the audience, the source versus the receivers, the windward and leeward sides were
carefully considered when they were because there were no amplification systems they
considered carefully above the bending of sound across the wind.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:50)

Again it varies with the temperature differential between the ground and the atmosphere. So,
as the temperature decreases for instance then the sound tends to go up as a temperature
increases it tends to bend down.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:07)

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Then you have ground interaction; say for example sound propagating from source to
receiver through a glassy surface or a say concrete surface or metal surface. Then there is a
lot of reflected sound whereas if it is passing through grass or vegetation, then there will be a
lot of diffraction and absorption happening in this surface, this is another crucial
phenomenon.

Apart from this one quick thing that we need to understand by completing this we will have
to look at noise barriers. Noise barriers are increasingly coming up in urban areas cities like
Delhi we have lot of noise barriers being put up, it has increasingly becoming as people start
realizing that increase noise levels are injurious to harmful to health and hearing, it disturbs
their sleep. And more environmental noise activities for example, busy traffic corridors were
intervening with residential areas with quieter areas then you will have to provide certain
insulation measures of which noise barrier is one of the most effective techniques.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:09)

Before we look at the calculation part of noise barriers what is a noise barrier, it can be some
objection object which is protecting the propagation or preventing the propagation of sound
from the source to the receiver. It does direct reflections, it also scatters the sound, it depends
on the surface treatment and the edge finish there are something called edge diffraction's
which will happen. Instead of the straight path part of it is get reflected, part of it gets of the
barrier because of diffraction and some of it gets diffracted back. So, typically you develop a
something called shadow zone within which the barrier is effective. Imagine this is a source

340
and this is a receiver the shorter the barrier the shadow zone will be much lesser as the barrier
height increases the shadow zone will be more, this is the first thing.

Number 2; as the distance of the source increases or the distance of the receiver increases the
effectiveness of barrier of the barrier considerably varies. So, how do we determine what is
the effectiveness of barrier. Before that one more thing it depends strongly on the frequency.
If you have a high frequency sound emitted from this point it gets reflected or scattered away,
whereas low frequency sound which has high wave length; low frequency typically has high
wave length and high frequency sounds have a low wave length inversely proportion. Low
frequency sounds get diffracted and then they get back to this. So, typically environmental
noise barriers are much effective and made on high frequency range, but if you have to make
it effective for low frequency you need a special treatment or special design of barriers in
order to curtail low frequency sounds.

So, how do we calculate for this? One important number is there which is called Fresnel
number; basically it revolves around calculating the path length differential. You have the
source you have the receiver here this is located like this, you are making a noise barrier here,
this is a source this is a receiver for instance then you have a straight distance here and then
you have a sound traveling distance. This is a straight distance in the absence of this barrier
this will be the direction and this will be the path in which the sound would have propagated.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:21)

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Whereas, now with the presence of barrier this is taking a different route this is here we are
talking about it as A B and C; this is A, this is B and this is a actual distance C. Now we have
to calculate the path difference that is A plus B minus C you will get a number if you
substitute this with the wave length of the sound lambda is wave length of the sound. So, this
number by wave length plus or minus 2 you will get a number called Fresnel number. This
Fresnel number is very significant to determine the effectiveness of noise barrier.

Positive indicates the barrier is effective that is the receiver is not in the line of site that is if
you are the source you cannot see the receiver or if you are the receiver you will not be able
to see the source; that is the barrier that is you know causing a block between the line of site
it is not allowing direct line of site. Whereas, the line of site that is the source and receiver are
directly seen, the line of site is there then is becomes negative the effectiveness is not there.
You will not have proper effectiveness of the barrier. Barrier is not causing say you have a
source here you are in an apartment in the 20th floor that is a noise barrier you are in the
direct line of site you will not have impact of the barrier.

Then once you know the Fresnel number you have this simple formula this is tan h
hyperbolic tan square root of 2 pi Fresnel number by tan hyperbolic square root of 2 pi n plus
5 dB, so this will actually give you the effectiveness or the attenuation caused by attenuation
is a simple term which we use to find out how much the sound pressure levels are cut. So, the
barrier attenuation is given by 20 log square root of 2 pi n tan hyperbola square root of 2 pi n
plus 5 dB. If you substitute some number I will be giving you some working examples for
your exercises.

Once you do this you will be able to find how effective and how much sound pressure level is
been cut by the noise barriers. So, barrier attenuation can be formed. First you have to
determine the path link difference A plus B minus C, using this number you will be able to
find the Fresnel number you further substitute this here you will be able to determine what is
a barrier attenuation. There are different types of barriers and the calculations also
significantly vary, but simple you know the basic fundamental thing is here.

This actually another important thing to note here, you have the wave length in the
denominator so once the wave length is increasing that is low frequency sound wave length is
higher the Fresnel number comes down. Whereas, if you have a frequency sound the wave
length is smaller you have the Fresnel number which is in the effective zone. So, even a

342
shorter barrier you will have much effective sound protection if the sound source is of higher
frequency, whereas for low frequency sound sometimes taller barriers even may not be
effective. It is not just in the vertical plane alone imagine a barrier you have a source, you
have a receiver, it also depends on the path on this way also; it is also on the horizontal side.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:53)

So, with this also you can calculate the path differential and you can with this determine how
long you will need a barrier. So you have a pump or machinery here, you want to protect
yourself then height matters and number two the width of the barrier also has a significant
role. Using these simple equations you can find out what height and what width of the barrier
is essential to give you sound protection.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:22)

As a part of this module we looked at sound propagation, basics of sound propagation, how it
varies with respect to distance. Then we looked at decibel scale addition. Then we talked
about directional and non-directional sources. And at last we saw few calculations relating to
the effectiveness or attenuation of noise barriers.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 15
Acoustic Quality Indicators – 1

In this module we will be talking about Acoustic Quality Indicators. There are two modules
in which we will be looking at acoustic quality indicators. This module primarily covers the
criteria for background noise, what all are the indicators are indices which we have to
understand before. Now we said the background noise level rate in a given space.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:50)

And next we will be talking about criteria for acoustic quality that is good listening how it
starts. So, the second part of this will cover further more indices.

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(Refer Slide Time: 00:56)

To start with the background noise levels how do you define background noise level. One of
the last modules we looked at the environmental noise levels, where we talked about L
equivalent and we know how these limits are defined.

In case of indoor noise levels we define in terms of basic indicator is noise criteria commonly
referred as NC. Many of the standards define saying NC30, NC40, NC45. A common
indicator that you would find in most of the standards internationally you will find this name
NC 30, 40 this things will be given. And depending upon the type of space what activity
happens there and what is a acoustic quality which is required this noise criteria varies. Noise
criteria are NC this is a single number index which is intended to define the design goals how
much should be the allowable background noise level in a given space.

Instead of saying the overall noise level some sound pressure level are sound pressure level L
equivalent should be this much this is a better indicator. This derives from this curves I will
explain this first. On x axis you will have the octave band center frequency. This we looked at
here this covers from 63 hertz all the way up to 8000 hertz, further low and further high
frequencies are not covered here. Primary audible frequencies it starts from 63 goes to 8000
hertz. On the y axis you will find sound pressure level in decibels. There are defining
contours which have been evolved.

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So, if you take for example, particular noise criteria say NC20 then you will find in the center
of frequency that is 1000 hertz you will find close to 20 decibels are slightly more or less then
this band. As it goes up it reduces and then as it comes down to the lower frequency this
value goes up. This is more or less similar to the audibility capacity of hearing that human ear
has. In lower frequency more sound pressure levels are allowed. For example, if a standard
defines that you have to meet NC40 noise criteria of 40 in a given space take it is an office
space open plan office space; a noise criteria of NC 40 has to be met. Then what at you know
what it means how it translates at 63 hertz you can go all the way up to 65 decibels at 63 are
very low frequency. Say in mid frequency somewhere around 500, 1000 or 2000 hertz you
have to be close to NC 40 that is, sorry 40 decibels and then at high frequencies it should be
relatively low, say 8000 hertz NC40 would actually mean you will have to meet somewhere
around 37 or 38 decibels.

So, if you have a spectrum analyzer or a sound pressure level measuring device you will have
to meet or after you design the room has to meet at 63 hertz it can go as height. It mean it can
so as height 63 or 65 decibels, but at higher frequencies like a 8000 hertz it should be well
below 40 decibels that is what it means. Then if you are trying to meet this then it means you
have met the noise criteria which is defined. There is lower line which is threshold of hearing
and noise criteria's which is close to 30 or below which means it is a very quite ambient. This
is moderately noisy to noisy this is between 30 to somewhere around 50 above 50 close to
60-65 this is very noisy and above 65 this would be term extremely noisy.

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(Refer Slide Time: 04:58)

So depending on the space, for example there is difference between a commercial area where
the NC is defined versus a quite open office versus a private office and a board room the NC
are the noise criteria would considerably differ. As we know sound pressure level is also you
know easy to express in terms A weighted, this is also a weighted also means that you are
waving it to the human ears capability of hearing. This two can be compared. For example,
you take a noise contour or NC criteria contour of 40 this would be more or less equal to an
equivalence sound pressure A weighted sound pressure level of 50. So, there is a relation they
are also directly proportional, as this increases this also increases but still there is a
considerable amount of difference. This is termed are this was found to be more or more
precise in representing the background noise levels in rooms.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:36)

I am going to give you a specific example. This is open office a plan you know top view of
open plan office we took measurement in few specific locations. In about 6 locations we
measured in the acoustical quality. I am going to take this as an example further wherever we
come through acoustic quality indicators in terms of offices I am going cite this example.
Remember this image this is a very symmetric looking open office 6 position we where
measuring like, inside the work session these are cubicles say know each of this makes four
work places all across we took along the aisles plus know within close to the work spaces and
few specific locations.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:16)

So, in a typical open office if you take the core area you will have for example, there are two
times we took the measurement what you see in the background is a noise criteria the same
curve that I showed you and this dark lines this represent our measured value. There are two
things here this represents the non-office hours, the one here before the office started or after
the offices people have left. Two main things happen air conditioning system plus the
computers Photostat and reprographic machines and other typical machineries are turned off,
plus people talking and conversational background noises are also coming down. Due to this
you find the background noise level to be low. If you estimate the noise criteria we got
around 38 NC.

So, if the office standard, standard for open office says you have to meet 40 noise criteria.
When people and machinery are all you know machinery turned off people are not there then
we are getting somewhere close to 38 as the noise criteria. But then when you are measuring
during office hours we find low frequency there is little high probably due to machinery and
reprographic background noise levels. Then you also have people conversing which also
increases it, we found we got around 53 noise criteria doing during office hours.

So, in our example say if we have to meet 40 nice criteria we will not be actually meeting it,
we will have to go for certain kind of acoustical treatment in order to bring the noise criteria

350
to a lower level. This is one of the private offices, this is same open office but in the
periphery we had a couple of cubicles where I am sorry private cabins office cabins for senior
people. We did a measurement there, but if you take private offices you found during non
office hours versus office hours they were more or less closer because just it was one person
occupying with minimum amount of machineries sound. It was the air conditioning sound
plus just a laptop and a person sitting there.

So, more or less you know with this measurements were taken for about one hour duration,
continuously they are recorded and this where estimated. So, we found more or less they
were closer 40 with office hours 45. But one thing we have note that definitions for noise
criteria will vary from an open office to a private office place. Here the noise criteria
requirement itself would be lower; it may not be as higher as 40 or 45 a particular standard
might ask you to meet noise criteria of say 35 during the office hours. Then again we might
have to go for a treatment. This is one indicator of how the background noise levels are
existing.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:16)

Specific standards there are different versions standards defining commonly accepted form of
version. Conference rooms are rooms for lectures 30 to 35, small open offices 35 to 40 this

351
would also include private cabins, then large offices you can go as highest 45, shops garages
it would be higher and industries it can go as highest 70 NC. This is in terms of noise criteria.

There is another version of defining background noise level. If you closely look at the
previous graph you had frequency is ranging from 63 hertz all the way to 8000 hertz.
Typically if you want to understand what an air conditioning system causes and what it is
impact on the noise level. Air conditioning system comprises of fans, pumps, motors, air
handling unit, the mixing turbulent sound plus the passage of air also causes the turbulent, the
throw of it. Together there is impact or an elevation or escalation in the indoor noise level.

(Refer Slide Time: 10:21)

So, if you have to understand then closely you have to go beyond what frequencies are
presented here. That is exactly what was done in this. This is called room criteria or
commonly referred as RC. There have been many versions. The current are more commonly
referred is RC mark 2. There have been many improvements in this room criteria thing. These
are certain definitions are criteria which are said set by standard. So, the current one RC
marks 2.

This is similar graph you have the octave frequencies octave band center frequencies in the x
axis. Difference is it goes up to the maximum it goes up to the 4000 hertz, but minimum

352
earlier it was up to 63 hertz now it is further go into up to 16 hertz. So, you are actually
considering or starting to consider much lower frequencies than what noise criteria actually
allowed for. It was primarily developed to consider the low frequency and mid frequency
associated problems in terms of primarily relating in terms of HVAC noise emissions.

So, if you look at a air conditioning standard like ASHRAE they would ask you to adhere to
certain room criteria, because your designing the HVAC system as a mechanical engineer as a
HVAC engineer. Finally, you will have to meet the room acoustic criteria; other the room
criteria. There are you know 3-4 specific things which we have to note. Main as the earlier
thing there are they were curves there are saying noise criteria NC 20 and NC 30 here we
have room criteria starting from 25 it goes up to 50. There is threshold of hearing. One thing
interesting if the frequency levels go below, say for example 63 hertz or say 16 hertz, there
are not much of the frequencies which our ear can actually sense and appreciate. At this
frequency when sound is emitted this will be felt as direct physical vibrations rather than
audible sounds.

No very high sound pressure level or decibel levels only can be hard at for example 16 hertz,
but before we start hearing it you start feeling the physical vibration. There are two zones
defined here zone B and zone A, these are if you take zone B these are regions where there is
a probable vibration and these are specific vibration. For example, at 16 hertz your spectrum
analyzer shows that you have a sound pressure level of say 65 db it means there is a
probability for vibration or at least the ducts or machinery HVAC system going to cause a
probable vibration. At zone A the levels are even high this would indicate that there are
definitely certain vibrations which are going to result. Apart from this there are three lines;
line D line C and E.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:32)

We will look at what they mean. Neutral for example, a neutral level are RC neutral means
each of this octave bands, the sound pressure levels are lying below these dotted lines here.
There are two important criteria; one is rumble other is hiss. Rumble is a low frequency
indicator and hiss is a high frequency indicator. If your sound pressure levels say your
keeping a spectrum analyzer again you are measuring it. If you are low frequency sound
pressure levels are exceeding this particular line D, this dotted line D it will indicate here
going to have a rumbling sound. They are actually trying to categorize the sound itself, the
character of the sound itself you will experience a rumbling sound.

Whereas, if your sound pressure level spectrum analyzer measurements are going to cross
line E at this frequencies are slightly higher frequencies then you will be experiencing a
hissing sound. This is what actually it means. Then as I said if they cross and get into the
boundary B then you will you can expect probable vibrations and when they go into zone A it
means there are going to be certainly some vibrations associated. Main things where vibration
occur is the HVAC ducts where the turbulent air flow causes certain vibrations.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:43)

The typically example of the same office which I was taking about when we measured there
was no rumbling sound, but there is a slightly hiss sound because it was trying to touch not
really cross but it was trying to touch the E line. But pretty much the room a criterion was
met only problem was the noise criteria was slightly above. There is a starking difference
here, if you find the room criteria to be acceptable you can infer that you do not have to really
rework on the HVAC system or the design are treating the HVAC system itself. You might
probably then make sure or ensure that this HVAC system does not have much of the impact
on the noise level. When noise criteria are not met your main attention should be on acoustic
treatment.

Whereas, if you see the room criteria is shooting up it means your main attention you have to
focus on the air conditioning system there may be certain problems when I am saying you
have to prioritize looking at the air conditioning system associated noise levels. So, we
looked at two indicators for background noise levels. We will look at one of the important
indicators for the indoor acoustic quality. A very common term it is a day to day you know
this term is in day to day use reverberation time. This is one of the first indicator this is not
the only indicator of acoustic quality among several indicators this is a most commonly used
and one of the simple indices which you have to understand. Reverberation time, it is time
required for the reflections of a direct sound to decay by 60 decibels.

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(Refer Slide Time: 16:16)

Let us look at it in this way. In x axis I am going to have the time we will talk about
milliseconds because the velocity of sound 343 meter per second more specifically in room
temperature indoor. Then the time within which the acoustic wave would reach you even in a
very huge auditorium would be in milliseconds. You will not even experience few seconds it
will be few milliseconds the sound would reach you. Let us take this as sound pressure level
in terms of decibels.

So, let us say there is 30, 40, 50, I am going up to say 100 decibels, now say 110. Now, there
is a background noise level like we looked at say it is a you know a small lecture hall you
have certain background noise level across the time. You are going to create impulsive sound,
say for example you are busting a cracker what would happen. There would be a sharp sound
which goes as high for example as 110 dB, then it would not decay that fast, but it would
eventually be decaying there will be a slope and then it would come back after while it would
come back to background noise level. Imagine if the background noise level is around 30 35
decibels then you are elevating the sound pressure level and it takes while to reach the
background noise level again.

Now, here it is again continuing with the background noise level. If you mark this peak point
as 00 milliseconds that is 0 seconds this is a start of the thing and this for a example it takes

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about a few milliseconds let us talk about seconds first we will come back to milliseconds
later. Say now if you are considering this in milliseconds say imagine it is taking about 1
second to come back to this point. The slope this line is estimated and the time taken between
this and this that is the reflections of direct sound. So, this point this peak direct sound, it can
be a clap, it can be gun shot or it could be a cracker or any standard sound source you are
elevating the background noise level and then your letting it fall the cracker is just one
impulse it falling of it takes about 1 second. This is exactly what you call in terms of
reverberation time it is expressed in seconds; reverberation time is expressed in seconds.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:35)

The simple formula is used here reverberation time is

V
T r=0.163
A

Where,

Tr : reverberation time; V: volume of room; ,A: acoustic absorption it is expressed in

Sabine’s

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So, then name of the person who did all this physical experiments and finally he derived a
relation between these parameters. A actually is a factor of S that is a surface area and α
which is absorption coefficient.

We will look at more about absorption coefficients in one of the following sections. α is
absorption coefficient of a material and S is a surface area of that particular material. Say you
have a room of for example 4 meter by 4 meter and the height is 3 meter, so very small room.
You have wall surface plus you have a floor carpet and you have a false ceiling So, without
you know forgetting any door window anything it is a shield room so with a simple room
you have three different materials; first is the wall surfaces the surface area. The wall if you
have to compute reverberation time the first thing you need to do is compute the surface area
of wall surfaces. So, you have four walls it is a 4 meter by 4 meter room 4 by 3 meter you
have 4 walls, this will be the surface area.

The wall it does not have any observing materials surfaces. The absorption coefficient ranges
from 0 to 1 means it is perfectly observing, one is totally reflecting it is a coefficient. Say for
a typical reflecting without untreated wall the reflections probably will be around say 0.85 or
0.9 there is no absorption happening with in the wall surface itself. So, let us take it as 0.9.
Then what you will have you will have to multiply the whole thing by 0.9. So, this is α1, S1
this is the first surface we are considering.

The next surface would the floor surface, that would be say α2,S2 will be 4 meter by 4 meter
this is a floor area into I said it is a carpeted floor let us say the absorption coefficient. I will
define more about and talk more about the absorption coefficient it varies with frequency
spectrum it is not a single number for all the spectrum. It varies according to frequency, but
let us takes one number right now.

Let us take the carpet have an absorption coefficient of around 0.5 that is 50 percent
absorbing. Then you multiply this by 0.5. The third surface we talked about α3, S3 that would
be the ceiling again it is 4 meter by 4 meters. Let us take α3 this was α1, α3 to be for instance
0.6. You have a fall ceiling not a very strongly observing fall ceiling is simply gypsum fall
ceiling then you will have 0.6 here. If you take sigma you sum it up you get a number called
A defined in terms of or the unit of measurement is Sabine’s, this goes to the denominator,

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you have the room volume in the numerator you multiply the whole thing you will get
directly the reverberation time. Very simple formula here, a logical understanding goes like
this.

If you have to improve the reverberation time say you have to typically longer reverberation
times are longer time for decay of sound. Instead of 1 second if this where to decay all the
way here, instead of this is going to take say 3 seconds total from this point to this point if it
is taking 3 seconds then the reflections stay in that room. Imagine you are entering into your
new house you do not have any furnishing, you do not have people staying nothing is where
just an empty room. If you clap or if try and sing if you talk you will be hearing lot of
reflections, there will be a ambient sound which is continuing which is not decaying out with
close window, but then eventually you start occupying you put in your furniture’s, you have
your open windows, people around everything is observing our scattering the sound, then the
reverberation eventually comes down, this exactly what we are talking about.

If it is 3 seconds there is going to be a lot of reflected sound. As I earlier said the time taken
for sound from the source to reach the receiver a point receiver will be in terms of
milliseconds. Initially if you remember we were talking about milliseconds here we will
come back to that discussion, but this will be in milliseconds. But if you have reverberation
time very long say for example 3 seconds, 4 seconds then by the time the first say you know
this is a first claps say you are imagining your clapping or spelling one word by the other
word. The first word reaches the persons here in a few milliseconds, then you will have the
second word spell; the second word will be coming, but by the time if the first signal has not
decayed down or the reverberation time is high then this would start masking the second one.

Imagine in a hall you are sitting here the person is talking here talking from this place you are
seated in this area, you also have the reflection from floor ceiling more clear picture of it. See
you are sitting in a place that is the podium you are seated here there is a direct sound coming
here, say imagine you have a 6 milliseconds then there will be a reflected component. There
will be many reflections each surface will reflect and there will sound reaching you if this
sound does not get observed or decayed down within say for example, 0.8 second or 1
second, then they will start interfering with the second signals.

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So, this is signal one. When the signal two starts coming in they follow each other in
milliseconds like, I am talking I spelling each word within a few millisecond gap there is no
much of time delay, so they will start masking each other. We will look at it more in detail,
but this is so critical if you start introducing an absorptive layer here. If you start introducing
absorptive layer all around then these sounds the longer will reflections are eventually getting
absorbed. Movement they are getting absorbed then the masking effect eventually comes
down, this is exactly what we are trying to do.

So, in the context if you are wanting to reduce the reverberation time that is where we are
talking about say imagine the original reverberation time was 3 seconds you want to bring it
down to 1 second. There are different methods to do it common method which industry you
know any you know kind of material seller would tell you is to go for an increased absorption
coefficient. Instead of using a 0.5 absorption coefficient we had our α2 as 0.5, α3 as 0.6,
instead of 0.5 he would advise you to go for 0.2 or instead of 0.6 he will say go for 0.2 or 0.3
and he will say treat your wall surfaces so instead of 0.9 this can be made easily to 0.4.

With all this conditions you are increasing the number in the denominator that is the total
Sabine’s will go up with this the reverberation time can be brought down, this is one method.
But there are other methods you can vary the surface area instead of treating the whole wall
whole ceiling whole floor area you can pick and choose you can increase or decrease the
surface area in which you are creating. There is a third method you can look around now
volume. If you think 3 meter or 3 and half meters height is not required in your case then you
can reduce it to say, imagine you are reducing a 3.5 meter room to a 3 meter. You are actually
reducing the volume here, if the volume reduces reverberation time will go down, if you take
large auditorium, cathedrals, opera houses they are huge in volume. The reverberation time
will go as highest 2.5 seconds, whereas small lectures halls, small rooms you will you know
the best designed hall would have reverberation time of somewhere about say classroom
would have a reverberation time expected around 0.8 to 1 second. Less than 0.8 you will have
a better audibility.

We will look at audibility more in detail, but simply speaking this is a relation between the
volume surface area of absorption and the absorption of the material. Three things you know
you can determine the reverberation time. It also is a factor of frequency as I said it varies

360
with respect to the frequency and not also it varies with respect to the relative humidity, but in
common calculations we do not get too much into detail but this is yes in fact this is
accountable you cannot simply ignore it. But still for a simpler understanding in this module

V
you can go with0.163 is in Sabine’s acoustic absorption which is a factor of the absorption
A
coefficient and the respective surface area.

There is a term called t60 which is 60 decibel, the sound has to decay by 60 decibels. In this
case you have a sound pressure level of 110 db is a maximum, from 110 db the sound
pressure level has to decay down by 60 decibel it should come down the total decay should
be 60 db, this has here increased it has to drop by 60 db the time taken for drop by 60 db is
actually what you measure as reverberation time.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:32)

A simple reworking of the formula you can actually find out what is excepted absorption. So,
if you have the required absorption and the actual absorption you can find no sorry the
expected reverberation time and the actual reverberation time, you can find what is expected
absorption, this is a typical field problem. You already have a room in which you have to add
absorption material, how much amount of absorbing materials you will add substituted there
is a existing absorption α0, you have the reverberation time the existing and the reverberation

361
time which you intended to achieve. So you have a reverberation time of 2 seconds or 3
seconds you would like to bring it to 1 second, substitute it you have current α that is a
existing absorption you will able to find what is a expected sound absorption coefficient
which is required.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:25)

There are different methods of determining reverberation time we looked at the Sabine’s
formula. Apart from this there are four other commonly used things they again vary based on
applications Eyring’s Method, Norris Method, Millington-Sette Method, Fitz Roy’s equation
these things are also applied for detailed acoustic calculations specific hall types specific
absorption types Sabine’s model cannot be extrapolated. So, you will need a detailed
working. They also have certain principles like you know imagine reflection methods certain
things are assumed here I am not going to get into details of these models right now, we will
stick to the Sabine’s method.

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(Refer Slide Time: 31:55)

At a typical sound spectrum analyzer there are different classes. Class III very simple you
will only get a sound pressure level SPL; you will not get the frequency spectrum. Class II
you might get frequencies spectrum some of the manufactures do it. Class I is for long term
recording you can also have statistical parameters reflected with it, you also get apart from
the basic A weighted, C weighted or linear levels you will also get a signal recording function
where you can record for; say specific duration 8 hours, 12 hours or for even longer duration
it will be recording that capability is there. Then it will also record in terms of different
frequencies. It can record single octave, third octave you know as the class goes up the
complexity of the spectrum analyzer increases. Basic sound level meter of class III to a detail
spectrum analyzer of class I.

Let us talk about a practical problem now. We talked about a quite ambient you are trying to
measure background noise level of an auditorium; here we talked about a background noise
of 30 or 35 decibel. In an auditorium a background noise level with air conditioning system
typically will range somewhere between 40 and 45 decibel. There will be certain disturbances
you cannot have a very quite if the auditorium is getting larger you will have an air
conditioning system running it is hardly you know possible to get something below 45
decibel. So, your actual background noise level is here.

363
Then when you say the peak level there will also be certain masking here, so it is a good idea
or a good practice to live a 5 decibel threshold here and another 5 decibel threshold here. So,
now already we are in 50 decibel the maximum we have come down to say 100 or 103
decibels living certain undulations on the top, because you cannot perfectly reach 110 it may
slightly vary so assume you are in 100 decibel minimum possible. Again this was a
background, in our case the auditoriums case this background and after the decay it is going
to come down to this point this is a peak level which we are assuming. How much is the
decibels left 50 decibels we have. But if you have to determine RT 60 that is 60 db decay you
are not able to get 60 db drop here, which means the sound source which we were using
should actually go to 120 db or 115 db so that you get cushion for a physical field
measurement. In practical measurement this is highly difficult like measuring directly RT 60
either you will need a very quite ambient or a very high decibel impulsive source with which
this will be possible.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:51)

So, for a common use a better indicator is instead of reverberation time 60 it is reverberation
time 30 that is the decay of sound by 30 decibels is taken. Most of the sound level meters are
almost all the spectrum analyzer sound meters will have RT 30 as a function, you will not
find reverberation time 60. One more you have to note RT 30 does not mean it is half of RT

364
60 it is interpolated value where the slope is primarily considered. It is not that this would be
a RT 60 then you take half of it is RT 30 is going to just half RT 60 it is not like that.

It is an interpolated value you are actually counting the slope or the decay this particular
slope is taken, as I said you have level one that is a peak level you leave cushion, 5 decibel,
you count 30 db decay, then another cushion plus you keep a noise margin here. The
background noise level for instance if it varies fluctuates between this you have t1 it start
actually from t2 because you are living a cushion for specific undulations. It also has certain
functions in terms of acoustic defects will talk about it. You have t3, this is your threshold
then you live the noise margin. This is a better prediction rather than counting a very huge
slope and then calculating it. So, RT30 is most commonly used indicator measurable directly
in the field apart from laboratory conditions where RT60 is quite possible, it is not that it is
not possible but RT is 30 is more practical for field application.

You also have RT 20 for a short measurement you have something called EDT; early decay
time which is also important to count lateral reflections. Lateral reflections are something
which comes to you like from side walls from the initial ceiling reflectors or the floor planes.
We will look at EDT and the reflections in a short while. But you should know that there are
different types of reverberation time RT 60 that is decay of sound pressure level by 60 db
RT30 which is 30 db decay RT20 which is 20 db decay. And early decay time corresponds to
a 15 decibel decay are lower, it is a early reflection corresponding to early reflection and its
decay most commonly used as I said is RT 30.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:18)

These are certain common reverberation times which are specified. If you look at one end
recording or a broadcasting studio a small recording studio the theater kind of recording
theater. Most commonly found in radio stations and your broadcasting typically TV or radio
broadcasting stations they are highly absorptive typically small rooms where reverberation
time as low as 0.4-0.3 is expected. Typically classrooms you can expect as I said somewhere
between 0.5-0.6 it can go to 0.8-0.9 sometimes you will find 1 second, it is not bad
somewhere around 0.8 is advisable.

As you go for example, lecture and conference room, instead of small classrooms you go to
lecture rooms or conference room slightly larger one then you can go up to 1.2-1.3 seconds.
As it goes to cathedral you will find as highest 2.6. Similarly, for symphony kind of
orchestras it depends on what kind of play is performed. If you look at it symphony for
classical to romantic then the reverberation time is different, orchestra chorus and organ when
organ pipes are used you will need fairly high reverberation time. You also see in cathedrals
you also have organ pipes choirs performed you will essentially need a high reverberation
time to appreciate the music better. Dance and rock bands again lower RTs sufficient.

If you look at this side, these particular things are for speech. For speech performance you
will require slightly lower reverberation time some where 1.2-1.3 are lesser not more than

366
that both speech and music. If you are designing multipurpose hall it may vary somewhere
from as such you cannot get very small because the auditorium if you take the volume is very
high naturally the reverberation time will be higher, then you will expect somewhere between
1.4 1.5 it can go further higher also. It depends on what type of speech and music, music
performance or instruments are used. Then specifically if you are music, music theaters,
orchestras, opera houses you will essentially find reverberation times somewhere ranging
from 0.8 or 1 second all the way to 2.5-3 seconds.

Another thing is spaces with low reverberation time like say 0.2, 0.4, 0.5 seconds are termed
as dead spaces, where the sound decay very rapidly. Whereas those with higher reverberation
time are live spaces. One important thing you have to notice before you practice in the field
you should be aware that not always lower reverberation times are good. You term it as very
dry space or you know very dry sound, you always need certain amount of reverberation time
zero is not possible unless it is a very controlled space, somewhere around 0.8 to 1 second is
appreciable even for speech performance. Whereas, when you have instrumentation playing
depends if it is a violin or string instrument versus a percussion instrument depending on the
type or a wind instrument depending on instrument type and sound it produces the
frequencies spectrum will produces sound you will require a different type of reverberation
time.

So, do not try to make this space to much absorptive, do not put too much of insulation
material, do not put too much of absorption material specifically so that the room becomes to
dead. You have to have a live room to appreciate speech music whatever this syllable have to
have continuity when you especially have music performance. Even for speech in order to
reinforce the original sound this signal versus the reienforce reflected sound initial reflections
we call or early reflection you need certain amount of reverberation in order to avoid difficult
in speaking for the speaker and an appreciation of listening for the listener side. So, certain
amount of reverberation time is needed not too high not too low.

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(Refer Slide Time: 41:23)

It depends on various factors. It depends on the speech intelligibility primarily affected by

reverberation time. The speech becomes intelligible or less intelligible depends on the room
geometry as we talked about, it depends on the source to listener distance, it depends on a
signal level, how loud I am talking or how quite I am talking. Then you term something call
signal to noise ratio. Signal is what I am emitting if I am talking, noise is something which is
reflected re reflected and the background noise level together you call signal by noise. When
the noise is getting higher than the signal the intelligibility will drastically come down and
the background is very high or the reflections are too high the noise level that is a
denominator is going to go up. So, signal the noise ratio will come down, which means I have
to exact myself to be more loud or you will not have required intelligibility, then it depends
of course on the background noise level.

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(Refer Slide Time: 42:23)

A quick example; two things are to be noted here you take a specific reverberation time say
let us take a reverberation time of 0.4 seconds, two things are there normal hearing and
hearing impaired people. There are two columns here, this percentage indicate how much
percentage people can understand the signal. If I am lecturing how much percentage of my
communication is understood. When the signal noise ratio is quiet that is almost the signal is
very strong, 92 and half percent can be understood for a normal hearing capacity person. As
the your signal to noise ratio reduces 0 dB means noise is almost equal to the signal only 47
percent or less than 50 percent can be understood. For hearing impaired people it is further
more only 25 percent of what you talk would be understood close to 25 to 30 percent only
could be understood. It also depends on the reverberation time.

Let us take say 12 db signal to noise ratio that is signal is strong, but still you have little
amount of noise. For a normal person hearing you have around 90 percent when
reverberation time is very low, when the reverberation time is around 0.4 it reduces to 82 to
83 percent goes all the way down to close to 69 percentage when reverberation time
increases. As this increases further this listening or understanding ability will eventually drop
down, from 89 it come to 83 and further down to 69 percentages here. So, it is depending
upon the reverberation time as well as the signal to noise ratio.

369
When I say 0 reverberation time there are specific spaces in laboratory called anechoic
chambers and echoic chambers. These are chambers where the reverberation time is much
close to 0. I will show you few pictures when we talk about acoustic material. You know
directly opposite thing for this is a reverberant chamber here RT is almost low, here RT is
really high the reflections it is more of polished reflective metal surfaces so reverberation
time is really high in reverberant chamber. These are typical laboratory settings commonly
used for material testing or testing the noise level from sound sources.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:02)

I have put few dependencies of reverberation time for example RT as a room volume
increases in meter cube here, the reverberation time recommended increases. As you are hall
bigger and bigger the reverberation time for say this is for speech and this for music the
reverberation time. For example, a 100 meter cube hall for speech you will require an RT of
0.6, if it for music you will have 0.9. Whereas, a 10000 meter cube hall a large hall the data
line indicates it may not be very much suitable for speech presentation, if you take slightly
say around 5000 you know allowed or permitted to go up to an RT of 1 or 1.2 meter per sorry
seconds. If it is a music performance you can go as highest 1.6 or higher. It depends on the
room volume it also depends on the frequency, ideally this particular calculation which I told
you in the absorption here is where the absorption coefficient in frequencies come into
picture RT varies from frequency to frequency.

370
(Refer Slide Time: 46:05)

So, the allowable reverberation time also varies for speech and for music with different
frequencies. You may require a lower RT in certain frequency. For example the RT permitted
may be lower for high frequencies are higher in low frequency, mid frequency more or less is
taken as a center or the balancing point.

(Refer Slide Time: 46:32)

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One simple example we had a circular hall where the reverberation time where estimated, I
am intending to tell you here that it is also function of this space or location where you are
sitting or standing in a particular room. This is a circular room what you see in terms of
gradation is a reverberation time 330 here this is a 1000 hertz it varies somewhere from 1.2 or
1 second at specific points close center you are finding reverberation time of round 2 or say
1.8 or up to 2.2 seconds we found.

So, it is also function of the location for larger halls, for the location in which you are seated.
You may not observe special variation in small classrooms, but of you are located in a very
huge auditorium. From a position here in one end to the center to a further seat behind are
this position close to the state you will find a reverberation time difference if you are
experiencing the sound pressure.

(Refer Slide Time: 47:31)

Recommended volume per seat for different spaces, if you see rooms for speech the number
are lesser allowable you know it is a simple thumb rule. If you have per seat how much
volume you can give that is how huge the room can be. And the other side of it goes all the
way to churches or concert halls where the volume per seat is very high. As I said it is a
factor the instruments used the type of performance done there it determines seat and the
volume, how much volume you allow.

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(Refer Slide Time: 47:59)

There are indicators for acoustical quality; articulation index is there, you have speech
intelligibility index, speech transmission index, and clarity. We will look at these things in the
following module.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 16
Acoustic Quality Indicators – 2

In the last module we looked at few acoustic quality indicators, which included indicators of
background noise level. We also looked at major component which is called reverberation
time. We have few more indicators which we will address in the current module.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

These are measures for audibility information, how much audible the information is that we
will look out audibility of the particular information. Then we will talk about an important
factor call room modes.

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(Refer Slide Time: 00:59)

Audibility of a particular speech are music, depends primarily on how well you are able to
here depends on, or it can be determined by the other three parameters, more or less they are
the same the indicator are the representation is also similar, but it you know considerably
where is from one another. First is articulation index, second is speech intelligibility index,
and third is speech transmission index. There is another version of it available called RASTI.
This is commonly termed as S T A. There is another version called rapid application speech
transmission index RASTI. Then you have an indicator call clarity there are more indicators,
I have only chosen four of these things to talk about. There are also indicators like definition
envelopment. There are factors; first let us look at more clearly into these factors first.
Articulation index it is used for finding you know, it was intended or originally developed to
study the sound privacy and intangibility requirement in open office spaces.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:02)

There are two things you have to understand; one is sound privacy, and second is
intelligibility. Say for example, if you are talking about an office space you have open office,
open plan offices, or you have private offices, private cabins versus a lecture hall. here you
will require acoustic privacy, say you know whatever the person talks to the other, there is the
conversation, or maybe there is the telephonic conversation, there is a discussion happening.
The main criteria here, is to make sure this conversation is not heard to the next person. Why
I specifically point open offices, it is one of the most challenging spaces for designing,
acoustical you know for doing acoustical design. You have an open space were people are
sitting, and you have to ensure that there should be only minimum amount of information
which passes from at least one cubical to the next cubical.

So, the height of the partition matters, the kind of observation you provide in the cubical itself
matters, then the type of false ceiling, the floor all these things affect the acoustical quality of
open offices. Most common problem, if you sit in the open office say 50 people are sitting in
that particular hall, you will have telephones ringing, you will have personal conversations,
phone conversation, one to one interactions, people working around even the foot fall sound,
lot of noise will be created and it is a single hall without much of the barrication. So, it will
eventually spread out. So, the main challenge is, how do you arrest this. You will have to
ensure acoustical privacy. On the other hand if you look at a lecture hall, the intention is the
signal has to reach them in the fullest possible manner. So, you have to ensure the
intelligibility, whatever the speaker is, you know talking about he is addressing, in full form,

376
maximum possible without loses, it has to be delivered to as many ears are available in the
hall.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:25)

Articulation index was one of the attempts to you know decipher and translate the
intelligibility and privacy requirements for open offices. Primarily it started there. It is
actually the ratio between the voice level and the background noise. More or less this quality
indicators if you see, there will be a factor of s/n; that is signal to noise. Even articulation
index it talks about the voice level which is the signal, and the background noise level which
is the noise. So, this is a, you know form of signalled noise ratio, a minimal distraction; for
example, it ranges from 0 to 1 articulation index, it ranges from 0 to 1.

One means perfectly audible, 0 is you know you cannot here, there is total in audibility which
means acoustic privacy. So, minimum distraction; for example, corresponds to an articulation
index of 0.35 or lesser. If it is 0.35 or less in terms of articulation index, you are kind of
assuming that, or you know you can ensure that you have attained acoustic privacy in a
particular space. Then if you want confidential privacy say if it is a board room where
financial discussions are made, you might have to ensure a total acoustic privacy which
means, you have to go as slow as 0.1 or further low acoustic insulation plus absorption, both
things are required, sound insulation as well as absorption of the emitted sound. If it exceeds
0.4 it means there is no acoustic privacy.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:03)

Speech intelligibility is more or less similar to articulation index, but it has certain revise
frequency weighting, and also it includes the effect of one frequency band masking the other
frequency, different frequency band sound is emitted, it includes the masking effect of one
over the other, it is a improved version of articulation index, but the number also varies from
speech intelligibility index, also varies from 0 to 1 means completely unintelligible, and 1 is
perfectly intelligible. So, if you are talking about speech intelligibility index in a lecture
room, you will expect something above 0.8 or 0.9 the better it is which means the speech
intelligible by 80 percent 90 percent. Whereas if you are ending up with an SII of, say for
example, 0.4, which means the intelligibility is very poor only forty percent the sound is
intelligible. It will create more strain on the speaker side, and it will result in less
understanding or intelligibility from the listener's perspective. This is the same office that I
showed you, we took measurement in different locations.

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(Refer Slide Time: 07:12)

The speech intelligibility varies somewhere between 0.35, some places it went close to 0.6,
which means the acoustic privacy is less, except for few spaces. Here the green band
indicates there is the confidential privacy, which means the articulation index or speech
intelligibility index is pretty much low, less than 0.1. If it is somewhere around 0.2 or lesser
you call it normal speech intelligibility, or you have normal privacy. This is confidential
privacy this is normal, and if it goes above the conversation is going to be intelligible.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:45)

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A better understanding of it you can look at it. You can leave this column for low this is
articulation index AI; speech intelligibility will be slightly higher than articulation index the
numbers will be 1 to 1, it will be slightly high. Say if you say it is about 0.65, or speech
intelligibility is above 0.75, it means good communication. So, whatever is spoken you know
is being understood by the other side, it is necessary when communication is desirable.
Imagine you are in the conference room, in the conference room you need a good speech
intelligibility. So, that inter personal conversations can be understood well. Whereas between
the conference room on the neighbouring room or the cabin or an open office, you need a
speech privacy, you know signal should not be spilling over, so that you ensure there is over
hearing of these conversations, or one is not disturbed by the other, it is both way.

If the open office is very noisy we have to ensure speech privacy here. So, the speech
intelligibility or articulation index has to come down. So, it greater than 0.4 there is no
privacy on the other side if come as slow as 0.1 of speech intelligibility index, you have you
know confidential speech privacy. You also have to know even that 0.1 are lesser speech
intelligibility, the person is aware that there is the conversation happening, it is not a blanket
insulation, we are aware that there is some conversation going on, but it is not intelligible;
that is exactly what we are talking about here .We are not talking about a total 0 proofing
here, we are able to know that some conversation is going here, but you will not be
understanding what it is. Whereas if you go to 0.2-0.3 occasional intelligibility work patterns
are not interrupted.

Whereas if you talk about say 0.35 or 0.45 of speech intelligibility index, you can here and
understand what the neighbour is conversing. Common phenomena you find in open offices.
You are easily able to hear what the fourth or fifth cubical the person is talking on phone. It is
clearly audible which means speech intelligibility is relatively higher. As acoustic designer
you will be expected to bring these things down in open offices. However these things
measured, this are the directly measurable with instruments, but you have to conduct
something called speech intelligibility test or articulation tests. Typically there are sets of
words you know common reference text books, guides would give you, these kinds of words,
they are more or less sounding similar.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:21)

Say for example, barb barge bark. So, these are kind of you know the stress is same coon
coop cop. If the speech intelligibility is good, you will be able to understand each of these
words and write it down. These are typically a announcing kind of tests, where dictation kind
of tests, where a person dictates these words ,and the audience they are asked to write down
these words, or in some cases if you are doing for example, the speech intelligibility test with
kids. You cannot ask them to write these words for example, you can give them pictures, you
ask them to tick, but you spell the word, you ask them to tick the corresponding pictures, then
you determine how much percentage of what you said has actually reach them.

Similarly, for halls for offices you do this intelligibility or articulation tests, you spell these
words with, now new electronic certain things you can also measure it, but the typical
conventional we have doing it is to do this articulation tests, where you spell the words then
you start plotting it. There are 3 things 3 levels in which understanding happens; first is the
syllable level understanding, next is a word level understanding, and next is a sentence level
understanding. You start plotting this you see how much percentage, you say unsatisfactory
poor satisfactory or good or if it is more than 95 percentages, it is an excellent listening
condition; that is intelligibility is more than 95 percent. It means it is an excellent listening
condition; you can do this for syllable level, word level and sentence level.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:06)

As I said the intelligibility as it increases, it goes from unsatisfactory all the way to an
excellent listening condition.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:09)

Another thing is speech transmission index which we talked about STI. this also ranges from
0 to 1, if you look at it 0 which is bad. On the other side you have 1 which is excellent. It is
similar to articulation index or speech intelligibility index, but different in terms of the index
are the number range 0 to 1, it is also a you know range 0 to 1, but it differs considerably

382
from articulation index and speech transmission index. It considers room reverberation into
account in it is calculation.

This is one primary difference between articulations speech intelligibility indexes, and the
speech transmission index. why you know you have to do the dictation tests for determining
articulation index and speech intelligibility index, STI, speech transmission index can be
directly measured with instruments, or it can be directly derived with certain measure
parameters; say if you know the reverberation time, if you know the frequency, then you can
actually determine through certain calculations I am going to show you, using that you can
determine what is speech transmission index. It is measured between one, you know primary
importance is given to 125 hertz to 8000 hertz, another version of it a rapid speech
transmission index.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:27)

It is a modified version of it primarily used in lecture and you know amplified sound systems,
where they are used, you use, rapid speech transmission index in place of standard speech
transmission index, both are more or less similar just the numbers would vary.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:43)

How would determine RASTI for example, RASTI is more commonly used index. RASTI is
signal to noise ratio apparent there is a relation here. This you gets signal to noise ratio you
get from an index call modulation reduction function. This depends, this modulation
reduction function depends on the reverberation time and the frequency, apart from the basic
signal to noise ratio in that particular frequency. So, every specific frequency determines this
modulation reduction function. Then you find out what is the apparent signalled noise ratio,
with that you can actually calculate RASTI. Similar formula is therefore, speech transmission
index also, more or less the same formula applies there with a minimum you know little bit of
modification. So, we talked about articulation index, then speech, you know speech
intelligibility index, and then speech transmission index. Let us look at clarity of sound.
These are certain common you know terms, but they have lot of meaning in terms of
acoustical design.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:47)

Before we get in to defining clarity you take; in x axis I will have time, here in a millisecond,
last time know we started with millisecond went back to second, let us now stick to
milliseconds. This is as usual this is sound pressure level in decibel. Imagine there is a
trigger; there is a cracker fire cracker, or an impulsive sound. This is a first instance; say this
is 0, fine number 0. From here there will be some amount of time related with this figure.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:24)

This is a direct sound; the source and the receiver are here. So, from source to receiver, it will
take some amount of time to reach. So, this will be the direct sound. Imagine the sound is

385
emitted somewhere here at 0.0 millisecond, if you take that as a cut of, the person will hear
the sound after this. So, let us take that as a first point. Now there will be reflections
happening. So, imagine you have a floor plane, the first reflection the sound, which is directly
emitted here, gets reflected on the floor, and then hit’s the person again. So, you start hearing.
This is r1 this is direct, this is d, which is indicating direct sound, this is R1; that is the first
reflection. Then you have a ceiling slightly tall ceiling, and then the sound goes off hear it
comes back. After a while you start hearing reflection 2.

Similarly you have side walls say for example, in plan-view this is the source, this is the
section, and this is the section. So, if you take plan view you have a wide wall. So, this is the
direct sound you had the floor and ceiling reflection, then you have this is in plan; you have
R3 reflection 3, you will have R4. So, so many reflections would happen; then there will be a
reflection from the rear wall. So, it will hit the rear wall, it will come back R5. So, so many
reflections would happen, as and when additional sound will come, this will be adding up
followed by R3 R4 R5, it will eventually decay down.

Now, whatever sound which is reaching your ears before 50 milliseconds, there are two
threshold we are talking about; 50 milliseconds and 80 milliseconds whatever sound
reflections which are reaching you, before 50 milliseconds, would actually reinforce no
original sounds. Human ear will not be able to decipher, which is the original sound and
which are the reflections, because before 50 milliseconds before you recognize and respond,
they will actually come to your ears, which means we are actually reinforcing the original
sound, this is for speech performance. When somebody is talking see if it is classroom or a
lecture hall you take a threshold of 50 milliseconds which is really useful reflection; like I
said, earlier some reverberation is needed, initial reflections. These are called initial
reflections, initial reflections are useful. These reflections will in fact help reinforcing the
original sound.

So, the direct sound does not seem like very dry phenomena, whereas if it is for music, some
instrument is played there for musical performances. You take a threshold of 8 milliseconds,
before 80 milliseconds whatever sound comes to you will reinforce their direct sounds. You
will not be able to you know distinguish between the direct sound, and the reflected sound
you will also ensure the continuity. The first syllable versus the second syllable; say if
somebody reciting poetry, or if somebody is playing wind instruments. The first spell versus
the second spell, it will ensure there is the continuity of sounds. So, sound is not a direct you

386
know distinct set of signals, rather it becomes a continuous wave form. So, you can
appreciate the music much betters. So, 50 milliseconds threshold, and 80 milliseconds
threshold are important .Now let us look at the details of clarity in detail

(Refer Slide Time: 19:35)

Clarity, we are talking about 50 milliseconds 80 milliseconds level. Let us first define what is
clarity. Clarity is the total amount of the sound energy arriving before certain threshold, it can
be 50 milliseconds if you call it C50, it can be 80 milliseconds if you call it C80. It is actually
the ratio between whatever sounds signals arrive before 50 milliseconds or 80 milliseconds,
and those which are arriving after that. So, initially we talked about late reflection, initial
reflections, you have late reflections. This is you refer, initial reflection you refer as useful
reflections, this need to be avoided. Actually clarity will help you attain or distinguish
between initial and late reflections. You have certain thresholds, how much clarity is allowed
you know in terms of C50 and C80; we will look at it, primarily estimate between 500 and
400 hertz.

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(Refer Slide Time: 20:39)

E 50
C 50 =10 log
( )
E ∞ −E 50
dB

Where; E: sound energy

Similarly, clarity of 80 initial versus the late, this is the crucial factor which will actually help
you improve the acoustic performance of the hall, even if reverberation time is within the
limit, you have attend the reverberation time of one, which is permissible; for example, for a
lecture hall or a multipurpose room, you have to keep in track of what clarity you are
attaining, which is an additional implication or additional indicator to other for the acoustical
performance of a particular space.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:48)

A same hall that we talked about the circular, you know hall which we were saying in the
previous example, by determined the clarity, this is that 500 hertz as I said it is decibel clarity
you have speakers here. There is one set of speakers, there is one more set of speakers in this,
this is the podium, and people are seated here. So, the clarity actually varies with respect to
position considerably. Imagine you are sitting close to this in the speakers through; the clarity
is pretty high 2.93, which means it is. See essentially it is signalled noise ratio, 0 or minus
negative number indicates the noise is more signal is less, which is not preferable.

In these areas the signal is strong compare to a noise. So, more or less your clarity values are
ok, but if you go towards the periphery or in the centre areas, you are coming close to 0, or
sometimes negative values which mean the noise levels are more, compare to the signal itself,
which means you have to start working your acoustical treatment. There is another parameter
which is called articulation loss of consonants, in which specifically you know that vowels
and consonants are there. Vowels are more strong if you are talking, just pronouncing A E I
O U the words they know, the syllables are not lost much whereas, consonants are more
softer, you will incur lot of losses, when you spell consonants. So, acoustic quality is also
indicated in terms of the loss of constantans. So, when the person is talking, how much
amount of consonants is lost?

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(Refer Slide Time: 23:18)

For example if more than 11 percent consonants are lost, which indicates poor intelligibility,
when the concern loses less than or equal to 3 percent, which means the intelligibility is ideal.
You can somewhere target between you know 5 to 6 percentage or maximum of 8
percentage, it is still good. You can allow up to loss of 8 percent loss of consonants, this is
another indicator. You are not getting 2 into too much in to detail of articulation loss, or
ALCons, this commonly referred to, the other three parameters are very useful, useful
indicators. Later you know one of the following modules I will show you or demonstrate one
example of an actual auditorium, where these parameters were tested and measure, I will be
showing you through a demonstration how these parameters varied. The next crucial thing
which one has to understand is, the term called room mode. Room mode is actually a
reflection phenomenon.

390
(Refer Slide Time: 24:17)

If you have a particular room of this, you know you can think of the same four meter by four
meter room that we were talking about. You have a sound source then when these parallel
wall surfaces are really reflective, certain frequency. Again when you talk about room mode,
it is very much frequency depended, it is highly depended on the frequency, and it is also
depended under room proportion; that is the height the width length of the room these are
very crucial determinants of, whether you will incur room modes or not.

They occur primarily, no frequency range, especially in small rooms. If it is a huge

auditorium, or if the room is primarily used for, you know made a high frequency range
sounds you may not be facing problems with room modes, but whereas, recording studios are
very small rooms, you will actually be finding room modes is a problem. You have a term
call standing wave do not cancel each other, when you have specific thing just take a cross
section. You find that there is a source here, and there is the wall the other wall surface, you
have these particular wave phenomena which are forming. It will actually disturb.

This is the kind of resonant thing, where it will not allow normal decade of sound, it will
persists the sound, will not be decaying down, as anticipated in your reverberation time
calculation RT will not tell you, whether you will have room mode or not. There is a separate
you know set of cross checking that you need to do depending on those things, you will be
able to find whether room mode would occur in a particular space or not. In this case a
particular set of wave, you know specific frequency might develop standing waves. Standing

391
wave is something which is perfectly fitting, the peek to peek here. It may be 1 2 4 5, it may
be as many, up to certain numbers it may be you know, just one wave, or it may be more in
numbers also, but they do not decay easily. What happens a specific phenomena, if you are a
receiver, you walk along from this end to this end, you will find a minimum sound minimum;
say if the, you know noise level from source of 60 db, at this point you will be experiencing
50. Here it will again peek to 60 or 60 db.

So, as you walk through you will find 8 to 10 db difference, or may be more you know
exaggerating the numbers, but you will be able to find out a difference starking
understandable difference, perceivable difference as you walk from one side to the other. To
give you a very simple form of representation, this would imagine you are in a classroom,
listening if you are seated here, the kind of you know sound experience, and the loudness of
the sound, you experience in this point say point A, would be considerably different from this
particular point B. Here if you are sitting here the sound level would be much higher, whereas
here the sound level would be lesser. This is exactly what we are trying to check. This is one
common check which people will do for smaller rooms like I said, especially low frequency
ranges, in order they are ensure this phenomena does not happened.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:46)

There are different types of room modes the one we are talking about is, an axial mode where
it is directly the source and the listener, sorry the source versus to parallel walls. There is a
standing wave which is just stuck here, this wont decay that easily. Again you can determine

392
the dimensions, we will look at it shortly, as I said it can be one it can be more in numbers,
depends on the frequency and number of the distance, the width or length which ever you
know, is shorter it might happen or it is proportional. There are tangential modes and there
are oblique modes.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:17)

It can also happen tangentially to surfaces, vertically or horizontally, or it can be oblique

happening all across in three dimensions. Simple formula would help you find out whether
two things can be found out at which frequency standing wave will form. For example, if you
have a room of dimension; say 4 meter by 4 meter you have this dimension.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:44)

Length width both are same you have the height; 3 meters. Now you can substitute length
width and height; this will be more number, which number of mode it is; the first mode,
second mode. This is the velocity if you find out substitute, this you will be able to find out
simple, if you solve this say for one dimension, you forget width and height; since it is axial.
Let us take one by one if you want to find out first in terms of the length, which is 4 meters,
you will just have to say 172/4, which will give you the particular frequency at which
standing wave might occur. Say somewhere close to 40 hertz you will probably experience
standing wave. If you are room is meant for certain instrument which is playing a note at 40
hertz, you might experience a standing wave which will spoil the whole appreciation of the
music itself. In that case you will have to provide treatment again in that particular low
frequency range.

So, it also tells you which frequency, you have to actually provide treatment for. As the you
know room width reduces further, instead of 4 meters, you take a 2 or 2.5 meter, then what
happens here; say if it is 2 meter you will have standing waves forming somewhere around 90
hertz 85 hertz, somewhere close to 86 hertz you will have standing wave, which means as the
room width comes down, or the height comes down, any dimension of the room comes down,
we will start experiencing room modes at slightly higher frequencies. Whereas if you have
wider rooms, the room modes occur very low frequency marginal; say instead of four meter
room, you imagine a 10 meter room. The room mode probably the first mode which can
happen would be somewhere around 17 hertz, which is more or less, which your ear cannot

394
detect. So, it is not really crucial thing, where as if a room mode is occurring at a 100, or 125
hertz, it will be a crucial thing to address. There are specific nomograms with which you can
find, what is the appropriate size proportion of the room; simple ones x and y dimensions, it
will tell you in which region the room mode would occur, and how do you avoid it.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:04)

These are call Bolt’s criteria, it also varies with volume and frequency, a simple thing the
reference chart with which, you can actually determine whether my room ratio. Say if it is
1 :2, 1:3; say 4 meter by 8 meter room, 1:2, whether this ratio is ok or not. If you have to
adjust this, then you will have to say; for example, since here we were talking about only
axial mode. So, two of these things were neglected. Instead if you are talking about a public
mode, all the three frequencies will come into picture. So, one by length one by width one by
height, will give you the oblique mode as it goes on it will increase. Eventually the frequency
of occurrence will also vary. So, appropriately you can determine using this nomograms,
what is my perfect room ratio, height to; say for example, width, length to width, how do I
determine this nomograms will help you understand.

395
(Refer Slide Time: 31:54)

To give you quick recap of what we studied now. We studied about certain acoustic quality
indicators, which you know we left in the previous section; we started with the reverberation
time. We start with reverberation time in the previous section. Today we looked at
articulation index, speech intelligibility index, and speech transmission index as well as
RASTI. Apart from that we looked at a phenomenon called room mode, which is a crucial
thing for smaller rooms, and in low frequency sound pressure levels.

Thank you.

396
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 17
Acoustic Design Considerations

In this module we will be looking at the acoustic design consideration. So, far we have been
looking at certain indices, now specific numbers which are useful. Now we will get a slightly
bigger perceptive say if you are designing an auditorium, or if you are designing a lecture hall
what are the steps you know how do you follow, which are the crucial things I am not going
to do a step by step, hand holding of how do you design an auditorium, but I will be talking
about few important things which come across when you design a listening space.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:00)

So, we will look at general design consideration, apart from this in this module I will be
demonstrating one of the auditorium project, using a software called Odeon; Odeon
acoustics ,which is a very you know detailed and interesting software. One of the most
sophisticated you know tool available today. I will be demonstrating one of the auditorium
projects using that particular tool.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:19)

So, we were talking about sound, sound transmission. So, you have an auditorium stage area,
and the listener here, you have direct sound wave. This is what I was trying to tell you last
module. So, you have a initial time delay gap which is called I T D, or initial time delay gap,
if you are closer you listen it in a say you know, say 1 millisecond 2 millisecond or 5
millisecond, you get the sound if you are as close as possible. Then as you go further this
distance increases. So, it is the number of amount of, you know the millisecond value
increases the number of time duration; that is what is called initial time delay gap; say
imagine it is say forty millisecond 50 millisecond as you go further. Then you will have
reflections say wall reflections; r 1. Then you may have feeling reflections floor reflections,
further you know second third fourth, 3 part you know reflected in 3 areas; say for example,
first reflection second reflection it reaches. Then it may go hit somewhere in the rear wall,
side wall, and then it can come back.

So, you will have lot of reflections, and each of them finally, if you tally you will get it in few
milliseconds, this is what we were talking in terms of, within 50 millisecond like clarity 50,
or within 80 milliseconds clarity 80 c 80. Now an important thing which you have to control
in designing an auditorium is the time difference between the direct sound and the reflected
sound. Yes, we talked about you know whatever coming after milliseconds for speech
performance, or after 80 milliseconds for music performance is not going to help you, rather

398
it is going to mask the next signal.

So, what do we do, how do we solve this problem. Yes, I know now that c 50 is not desirable,
it is on the higher side of it you know which is more than what the time is needed, or the
clarity value is lesser; c 50 is lesser than what is required, c 80 is lesser than what is required,
which means the ambiant is more initial, is much lesser than signal is lesser. So, one attempt
to solve this problem would be in minimizing the distance, the direct sound and the reflected
sound, the difference between the distances between the direct and reflected sound. So, how
do we again further do it?

(Refer Slide Time: 03:40)

If I take a case like this; d is a direct sound speaker versus the listener, he is getting it in say
you know 10 milliseconds, he is getting the direct sound. Imagine one reflected wave we are
talking about reflections, there are thousands of reflections which might be happening. Take
say first reflection say one it goes here path a, path b, and path c. This time say if it is 20
milliseconds this is for example, 80 milliseconds, the time difference between them is 16
milliseconds. Considering that you will have the direct and the reflected between them, 60
milliseconds which means if it is a speech performance, it is not going to actually benefit,
rather it is going to mask the next sound sequence, whereas, if it is a music performance 60
million seconds difference is rather.

399
This is exactly we are trying to control here a plus b plus c this distance minus d is less than
60 feet, are 18 meters. So, actually here we are converting the time domain and the distance
in terms of meters, length in terms of meter. So, taking say 340 meter per second sound
velocity, the velocity of sound or say 1130 in terms of feet per second, then you will come to,
say if you are calculating c 15, 15 million seconds it would travel 18 meters. So, if the
difference is less than 18 meters, you will be able to receive the reflected sound also in 15
millisecond - this is what ideally it means. If it is greater than 68 meters, there is lot of late
sound reflection; the sound will be weak, because each signal is going to be masked by the
late reflection. In order to avoid this you have to somehow control or enhance the early
reflection. Let us look at how we do this.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:41)

Imagine first scenario, a person is sitting here this is the source, you have a reflector.
Typically in auditoriums larger auditoriums, you would have seen acoustic reflectors there
would be hanging panels of different materials we are not getting into that material part right
now. Imagine it is a reflective material or a reflective fabric; more or less it is specific
frequency, again just to give you a very quick note. The material used here matters a lot, and
may need also depend determines how a specific frequency sound is reflected. Another thing
is the dimension of the thing itself. If it is too narrow versus too large which what frequency,
at what frequency it is going to be effective.

400
Larger panels typically are effective for low frequency sounds, I mean there is also further
iterative calculation methods formulas equations, using which you can also determine the
width, as well as the depth of, or say length and width of these suspended reflections,
reflectors. We are not getting into that detail right now, but we are trying to clarify the source
path. Now, source direct and reflected path differentials; say imagine there is a direct sound
the distance is 110 foot, the reflected path say this is 100 foot. Now a 35 degree angle, sorry
this is 35 foot distance, reflected path again you now direct this is theta this is theta, incident
angle is equal to reflected angle. So, this difference now works out to be 25 foot. If you
convert it you get 22 milliseconds, which mean it is early reflection, which is actually
enhancing your direct sound signal.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:22)

Now, let us push this reflector up little bit, let us take it further the height is increased now,
more or less the tilt is retained, but the height varies. The direct path remains at 110 foot;
whereas, now the reflected path, this is 130, this is 80 putting this together and subtracting
110, you have a distance difference of hundred foot, which means the time difference
between the direct and reflected sound is 88 millisecond, which means they are, if it is a
speech performance again, which we are interested in 50 millisecond, initial 50 millisecond
arrival, it is short or it is excess by 38 millisecond, which is not desirable.

401
So, actually we have to contain this, initially we had arriving in 22 millisecond, which is you
know good, but if you want to slightly increase it, you are now trying the second alternate,
where you are taking it up here you are getting 8 millisecond, which means there is some
place between this and this where it would be an optimum, that you can cut it to just 50
millisecond or lower, if you are interested. This also would be fine, but it also depends on the
architecture of the hall itself, look and feel. You do not want the reflectors to be too close plus
if the hall is large, it is not this one row of seat where the reflector is going to cater. It is going
to cater for a few rows in an auditorium. So, you find that there is a lot of late reflection.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:55)

Now, you get to the third position in between this. You are fixing it at a point, where the time
difference between, sorry the distance between length difference between the direct and
reflected, works out to around 57 foot. This exactly would give you 50 millisecond which
means up to this point there is a threshold. If you are going to take it further, it would result in
lot of later reflection, but below this it is ok. So, this is a point where you have to draw line
saying, the reflectors would be placed, somewhere here or below this point. For a single flat
late kind of reflector it is OK, but when it comes to curved reflectors, it is getting eventually
more complicated.

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(Refer Slide Time: 09:50)

Now, these are called rate raising each and every sound rose. For example, if you are to
design an auditorium like this. You will have to first define and design what are the
reflections here, each of these points if you divide it into segments, each of these segment
would reflect in certain angle. So, for example, if you are interested in a guy here, sitting here
the direct path versus the reflected path, you have to calculate.

Take another set say another five rows back, direct path versus the reflected path. So, here it
seems for instance, then the next reflection might be from the balcony, or if you take a
balcony seat here, you may have one reflection direct from the ceiling, it may also go further,
and it may come this is section, this is you are seeing it in the side, this is on the elevation, the
cut section is here. If you are talking about this person he will get direct sound all the way,
the distance, the time in millisecond would be higher naturally compared to him it will be
higher. He will get reflected sound, he will get reflected sound; he will also get things from
the rear wall. So, the longest reflection without much of decay, strong reflections have to be
considered. I will show you a typical example, working example using a real auditorium.
Apart from this, there are certain things called acoustic defects. Four commonly met defects
are; first thing is echo, next another version of echo called flutter echo.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:07)

You have another phenomenon called sound focusing, and you have another one called
acoustical creep. These are four commonly you know incurred acoustical defects which you
find in a hall. Here you have to differentiate between echo and reverberation time, echo is
also reflection of sound, but very sharp reflection. You know recollect the case we were
talking about, there is a specific signal here, you are allowing it to decay down say by 68
degree for example, there is an eventual slope forming here. If there are specific wall surfaces
which are reflective; say the rear wall, or you have a gallery V I P gallery. Typical
auditoriums you have a V I P gallery box which is further straight to the stage. When a person
is clapping, or when a person is strongly you know telling a word, spelling a word, there
would be an eventual decay, but when this particular syllable hit's the rear balcony.

So, you have a stage podium here, you have the sitting arrangement, you have a balcony, then
you have your ceiling somewhere. So, imagine you have a glass surface here, this particular
thing is glass. If a person is spelling a very strong, or an impulsive source is produced, there
is going to be a strong reflection, which will come back to him, you sometimes call it slap,
acoustic slap. So, there is a very sharp reflection which is coming. On the other hand a
regular kind of a reflection we were talking about would be reflected from here, reflected
from here.

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These are further smaller reflections, but there is one sharp point which is getting here and
coming back. This would actually if you measure the reverberation time record it in terms of
a graph, you would actually find a very sharp raise and then it is falling here. So, eventually it
is giving you another sharp impulsive sound. So, you had a gradual decay of sound, but then
there is another sharp impulse, then it is decaying down. This was your original sound,
background noise level you made this impulse, it was decaying down, you find a sharp, then
it is further decaying down, which means you have a problem of echo. You will be able to
find it if you are recording the reverberation time carefully.

Another phenomena is flutter echo, typically occurs in conference rooms, many of the board
rooms conference rooms have this problem. You have two parallel surfaces, you have say, a
person say this is a conference room table, and people are seated all around. Specifically
there is some impulsive sound which is produced, say if you are clapping, this will go get
reflected, get reflected, and get reflected. This will not easily decay down, but it will be
getting reflected and re reflected. So, a person seated here, he will first hear one reflection
sharp reflection, first echo, then it would go hit and come back, he will hear the second
reflection, second echo. It may be zigzag, but it may also happen in the same plane third
fourth fifth. So, there will be lot of impulsive sounds which are happening one behind
another. This is exactly what is shown here; gradual decay first second third fourth fifth, there
will be a lot of flutters which are happening.

The third phenomenon is focusing of sound. Imagine the case of the circular hall which we
were talking about. We talked about a specific circular space, with a podium on one side. So,
what happens in this hall? If you are seated here, this sound gets reflected and re reflected
from different points. So, what all these surfaces are doing; concave surfaces, they focus
sound on you, if you are sitting here; say receiver one this is the source, everything is
reflecting the sound, and channelizing it to one single point. The point focus point varies,
depending on the angle of curvature. So, larger the curve the thing will form somewhere, the
very short the curve is you will have more focused reflections, everything would focus here
very short curves. This is something which is not preferable, this would also lead to decay
then a sharp reflection, it may lead to echo, or it may lead to something called acoustic creep.
So, if you are sitting here for example, we use another color, if you are seated in this point,
the speaker is somewhere here, you will get a gradual flooding or creeping of sound, which is

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just a sweep kind of a signal, which is also not preferable. So, this instead of being smooth,
this slope eventually has lot of undulations.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:32)

We will look at how they happen echo, as I said very sharp reflections. In order to avoid you
have to either play around with the angle of the reflections, or you have to go for absorptive
material, but typically echo is well controlled by modulating the angle of the surfaces, rather
than putting more and more absorptive material, because it is also frequency dependent, and
echo problems may not be completely solved just by acoustic material itself. Yes, there are
methods ways of doing just using acoustic treatment, but best way is to pay attention more
attention during the design itself. Number two is flutter echo, common phenomena which I
was telling, an incessant you know reflection and re reflection across the plane; two methods
again change the angle of the wall, do not make parallel surfaces, or you do not have to treat
both the surfaces, treat one of the surfaces and make it more diffusive. Please remember you
are trying to make it more diffusive not just absorptive.

As far acoustic focusing is concerned, the best way is to avoid a circular shape or concave
shapes. Concave shapes are dangerous, both in plane form as well as dome ceiling both are
concave shape which will lead to very sharp focusing, they have to be avoided. Once done if
the architecture demands it or for some reason or the other say religious buildings where a

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dome ceiling is critically essential for example, the you know sentiments demand it you
cannot play acoustical, you know card there, in that case there is a culture there is a tradition
which is demanding you to build such spaces, then the next best alternate is to treat these
spaces and stagger it, create more diffusion and absorption in these concave spaces, so that
the focusing effect can be avoided. Similarly, for creep, best alternate is to either diffuse it
stagger it or create absorption. You have to be careful on which frequency you are providing
sound absorption that actually determines the effectiveness of the treatment itself. Other
phenomena I will not call it a defect though I have classified or put it into this section I will
not call it a defect, but we call coupled acoustic spaces.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:49)

Imagine you have a room or a hall; you have certain type of louvers. We can actually play
around with the reverberation time. You need a larger reverberation time, the seconds the
number of seconds have to be higher, then you can play around open close these louvers or
say if there are two rooms connected by a series of doors, you just open up the doors little bit.
Now, you have one room, a meeting or a seminar room here. If it is such that you cannot treat
too much, or you cannot do much around it, then you create an anti space here, an anti space
here, create lot of voids.

You can keep them closed for one of the function say event one, when you have a specific

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desired reverberation time you keep these things closed, you get r t 1, for even two you need r
t 2, just open up these things. In fact, you are trying to increase the volume of the room itself.
The whole thing leads to double acoustical slope; say no double reverberation slope; first is
decay slope. So, first is decay slope, first is this, there is a second slope. So, you have one
space when you open up depends volume plus the number of slots you are providing, the
slopes of decay changes.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:25)

Other important phenomena I would demonstrate with the simple experiment which was
conducted. This is a perfect an echoic chamber or a perfect absorbing chamber, where a
person was made to sit. There was a series of sound amplification, or sound sources which
were put around him. There is one direct sound say this is a plan, this is a view of it, the guy
is sitting here this is straight what you see here, the darkened things, there is a dark versus
empty the dark ones are where the speakers are on, these speakers are turned off whichever is
dark those speakers are on. Say in this case one direct the first is always you know which is
straight in front of his face, this is always on, in this case 1 2 and 3.

So, this is one second and third are on, say in this case this is on the two side one right and
left they are on, in this case for example, this is on all others are off, but these two are on. So,
kind of you are trying to ask him which sound you prefer, which is more directional and

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which is more diffused around you. See typically if you are listening to a music you will not
prefer a very strong directional sound; whereas, for speech you will prefer a directional
sound, and in some cases say you are listening some lectures one to one, if a person is talking
you should know the direction from which he is talking, it gives you know more attention to
be paid. Whereas, for music if it is more diffused, it is you know you call the phenomena
called acoustic envelopment; that is exactly what I am trying to describe in this. In this
experiment what they did, the results are here I will quickly tell you, this is a scale of
envelopment as judged by the participant.

So, each and every participant is made to sit here. A specific set of speakers were turned on,
and then they were asked to judge which gives them more envelopment, which is more better.
So, you know the scale varies from minus 1 to plus 1, actually what people found was; one
source here and two that is from left and right 90 degrees they found a good envelopment.
Whereas, directional that is you know if you have these three on, or these versus these two on
the envelopment was coming down. Envelopment is another important phenomena, this is
just to understand the phenomena of sound reflections. Now we will move on to
demonstration of an actual hall, where I will be talking about these parameters, this quality
indicators which I had you know been discussing for the past two modules.

(Refer Slide Time: 22:52)

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Now we will take a look at these acoustic quality indicators using a short demonstration.
This software this is called Odeon, this helps you, know do these rate racing and specific
detailed acoustic calculations, in a very interesting and understandable way. There are many
other software’s for example, EASE is another example you have Catt acoustics, there are lot
of you know (Refer Time: 23:15) these are few examples of tools; similar you know rate
racing another facilities are available, this is one such tool more or less the you know if you
know the basics or fundamentals of acoustics, irrespective of the tool you work you will be
able to get a better design. So, we have a auditorium here, this is a large auditorium here if
you look at it closely, and it is a pretty long space it is around you know 2000 plus capacity
auditorium.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:43)

The height is also around 15 meter plus height, looking at the plan, this is what it is, a large
volume space, look and feel of it, you have the center stage plus, you have the balcony this is
the model which we developed in Odeon. So, you have the ceiling, and I am showing you
more or less a finished, acoustically finished space. So, each of these colors actually in this
tool, it represents the amount of absorption they provide, the darker they are the more
absorption you get.

For instance there are certain lighter portions in the ceiling, they are gypsum panels, and they

410
are not much absorbing little bit of absorption, again frequency dependent. There are panels
where acoustical absorption is actually provided, plus you also have certain inclination of the
ceiling, which was designed specifically for you know talking into consideration, the initial
and late reflections, plus there are acoustical reflectors, plus absorbers provided on the side
walls, you have a balcony and below balcony.

We will get into the details one by one. So, we had put lot of sources and receivers. So, what
you see here I can show you the list of sources that. We had we had a set of speakers a line
array system, hanging in the left as well as the right side of the stage. So, there are two line
array speakers here, plus you have smaller speakers below the balcony, what you see in red
color; that is you know see here you have a set of speakers, if you look at it closely, there are
a set of speakers in the front end, plus you have certain speakers below the balcony space. So,
this is the arrangement.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:34)

You have different description, you can choose any specific company that is not very you
know essential that we are discussing now.

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(Refer Slide Time: 25:44)

Plus there are these blue dots which where we have placed receiver. So, we imagine there are
specific rows in which we have considered people sitting, below balcony, further extreme,
front seat plus balcony at different corners say one side to the other side. The next part here is
say first is to make the drawing by itself, physical dimensioning and drawing making the
drawing itself is a first task; that is you know I am not demonstrating the tool here.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:09)

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Next comes, the material specification. So, if you take a typical material. We are going to talk
about absorbing materials later typical material, depending on frequency you see in this left
hand corner, there is a material library from which we can choose, or we can add materials,
depending on frequency the materials absorption considerably varies.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:29)

Then we can start estimating what is a reverberation time; that is the first thing, you can
estimate t 60 or r t 60 at different frequencies.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:38)

You get a fair estimate of, with respect to sources receivers you can get a fair estimate of
what is your r t 30 or r t 20, and it also tells you how the path distribution is in terms of meter,
and hit's how many hit the sound source are making.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:47)

To you know give you a graphic representation. Let us go source by source, let us take the

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line array speaker. You have the speaker system here, if you take an x-z representation. Let us
start over again.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:17)

This is starting to emit, these are sound particles. By the time the direct sound reaches this
person, there will be lot of reflected sound available here, and there is a running time in
millisecond, and the path in meter. So, you know it takes about 80 85 millisecond for the
direct sound to reach the rear part of the hall. So, I will quickly show you that. So, now this is
propagating by the time it reaches probably the rear end. Now the source, the direct sound is
in the further end of the hall, it takes about 78 milliseconds, and it has traveled around 26 27
meters it is traveling to reach the rear row.

Whereas, here these are the order of reflection; that is number of reflections it has happened
you know around 7 to 8 reflections have already happened in this area by the time you get the
direct sound, which means you need amplification system if it is going beyond certain
milliseconds; that is where the deciding point happens, where how many sets of speakers and
how to design the amplification system itself, say line array speaker we have specific set of
speakers to cater, say the lowermost probably would cater to this zone, the next might cater to
this zone, then here, then one for the balcony we have certain amplification sources, you
know behind the balcony also. This is the rear speaker; this is how the sound propagation

415
happens. So, looking at it in three dimension this is how say further same, no arras source
which we were talking about, a line array system, how the sound reflection happens in three
dimension.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:02)

This is for a, you know plus you can count the time plus the distance you can be accounting
for. We will get into the specific sub, how the calculations or you know results are looking
like. Let us take one particular receiver, say let us take receiver number c 1 2 and 3. Let us
take receiver number two, this is here all the sources are on, if you look at all the sources
everything is on. This is receiver number two which is highlighted. I have already run the
simulations here; I am just showing you specific estimates of numbers which I have got here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 29:42)

T 30 that is reverberation time 30 d b d k, these are specific frequency, you also get this for t
20 t 15 early decay time; t 30 looks like this. Then you also get different parameters like
curvature, sound pressure level. This is definition d 50, this is clarity 7 c 7 c 50 c 80, we were
discussing about c 50 and c 80.

(Refer Slide Time: 30:21)

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There are you know lateral fractions, diffusivity, echo probability plus you get a summary at
this particular location. At this point what is the specific reverberation time what is the clarity,
say let us take a look at the clarity values, say take at say thousand c 80, it is around 15.6.
Now let us move to another receiver; say receiver number 40. So, where he is sitting here,
receiver number 14 is I do not have, probably we can look at, receiver number 5, and receiver
number 5 is little behind this place. If you look at the same, the numbers are starting to vary.
So, the clarity which this person experiences in this point in the front row, would be different
from what you get somewhere in seat number 14, or seat number 5 or further behind
sometimes in the balcony, you would start experiencing the differences, this is number one
further summary of tables. Then you have the decay curve, important parameter which we
need to look at now, something called reflectogram.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:31)

This is very essential in designing acoustical; you know quality of a space. This thing is
called reflectogram, something similar to what we drew on the board. Here you have time, in
this point you have time in seconds, this is on pressure level what is selected here, the red one
is a direct sound, zero that is the first arrival, following that you have lot of blue lines, which
indicate each reflection, reaching the particular receiver. Now we are talking about receiver
number 5, instead if you go back to say receiver number two or receiver number one for that
matter, this reflectogram will considerably vary, from one listener position to other listener

418
position; say we are not talking about the listener 0.1. So, the person is sitting somewhere in
this corner close to the corner.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:27)

This is the direct sound, then he gets the first reflection, this he gets the second reflection
third fourth and then he starts getting reflection. So, if you are interested in musical
performance, you will probably as I said stop at 80 milliseconds somewhere here, whatever
comes before is good, whatever comes later has to be avoided. Now the late reflections are
relatively less. Now if we move on to another receiver for example, a rear side person, who is
sitting somewhere, we can even take the same number five, fifth receiver

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(Refer Slide Time: 33:09)

If You look at the reflectogram. We saw it is starting to differ after 80 milliseconds still you
have sharp reflections coming.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:18)

Now, let us look at what are the reflections where are they coming from. So, this is zero, this
is the first reflection which you are getting. You can actually visualize in elevation as well as

420
in plan, which direction it is coming from, and where it is actually coming from at different
frequencies as well. So, this particular reflection you can visualize, it is looking like, this
source is here, one of the line array sources, the direct sound is here plus the reflected sound.
If we take a look for instance, let us take further reflections to get more clarity.

So, you start getting reflections from the side walls plus the floor plane. further on It will
actually pictorially give you; see there is a reflection happening in the rear wall, it travels to
the side wall then it comes here. It is kind of an estimate of where the reflection is also
happening, say if you feel there is a strong sound, this is decibel the initial source was around
73 db. Now you are getting a late reflection which is around 64 65 db; say 64 decibel which
needs to be avoided. This is a very strong reflection. If I have to avoid this particular
reflection, then I will have to treat either the rear wall of the stage or this particular side wall.

If you take a close look we have put certain absorbing panels, but then if you have to address
this particular receiver, the treatment has to happen here or here, so that this particular ray can
be cut off. Likewise you can take few specific sampling points and start working here. You
also find specific late reflections far off. They may not be much critical, because in terms of
sound pressure level they are pretty low. There is one more strong reflection here end of it,
very you know far in time.

It may also appear that you know it strikes the rear wall, there are two three more reflections
which are happening across the hall. It may not be probable that it would hit all the way and
come back. You know it is a judicious choice a person has to take, between the surfaces in
which it is reflecting, the path it which in which it is traveling, and how much intense the
sound itself is, the reflected sound itself is. So, reflectogram typically helps you find out
where specific reflections are happening, and you can graphically avoid, no redesign the
space itself and graphically find out, whether the new design or new shape, would enhance
the reflections or not.

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(Refer Slide Time: 36:03)

Then you have the binaural thing which is called binaural. So, two years both of them should
actually get the reflected, as well as direct sound more or less in the same time, there should
not be much of the time difference between the sound received in the left ear and the right
ear. So, keeping in this, keeping this in consideration the binaural graph really helps. This
actually gives you at what time, this is time in x axis, what time your left ear and the right ear
start receiving the signal, and how sharp they are, plus you have the diffusivity curve.

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(Refer Slide Time: 36:37)

There is the echo probability curve, if it goes brain beyond the threshold say, 50 percent
threshold; there is a probability that 50 percent of the people might be annoyed with this
particular sharp reflection. So, looking these images plus the numbers, taking them into
consideration, we can start working and reworking on the acoustical design.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:07)

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Let us take a look at few more quality parameters which we had, I am going to show you a
three dimensional mapping, which we have done here. Let us specifically choose certain
parameters and look at them. I will go to a plan view, and let us take a look at say t 30, at say
250 hertz, the reverberation time which we get here is around 0.8, and it also at specific
points, there are reflections, because of which you get a slightly increased reverberation time,
but more or less you get the distribution graph.

(Refer Slide Time: 37:36)

More or less the reverberation time at this frequency is ok, at say 1000 hertz it is further
coming down, at higher frequency it will eventually drop down; the next parameter that we
looked at to be more relevant.

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(Refer Slide Time: 37:55)

We looked at clarity c 50, you will see that there are two different clarities which we are
getting; one in the rows here, and this one is below the balcony. This actually becomes a
double space where the absorption condition in this place, in this zone are different, because
the volume is different plus the one below balcony, the volume is pretty less, the absorptions
are different. So, the clarity is higher. It does not mean this is good. You know It is not also
preferable that there is a starking difference between a row here and the next row here, the
clarity is kind of distinctly different. We have to try and maintain uniformity, according to
that, if you go by that motion then, ideally we will have to bring down the value here maybe
introduce some reflective components or reduce the absorption here, volume you cannot
naturally do things here.

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(Refer Slide Time: 38:53)

So, eventually you have to get the distribution more proper, this kind of distribution may not
be very preferable. So, clarity part it has to be adjusted.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:05)

Again you can look at different frequencies. So, if you look at a c 80, initial this part you
have a different clarity, eventually it varies and then it goes up pretty much higher here. So,

426
this indicates that there is a reworking required in terms of clarity. One of the iterations that is
the result I am showing you, after this further you know certain enhancements were done.
Then there are other parameters like lateral fractions that I told you. We are not discussing
these technical terms and where are the probability of echo higher, at which point echo might
happen, maybe here. There is more probability of echo these places, there is no much
probability

(Refer Slide Time: 39:27)

So, we can actually look at these parameters and start designing it.

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(Refer Slide Time: 39:45)

Then we have our speech transmission index which we looked at it S T I. Here the S T I is
pretty high and in the front portion somewhere here, the volume is pretty high, the ceilings
you know is quite high; S T I is slightly lower. Though it is not really low it is somewhere
around 0.7, which is not bad, but still if you have to increase or improve this, you might need
certain either sound reinforcement has to be adjusted or you have to go with certain reflectors
and absorbers, so that the signal to noise (Refer Time :40:16) ratio can be adjusted. This is
rusty again; specifically for amplified sounds you have certain average quantities. So, this is
all about, how specifically numbers which we study in theory, apply in the practice. So,
taking a typical hall, any small large volume auditoriums, starting from lecture hall
conference room to large volume auditoriums, these numbers or these indices which we
looked at quality indices are critically important.

To conclude this session we looked at general design considerations what are the common
things we looked at, designing of acoustic reflectors, what is the principle behind designing
it, and we also looked at a few acoustic defects which are common, and we also looked at
another thing called envelopment, where you know this is typically to give you an idea where
to put your speakers, or where not to put your speakers. Yes, it depends on the type of
performances; it is more challenging for multipurpose halls. If it is just meant for say an
orchestra it is fine or speech it is fine. Whereas, if it is for multipurpose hall it is going to be

428
more challenging, and then we looked at the demonstration of Odeon acoustics, it is a
software tool through which actually the parameter, quality indicators were demonstrated.

Thank you.

429
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture - 18
Acoustic Materials

In this module we will be looking at details of acoustic materials. So, far we have been
talking about basics of acoustics, and indoor acoustic treatment. You know the last module
we were talking in elaborate about considerations for acoustical design in buildings, where
material selection is a very crucial part, unless you select a right material your acoustics is not
going to be alright. So, this module we primarily focus on types of acoustic material,
observing materials, insulating materials. Primarily we will be starting with indices for
measuring, what parameter should be look at. Say if you have to select from a list from a
seller, what parameter you should be keenly looking for and then what are the types of
materials available and their specific applications.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:10)

A quick you know recap of what we saw last time, this was a reverberation time equation this
is Sabines’s formula where,

V
T r=0.163
A

430
A r =∝1 S1 +∝2 S2 +∝3 S3

Where A is α that is called absorption coefficient of specific material into the surface area of
that particular materials application.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:28)

So, if you have n number of materials spread over specific surface areas, then you can have a
sigma that is specific absorption coefficient, which into in the surface area. In this particular
number a, is referred in terms of absorption, is referred in terms of Sabin; that is a unit for
absorption. Now we will look at more closely about what this α actually means.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:57)

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Alpha is the absorption coefficient of a particular material, it ranges from 0 to 1; 0 is 100
percent absorbing 0 is 100 percent reflecting; that is does not have any specific absorption.
This particular absorption are α absorption coefficient, varies with respect to frequency. So,
ideally when you select a material, if you want a real performance based selection. It is rather
better to locate at least three specific absorption coefficients; that is absorption in the low
frequency, something around 63 or 125 hertz or sometime 250 hertz. You know better is to
look at 63 and 125 hertz. Then in the mid frequency range that is around thousand hertz what
is absorption coefficient, and in the high frequency range something after 4000, say 8000
hertz is a good indicator of high frequency absorption.

There are two different types of tests through which absorption coefficient itself is
determined. First is called reverberant chamber method. We talked about two different types
chambers first was a reverberant chamber, other is an anechoic chamber. You know we had
this references in the last module; reverberant chamber is a place or a testing room where the
acoustic absorption is almost zero. It has infinite reflections or the reverberation time is very
large. On the other hand anechoic chamber is something where there are almost no
reflections, no absorption is very high, the reverberation time is very low, and this is what
makes the difference. So, the first method you place that you know material to be tested, you
mount it inside the reverberant chamber, and you test the difference between the original
reverberation time, and reverberation time after the material is placed inside the room.
Typically test chambers have their own reverberation time, without any material present.

432
When the material is present there is a second T dash or the second reverberation time, with
this you can find out what is a reverberation absorption coefficient of this particular material.
This method of testing is more efficient for frequencies between 100 to5000 hertz, and there
are lot of other considerations like mounting on what surface you are mounting, edge
diffraction, lot of other things are coming. We are looking into those specifications right now.
Just for information this is the first method. And the second method is called impedance tube
method. We studied about the principle standing waves; this particular principle is applied in
this testing. I will quickly show you the chambers and the testing devices.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:33)

This is a reverberant chamber you place the material inside the chamber, it has infinite
reflections, or the reverberation time is very long, without any material the chambers
reverberation time is taken, and after the material is mounted, then the absorption is
measured. There are various advancements in these method of measurement, this is a
anechoic chamber for your information, it has a lot of wedged shaped each one is on
absorbing surface. So, the surface area is very high and the absorption is rarely high, the
reverberation time will be very low, negligible reverberation time. This is second type of
measurement which is called standing wave method, or the impedance tube method this
typical experimental setup. It is available as a testing device or you can fabricate your own.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:20)

This diameter of the tube and the length of the tube has a critical you know position to play in
terms of the testing efficiencies; say this kind of thinner tubes, you know thin diameter
smaller radius tubes are used for high frequency testing, the larger ones used for typically low
frequency testing, on one side of it you mount the material. There is a signal generator or a
pure tone generator, specific frequency is set in which tones are produced. Principles of
standing wave, a standing waves are formed in you know inside this chamber. Then you have
a microphone where which is recording in the typical high and low; that is a maxima and
minima of the wave length with which a specific calculation procedure, will tell you what is
absorption coefficient.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:13)

So, this is a second method of testing using these methods typically you determined at
specific frequencies, what is a absorption coefficient, this is what we are referring as α. So,
when we say a specific material is there. Let us take for example, the first the red line here,
this is a material x, or says for example we can say it is a cushion, it is a 50 mm cushion, and
we are testing this. So, at different frequency, starting from 125 where you are getting about
negligible absorption, then you go all way up to 4000, where you are getting about 0.8 alpha,
or absorption coefficient. The material is having a good absorption in the high frequency
verses; it has a very negligible or low absorption in the low frequencies. You take another
material y, where you are mounting it, say for example, it could be glass wool behind a
particular panel or a fabric, and you are testing this particular thing. Again it is a 50 to 75 mm
which has a different type of alpha value, at 125 hertz it has slightly better absorption 0.4-0.5
mid frequencies close to 500 it is, after mid frequency it has very low absorption.

Commonly when you buy a material you have a value called NRC, or noise reduction
coefficient which is nothing, but an average absorption coefficient of four different
frequencies, 250,500,1000 and 2000. Any material you chose the first index or the number
you get to see, or refer plus a supplier gives you, will be the noise reduction coefficient, then
say the NRC value is 0.8-0.94, it is a good absorbing material. Yes, it indicates the materials
absorbing performance, but one short note you have to remember, it is an average value. So,
take the case of two materials that we were comparing; material x and material y. Both of
them the absorbing pattern is different first material have good absorption in the high

435
frequency, low frequency it is not performing well. Whereas the other material the material y,
has the totally reverse type of performance, in the low frequency range it is better, as it gets
higher the absorption is coming down, but as you get; see the NRC both have around 0.4
NRC.

So, in this way NRC as such, simply referring to NRC little misleading, it is rather a good
idea or a better strategy, to look at what is the specific absorption coefficient at different
frequencies. If you take a closure look, if you want to control reflections or if you want more
absorption in the low frequency, if your reverberation time calculations show that your RT at
the low frequency needs to be reduced, then you need to go for material y in place of material
x. On the other hand if you find that mid and high frequency you need more absorption, or at
specific location you need to arrest mid and high frequency sounds, then better go for
material x. So, NRC as such is a good indicator for absorption, absorption coefficient of a
material, but since it is an average, it sometimes is misleading, because it averages out both
high mid and, all the three high mid and low frequencies.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:19)

Another consideration you have to be careful about while you chose a material. For instance I
have given an example, you are wanting to buy a carpet, and the you know material suppliers
says the carpet has a NRC of 0.8, which means it is extremely good absorbing material. So,
typically you will prefer going for this particular carpet, but if you closely take a look at it,

436
the mounting condition, in which the material was tested, was at only the carpet, or was there
any backing given to the carpet.

In this case for example, if the carpet where, you know was installed over a block of fiber
glass, or a panel of fiber glass then this NRC, particular NRC of 0.8, actually refers to a better
absorption not just of the carpet, but it is carpet as well as the backing and the fiber glass you
know glass will backing, which is resulting in this 0.8, it is not the sole performance of the
carpet alone. So, better you also ask the supplier or check for the data base in the data sheets,
what was the mounting condition. If you take a closer look, then your material selection is
more economical or more trustable

(Refer Slide Time: 10:31)

There are three types, primary types of acoustic absorbers; first is porous absorbing material,
second is panel absorber, and the last is cavity resonators. Each one has a specific band width
or frequencies spectrum, in which they have a very good performance. It can be stretched out
to other frequencies, but their primary performance areas are different.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:55)

Take a porous material, any type of cushion glass will you have boards; there are few
varieties I will show you now. Simple example is a cushion or a foam acoustic foam, which
will have very good absorption in the mid and high frequency range, is a cushion if you take
look at microstructure it has lack of air porous in it. So, typically the acoustic signal or the
sound energy is getting converted into heat energy inside these porous, because of which you
get very good absorption in the mid and high frequency ranges.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:24)

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As I said mid and high frequency is good, but if you take simple 50 mm or 25 mm thick
cushion, you know it is absorption or alpha value absorption coefficient, is rather week or
low in low frequency, it is not very well performing in the low frequency. If at all you are left
with only option of cushion, you do not have any other option you have to go for foam, then
if you still want low frequency absorption, then you can increase the thickness or the spacing
between the solid backings, solid backing can be your wall. So, probably you should go for a
50 mm or 100 mm space, air gap then mount, instead of a 25 or 50 mm foam, you go for 100
or 150 mm foam with the air gap, then it can be made to or stretched to improve the
performance in the low frequency also, but if you are simply mounting it on the wall surface,
a thin 50 mm cushion standard panels boards are available. If you are simply going to mount
it then you can only expect a very good performance in the high frequency, low frequency
you cannot expect much.

There are different types perforated fissured boards textured materials, different types of
patterns textures are available. They are also available in the form of acoustic boards,
hangers, geo-acoustic tiles lot of you know panels, nice looking you know architecturally,
good looking interior you know suited to different themes of interiors panels are available,
commercially today. Other variance include acoustic plasters, sprayed fibrous materials,
blankets, foam boards, carpets, fabrics are available. So, there is lot of varieties, and this is
one of the most predominantly used acoustic absorber as far architectural applications are
concerned.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:11)

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The second type is panel absorber; imagine a thin plywood panel, mounted on a frame, there
is air gap you have the wall section here. This also absorbs at a specific particular frequency
band width. The absorption is restricted to one or two specific band widths, which depends
on the thickness of the panel, the area of absorption, and the air gap which is available behind
that is the spacing, depending on these three variables the density of the parallel as well,
depending in these three crucial things density, thickness, as well as the mounting distance,
the absorption specifically varies. I show you specific examples of how the absorption is; it
typically resonates at a particular frequency. I am going to show you some examples.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:58)

The third type is called cavity resonators, these are typically box shaped absorbers, these are
also called Helmholtz Resonators, working principle is they actually trap the acoustic signal,
it can be specific boxes like this, or it can be panels with perforated, in which each of these
perforations is going to act as an acoustic cavity, inside which the signals or the incoming
signals can be trapped. This signal can be, have simple void or this can be lined for improved
absorption, and these are typically well performing in the mid and low frequency range. Of
course, it depends on the width of the cavity; that is the diameter or the cross section of this
whole thing as well.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:46)

The resonate frequency for example, at which frequency this cavity is going to be effective,
or if you have a specific frequency in which you have to address; say for example, your hall
or your room is not performing well, or the reverberation time is excessively high at 125
hertz, or 63 hertz. In this case you have a formula, you know the frequency now, and velocity
is fixed, now you can determine the dimension and the cross section of the cavity, as well as
the volume of the cavity which will be able to arrest frequencies at 63 hertz, frequencies of 63
hertz or 125 hertz. There are different type's individual cavity resonators, or perforated panel
absorbers, like I said it can be perforated boards, or it can be slit resonators.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:32)

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Some examples you can have glass wool backing behind this, you can foam backing behind
this. There are different types and the performance whereas, I show you some examples apart
from this they can also be separately suspended in the form of specific boxes, which act as
resonating cavities; are like I said it can be individual cavities which can arrest, you know
very low frequency sounds, typically used in recording studios, where low frequency creates
a lot of problem, because of the smaller volume of the room as well as a type of sound signals
which are generated.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:09)

A few examples, first let us start with cavity you know panel resonators, panel absorbers. Let
us take an example you have a wall, solid wall, you are mounting 25 mm thick glass wool,
then you have a panel, plywood panel which is 8.4 kg per meter square. Typically what you
get, you get a sharp absorption around 100 hertz are close to 125 hertz, you have a sharp
absorption of around 0.7 alpha, or you know absorbing coefficient of 0.7 close to 125 hertz,
but after that the performance is almost, all the alpha values are almost zero. You get very
good absorption in this part after that it is dropping down, but if you take a look at the NRC,
it will show zero, because it is only taking into account, frequencies after this particular
frame, this lower frequency of 63 and 100 hertz is not covered here. If at all you are requiring
this particular frequency absorption, sometimes thin panel absorbers, would be really of good
help. The absorption also varies for the thickness, as well as the presence is absence or type
of material used for the backing.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:23)

Now, I am increasing this you know glass wool from 25 mm 250 mm. The material is same,
wall everything is same, just the thickness has increased. Now you take a look at this, the
absorption, sound absorption, the frequency is shifted further lower. Now it is getting much
closure to 63 hertz, and the absorption coefficient is also increasing. You also get a very high
absorption, it is shifting towards a low frequency, it is a good way of, you know good
strategy to use in case you are requiring, very specific frequency in which there is a problem
in the room or your hall.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:00)

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Now, instead of a solid panel if you have a slated panel, you have certain slats here 25 mm
thick glass wool backing, same wall material plus you have a 6 mm thin panel and you have
slats here. Look at the absorption coefficient; low frequency, like you saw in the previous
one, you do not get much in the low frequency range, a proper you know perceivable
absorption coefficient you will get somewhere around 250 hertz where it is above 0.5, then
you get a better absorption in the mid frequency, and in the high frequency range, it is
eventually dropping down. This is with the 25 mm backing.

(Refer Slide Time: 18:41)

Now, if I increase the backing from 25 to 50 mm, then you take a note the absorption slightly
gets a shift, you also get realizable values somewhere around 125 hertz, here itself it is
crossing 0.5 absorption alpha value, and then you get a good absorption in the slightly low
frequency range, around 250 500 you get good absorption, after that 2000 hertz it is
eventually dropping down, just the variation in this thickness. Apart from this, the type of
slats, the thickness of slats, is there you know thin backing behind this, a cushion backing
behind this, are what is a dimension instead of slats if you have porous or perforations, the
kind of absorption you are going to get, is going to be different.

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(Refer Slide Time: 19:28)

Take a look at this now instead of a slat you have a perforated facing Now your N R C value
is very good, the absorption coefficient pattern you also get a good absorption in the mid and
high frequency range. Here the critical thing is, what is a diameter this perforation, and what
is a distance between the perforation. So, first I will be defining here it is 3 mm dia and the
spacing between center to center spacing is 9 mm, and what is backing, here I have given 50
mm. Now moment I am adjusting you know decreasing it increasing it, or I am varying this
perforation type as well as in a spacing and the diameter or dimension surface, then the
absorption coefficient or the performance of the material itself is going to vary.

For example in this case, I have a open area of around close to 9 percentage, I can increase
this, if I increase this the material is going to give better absorption and the low frequencies,
it is kind variable, you have to actually get an understanding of how the material is going to
behave, with three different things, in this case spacing diameter and the backing.

445
(Refer Slide Time: 20:39)

Now, so, far we have been looking at acoustic absorption. So, inside a hall you need an
reverberation time, you need specific type of signaled noise ratio and acoustic absorption. For
this you are using the factor called noise reduction coefficient, and alpha or the absorption
coefficient. Now let us talk about sound insulation, two things we are talking about; first was
acoustic absorption inside a room. Now we are talking about sound, you know partitioning
and insulating sound between one room to the other room, say if source room to the receiver
room, it can be a nice source or it can be a sound source which you want to really arrest, for
this similar to NRC we use a term called STC or sound transmission coefficient.

Any particular material says it can be a door, it can be a window, or it can be a wall system.
Typically there is a standard which asks you to go for, and STC rating of says 35 40 50.
There will be specific STC ratings; say for example, you are designing a board room which is
next one open plan office. There will be a specific demand which says that STC rating of the
partition used between these two should be say 45, which means if there is, you know the
board room requires around 30 or 35 db as a background noise. Even if the source room that
is a next room; that is open office if the sound signal goes to say around 80 d b, which means
a 50 db reduction will be required between these two. In that case the sound insulation or the
sound transmission class which we call, is now should be carefully chosen such that it is
higher.

446
It is again a single number rating of a particular material, or an assembly’s ability to resist
airborne sound transfer. Here we have talking about airborne sound transfer, there are
different modes airborne, structure borne sound. Now we are specifically focusing on
airborne sound; that is air to air sound transmission, at specific frequencies between 125 to
4000 hertz. There are different types insulation; like rigid panels you can haves you know
something called s p f or spray polyurethane foam, then you have s I p structural insulated
panels, different varieties variants are available. Then you have blankets batt insulation,
specific applications demand different type of sound insulating materials. We refer to a
simple term called transmission loss.

You have sound transmission by inserting, you have certain thing called insertion loss or a
transmission loss, without this particular material there was, this much amount of sound
transmission happening, between the source room and the receiver room. After I insert the
particular material there is some amount of transmission loss which is happening, this is
determining the efficiency of a particular material. Similar to noise reduction coefficient, this
is also determined that different frequencies, and then totally you represented in terms of
something called sound transmission class. One important thing you have to notice say for
example, there are two rooms, separated by a partition simply the partition itself might have a
very good sound transmission class, see you have a gypsum board two sets of gypsum board,
with some glass wool insulation material inside, it may have a very good sound insulation.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:01)

447
Say there is source room and there is a receiver room, you have gypsum you know partition
plus, you have a glass wool, then you have a second gypsum panel. This has a simple
partition is available. Now source room to the receiver room, you may have this particular
thing can have an STC of for example, 45, a good STC value sound transmission class is
available. Moment you insert a particular window or a door the STC of a door this is STC of
partition. Now, you insert a door and a window, this is not openable just a see through
window. For example, the door which you chose has a STC of 35, the window which you
chose has an STC of 30. Then you have to tally or account for all the three things together,
which is referred as composite sound transmission class, when you have three four or n
number of different elements across the wall or a partition, then each of it is sound
transmission properties, or sound insulating properties have to be accounted, which we
commonly refer as sound transmission class or composite sound transmission class of a
particular partition. Now this is a weaker link, if you have to really improve the sound
transmission of the whole partition system, then you have to really address this particular
window; say instead of a single glass you go for a double glass unit, or you go for a laminated
window panel which will be slightly more sound insulative.

Then you address the door, you check whether it is a single door, double door, led line doors,
led line doors typically give you a better sound insulation in the low frequencies, you can go
for acoustic gasketing sound, you know insulating gaskets then you can improve the acoustic
performance of the door. There is another component here say particular supplier might give
you STC of the door as 35. This is something which you find in the materials catalog. This is
a laboratory tested value.

You also have something called field STC. This is a laboratory tested value. So, you have to
actually give certain concessions for it is performance in the field, moment you have certain
installation related things. You cannot do such a fine installation, like they do a testing in the
laboratory. So, accounting for all that if you are doing it practical design, go for a slightly
higher STC rating, instead of 35 it is suggested or advisable to go for 38 or 40 STC, so that
you can actually achieve an STC of 35.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:58)

It is a general design consideration which any acoustic designer typically does. Simply
putting it a sound transmission class between; say forty to 50 is considered to be very good,
higher it is, say higher it above forty it is considered to be typically good between the rooms;
that is even if you have above say 80 d b sound in the other side you are going to get 35 to 40
decibels if you have a STC in this range. Below that is fair and it is very poor if the STC
ratings are 20 to 25. I am going to give you some specific examples of this as well. If you
have STC between 20 to 25, it also means that the speech between these two rooms, source
room and the receiver room is going to be audible with each other. Typically STC of the
panel, say you have gypsum board you have a plywood panel.

449
(Refer Slide Time: 27:43)

There are different types; you know ranges or regions in which the sound reduction is more
effective. There is a specific range called mass law region, where the density of the material
increases. So, the higher density material and thickness you go for, the insulation properties
increase, but there are two ends to it in the lower end, you have something called resonant
region, where the materials start resonating to low frequencies. Typically it happens below
100 hertz, again it depends on the material and it is dimensions, typically in the lower side it
happens. In the resonance region this is not proportional, whatever thick, whatever density it
is when resonates the acoustic insulation is very poor, and you cannot interpolate or
extrapolate in this region. Again in the higher end you have something called coincidence
region, where different planes of acoustic signals coincide with each other, and again the
insulation property drastically drops down.

450
(Refer Slide Time: 28:41)

Getting certain specific examples, let us take a single layer of gypsum board, a thin gypsum
panel; say around 130 mm or 150 in mm gypsum panel, this is a absorption you know sound
transmission class, or the sound insulation property at different frequency, the red one, this is
what you are going to get. Now if you add a cavity at two specific gypsum boards, you are
trying to increase this particular number; the STC value from 27 you are able to achieve 34.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:14)

Now, you have a glass wool associated with it, you can raise it to forty, you can increase the
width of it from say 75 mm, you are getting it to 125 mm. Now from 40 you have a slight

451
increase, you have a air gap that is, you know you have a air gap here air gap here the same
50 mm insulation glass wool is put up here, you are getting a marginal increase in STC, we
can take a note of the curve here.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:44)

Now, further to increase, this is what we had in the previous graph, we had 41 STC. You can
actually replace these wooden studs with specific metal studs with gasketing. You will have a
very good increase in sound transmission class. In this example instead of this particular
wood, if I am going to introduce a metal stud with certain gasketing in both sides, and kind of
isolating both the things, I am actually arresting the sound transmission path, with which I am
able to get from 41 I am trying to improve, I am able to from 41 I am trying to improve I able
to improve it to 47 STC.

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(Refer Slide Time: 30:22)

Further to it, there are specific types of studs, metal studs which are further good at isolating
the sound transmission path; that is airborne sound transmission path; it would be able to
arrest further. So, we will be able to achieve; for example, with two lines of gypsum on both
sides with the specific type of acoustical, you know stud with the insulation of 50 mm and air
gap on both side, we can raise it to up to 59 STC, which is really a good STC to achieve
between the rooms.

So, typically you have to understand as the type of STC requirement increases, the amount of
STC is essential, higher STCs are essential. There are various strategies like going in for
thickener panels, adding another board, two three boards, or introducing an air cavity,
introducing insulation material, changing the stud types, or adding panels on both the sides,
increasing the total air cavity. Depending on these things you can actually attain an
improvement in terms of STC. Common mistake which people do in the industry when you
have false ceiling, typically people stop this particular panel at the false ceiling level.

Ideally when you need a perfect insulation between both the rooms, it is suggested that you
raise this partition up to the ceiling, clear ceiling height, do not stop it at the fall ceiling level,
these are certain common things mistakes which are done. So, you have certain thing called
you know to the ceiling, ceiling at attenuation class where through the ceiling fall ceiling it
gets in, passes through this and goes to the receiver room. So, it is a good practice to get it
further. Other common you know considerations are like. So, you have two panels; there is

453
one board here, there is one more board here, this is a source room, this is a receiver room, if
you are placing a switch boxes on both these things. Certain common things like you know
do not place it side by side, it is a better you know advisable thing to place it in a staggered
manner, anything like you know staggering these, some principles common principles logical
things can be apply, so that an effective STC can be attained.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:33)

How do you calculate the level difference between these rooms? This is a simple example see
you have a room a room b; source room and receiver room, typical example in hotels or you
know apartment buildings. Typically in hotels the problem is more, because some of the
rooms have connecting doors, sometimes they make use of is as suit's they can open up this
double doors. So, they become suit's together this whole room is rented out, but when they
close it, there is a typical problem of sound transmission from one room to the other room.
So, when you have to calculate this for example, you have the transmission loss of this
particular partition here. You have different types of wall section, there is wardrobe here,
there is a door double door here, then there is a simple wall section thin wall section, there is
a thicker wall section here. Accounting for all this you takes the composite transmission loss.

Then you take into account the absorption,

A2
L1−L2=TL+10 log
S

Where

454
A2: area of second room; S: surface area of the partition

Together if you take then we will be able to determine what is a level difference. Ideally what
happens you will not in practice, you will not be required to calculate the difference, but you
will know what difference you need to achieve, you know that the source room is going to
produce something like 90 db, whereas here you want to ensure 35db. So, you know what is a
delta t required. The possible options are you increase the transmission loss, you take a look
at each of these elements and increase the transmission loss, or you increase the absorption in
the receiver room. You make the receiver room more absorbing then you will also find an
associated improvement in terms of the overall sound transmission, or the sound reduction
which is attained.

(Refer Slide Time: 34:18)

Closing this section, so far we looked at different indices of measurement, we looked at two
key things one is acoustic absorption, where we started with reverberation time and talked
about noise reduction coefficient, and specific absorption at different frequencies how it is
important. Other thing we looked at the different type of materials; porous absorbers, panel
absorbers, and cavity resonators. And the second thing we looked at is sound insulating
material, where we talked about transmission loss, and sound transmission coefficient or
STC, how do we calculate, and how do we calculate the transmission loss between two
different rooms. We also looked at few examples of, how do we increase the STC of a
particular partition system.

455
Thank you.

456
 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 19
Lighting – Basics

In this module we will be looking at Lighting. So far we have been talking about thermal as
well as acoustics. Further, modules there is in the next module we will be looking at lighting.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:40)

This specific module will cover indices of measurement, what is lighting, what is light
energy, what are the indices primarily, what units they have and what is essential. We will talk
little bit about day lighting, how to calculate it, primarily about estimating day lighting. In the
following module we will look at daylight harvesting system and how they can be
incorporated in the design. Light is a part of electromagnetic spectrum, it is a visible portion
this is the only thing human eye can see.

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(Refer Slide Time: 01:07)

So, it ranges from around 400 nanometers to 700 nanometers below that you have infrared
and the other side you have ultra violets. We are interested in the lighting that is a visible part
of the lights mean visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum as for this module is
concerned.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:26)

458
Let us look at few important indices that you have to really understand. Lot of them are used
and sometimes place of one is used in place of the other they are often confused indices. Let
us take a look at few commonly used indices. First is light power, any particular energy you
talk about, we have to talk about the source, the light power talks about the source it is the
amount of energy or light emitted from a source, which is kind of if you compare it with the
water flowing in a pipe. The diameter of the pipe decides how much amount of water can
flow through it.

Now this is more or less equivalent to that we call it light power it is measured in lumens.
The unit for measurement of light power is lumens. It is something like luminous flux
typically when we say energy flow we talk about flux. So, this is luminous flux it is measured
in lumens.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:24)

Typically luminous flux is a rate at which as we said the light energy flows from the source.
One lumen is a light flow emitted by a unit intensity; we will look at what is light intensity in
the following slide. Let us just say it is a unit intensity of point source. Now we are talking
about the point source with a unit solid angle. As we all know surface of the sphere a spheres
obtains 4 pi units, solid angle at its center, so there is a 4 pi. If you say 1 candela or unit

459
intensity point source we will define intensity shortly; unit intensity point source will be
emitting 12.56 or 12.64 pi lumens in all direction. This is the conversion which goes here.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:06)

Let us take a look at what is light intensity. This is measured in candela, if you divide the
luminous flux that we defined as f which is a luminous flux, if you divide it with the solid
angle that is omega which we are defining as omega if you divide this, the quotient what you
get is the intensity of light source. This is measured in candela as I said luminous intensity.
You can compare it with the flow intensity through a particular channel. So, if you are
relating an analogue with light as well as this pipe we will be comparing this for a few more
instances for a better understanding. First we talked about luminous flux. Once you divide
luminous flux by the solid angle then you get the luminous intensity. This is measured in
candela.

I = F/ω

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(Refer Slide Time: 03:48)

Now let us look at two indices which are more commonly used or any of the standards you
refer to they will at some point refer or specify the amount of light required or the kind of
lighting required in terms of these indices. The first thing we should know is luminance,
illuminance level . sorry . it is illuminance level. You will know something like lux levels,
people will talk about lux levels this is required amount of lux level. Lux is units are in older
system it uses to be foot candle. It is something like you are collecting water in tray from the
same water flow channel.

So, this is like the amount of light falling over a surface or amount water in this analogy
which is collected over a surface. Older as I said it is lumens per square meter that is flux per
square meter or square feet. In older units it uses to be called as foot candle. So in the similar
way if you are having a plane in which the light energy is falling on. So, how much energy
will fall, how much lux you know flux luminous flux will fall on a particular area. So, lumens
per square meter area for example, would be indicated as lux level. Lux is a indicator of
lumens per square meter or lumens per square foot. As I said in older units it is foot candle it
uses to be called as.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:09)

If you get the comparison one foot candle you can convert it to around 10.8 lux. If you say
typical light sources full moon you will have close to one lux or pretty low light level. Simply
you know Indian standards for example, recommends around 300 lux for typical reading
writing activities say classroom lighting on your desk, on your table students table you should
have a around 250 to 300 lux. You can still see visualize things or objects if you have 80 luxs
to 100 luxs you will able to clearly see objects, but for task specifically here we are talking
about task. There are two types of lights lighting which has to be provided typically - one is
task lighting and other is a background or ambient lighting. In most places we do not go for
these two layers at least minimum two layers are essential, typically we do not go for two
layers we are simply going with one background layer. So, when you say 300 lux you try to
increase the lighting level. So, that you get three hundred light lux on your desktop.

So, if you have to really talk about an energy conscious design then you will go actually go
for two layers for ambient lighting you do not need 300 lux you can still see as I said see
objects at 80 to 100 lux. So, you can probably stop somewhere round 100 to 150 lux
threshold for your background lighting. This is a background layer then on your desktop you
will need somewhere close to 280 to 300 lux or slightly more in some cases where for a clear
you know or a strain free visibility and doing of the task that you are doing reading and

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writing task. If you are doing some work in the computer type writing it may not require 300
lux may be it is lightly low.

Talk about a surgical you know area where an operation theater some surgeries being
performed you need a very high lux level, you need close to 10,000 lux that is very huge
amount of lighting is required. Typically in recording you know video recording studios they
have something like flood lighting close to, when people are playing in the night time when
you know day and night matches are happening, night time tournaments are happening you
have something called flood lighting where very high light levels which is mimicking the
daylight more than 8000 lux close to 10,000 lux is provided. Plane sunshine, if you go out
and measure it will be close to 1 lakh lux you may get, directly on this you know if you put a
horizontal you know sensor in a horizontal plane you will able to get as high as this.

Similarly example if you are going to a work space where something like a minute repair
(Refer Time: 07:41) say hardware small you know a fabrication is happening instrument
hardware fabrication is happening or even simpler example is watch repair shop where very
minor part circuits are being repaired in that you will naturally need higher lux level. So, in
these cases typically we go for task lighting separately whereas the ambient or background
lighting separately.

When you study lighting design in detail, light you know lighting design is dealt with in
terms of layering we call layering principle. You take the example of a hotel you enter the
hotel say imagine it is a five star hotel you are entering it you will have a reception area lobby
then you will have the reception desk, you will have some mural artistic work, some you
know statues few artistic things will be there, some landscape will be seen outside, they will
have certain areas you know longest to discuss, then canteen will be you know cafeteria
might be visible, lifts will be visible. So, for each of these particular tasks which are
performed reception desk general visibility of the reception area itself plus lighting the
murals or painting sign boards each of these things will need a specific amount of lux level or
lighting level.

You know more technically lumens per meter square that is amount of light required on a
particular surface. For a you know task or a particular object to be seen more clearly, you

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want a person to see a sign board more clearly you may need slightly higher lux levels on that
particular surface. This we call as layering principle. When we do artificial lighting design we
will be actually dealing with light levels in different layers.

The next indicator which is very crucial is called luminance, often it is confused with the
previous one that is illuminance that is the intensity of lights or the flux or the amount of light
energy falling on a particular area. Here we are taking about luminance which is also referred
as brightness. So, movement we say brightness it is amount of light perceived or measured to
reflect of a surface.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:45)

So, there are two things one is perception how does your eye perceive the same light and how
much amount of light the surface is reflecting back. Imagine there is 500 lux which is
following on a white table surface versus the same 500 lux light which is incident or falling
on a black painted or mat black painted table surface. The brightness level these two cases
will be drastically different because two reasons - one is your eye adaptation of course, there
is a slight difference, but even neglecting that you know you are the same person is made to
watch this same is judging the light levels then comes the reflectivity of the surfaces - the
first one was a bright white reflecting surface the second is a mat black surface, so the surface
reflectivity and observity characteristics drastically effects the amount of right light reflected

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of a particular surface, this particular things is referred as brightness or luminance level
which is measured as candela per meter square. The unit for measurement of luminance is
candela per meter square. Lux levels or illuminance level you have very simple devices,
illuminance meters are lux meters they have sensor you put them out they will be able to lock
their you know more in expensive rather for you know you have a very easy way measuring
illuminance level. Whereas when want to measure luminance there are specific devices where
you have to focus on a particular surface, you have to set the surface properties then you
focus it like a camera they are slightly pricey devices measuring which you will get what is a
brightness level are luminance on a surface.

Both these things are crucial. Many of the standards are many of the specifications will stop
short of saying what is a brightness level required. Typically they say this is lux level or
illuminance level required on a particular surface. Many standards do not talk directly about
brightness, but they talk about something called glare. Glare is resulting out of two three
typical phenomena one is you have a focus, you have a background. You are looking at a task
and you have a background. So, when there is a difference between the brightness level of the
task as well as the background then you will you know result in phenomena called glare. The
other thing is you have direct light incident on your eye, then you will incur the same
phenomena called glare. There are different types it is typically annoyance or the loss of
clarity which happens you cannot see or read perform a particular activity with the same
clarity or comfort which you will be you should be able to do. With that phenomenon we are
referring as glare.

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(Refer Slide Time: 12:36)

There are two types of glare - one is discomfort glare there is a disability glare. I can give you
specific examples two to three examples where you can really understand what will be a
discomfort and disability glare. You are sitting in your classroom you are looking at your
writing board say black board, if you have this sides both sides of the black board if you have
two windows where you have direct solar incidence, where you have light from the sun
falling on - say if it is a east facing surface you are looking at the board in the morning hour
say 8 a clock you have a class. You have direct sun, there is this particular glazing surfaces
which is not shaded in this case no curtains this two surfaces will be too bright. When you
want to focus on your black board, you will be having certain visual discomfort this is one
example.

Second is when you are driving you have a sudden flood light which is interrupting you
somebody is putting on their head lights they are you know putting on in a high beam, then
you have phenomena which effects your visibility in a very short instance. It may be a
fraction of second for which you lose your clarity of vision. The first thing is called
discomfort glare where you are uncomfortable, but still you are able to see the task and work
on it where as a sudden flash of light which very temporarily for a very short duration affects
your visibility we refer it as disability glare.

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Typically when you talk about glare some of the specifications say project specification will
say you should follow national building code or this particular code where the lux level are
the illuminance level is specified. Say for example, there asking you to guarantee you have
300 lux on your table top, they will also say you should avoid glare especially in workshops.
For example, when you have a long working yard which has typically high truss roofs then
you provide the north lights are few day lighting systems one is your trying to ensure with
flood lights and daylight. You are trying to ensure you get the task lighting to the required
amount say for example; you need around 800 to 900 lux for a particular task. So, you are
ensuring that.

What happens is some of the locations the light levels will be too high so that the light versus
the task versus the background, the contrast will be too high we are talking about the contrast
here. When the contrast is increasing beyond that is a maximum lux level available versus the
minimum lux level available. Reflectance of the task surface versus reflectance of the
backgrounds surface, if these things are drastically different when the threshold this crust
there will be a discomfort associated this also you know kind of classified as glare in this case
it is primarily visual discomfort we are talking about. Some of the standards will require you
to work around and ensure the glare are visual discomfort is avoided. In these cases you will
need both illuminance level as well as luminance level for your assessment.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:44)

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Take a look at this; this is a typical office work space you have around close to 150 lux on
your keypad much lower somewhere around 30 lux in your rear side of your computer there
is a window glazing here. So, you get close to 250 - 300 lux here on your notice board you
will get somewhere around 80 lux when you just lift your eyes you look at the window you
will be getting close to 3000 lux at instance. So, your eye is now expose to a variety of
illuminance level as well as if you take a look each of these surfaces have different
reflectance’s. Take the ceiling, take notice board, take the keyboard, take a sheet of paper plus
you have your glass surfaces plus you have papers you know light dark surfaces where your
brightness levels also now are typically varying.

If these say for example, the task versus background the brightness is very high say if you are
looking at your computer towards this side when you look at this screen the light levels are
much low, the brightness is different, movement you turn out you see the large pane window
then you have a different light level. If this is too different you know difference is too high
then you will have a visual discomfort. Similarly if you are turning the computer to this side
there is a direct light which is falling you have a reflection of the window you have direct you
know visible light getting reflected from your computer screen again this will result in glare.

So, these are typical “do's and dont's” or typical instances which eye is exposed to. You can
do a mapping face to face clear this is what we are talking about if we really want to save
energy if your are really conscious about it say in a typical open office like this if you simply
go with a ceiling lights which is a common things to do you have ceiling lights all around you
will have if I am wanting to ensure something like 200 lux in this particular plane.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:30)

I will have to increase these luminaries the lux levels or the number of luminant lumens you
know luminaries which are placed in the ceiling the numbers have to be increased. So, that I
will get around 200 lux on my table top the other better idea are more you know logical idea
here is to go for task lighting for each of these tables are at least four of these cubicles you
have one task lighting one light separately. Whenever this people are out this lights can be
turned off, where as the background lighting can just be around 100-150 lux, as to ensure
clear visibility of objects.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:24)

Other then this we have we talked about illuminance, luminance and glare other then this we
have few other parameters spectral energy distribution at which part the light energy is
distributed along the spectrum. Then you have something called color temperature and color
rendering these are typically used in interior lightings for example, imagine you are going to
a jewelry shop you have a gold section, gold jewelry you have a diamond jewelry, you have
silver jewelry, each of these is a jewelry has a typical color gold has you know a typical
yellowish tint where as diamond more crystal kind of thing you want different kind of light
for the jewelry to be more appealing to the eye. Yes, if you put it in natural light if you bring
it out show it in the natural light it will show the actual color where as what the seller is do
they try to enhance the look and feel of it.

Similarly to a skill saree shop if you have to really enhance the particular project you know
product which is being sold they will have a kind of color rendering which we call color
rendering the color of the light is so adjusted that a particular product is more enhance in its
look and feel. Then with modern lighting like LEDs we have a phenomenon called flicker the
rate of you know flickering there are devices to measure flicker rates flickering is another
important phenomena which effects the health of the eye as well as the visibility and visual
comfort. So, flicker is another important phenomena, but primarily as per this module is
concerned we are limiting ourselves to illuminance luminance and glare as we know daylight

470
is very important one of the studies which I am referring to this is a study which was done
some time back in Canada where they identify two different you know benefits of daylight.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:09)

First thing of course, we know it reduces the artificial lighting load first is it directly reduces
the plug load, the light load associated with the electricity consumption for artificial lighting.
Apart from this it also reduces the heat generated from these lightings, apparently reducing
the cooling load of the system. So, both these cases you have considerable cost saving. Apart
from this they also found that it improve the quality of the space, it improved the productivity
of the workers then it also improved the salability it improved the health and comfort indoors
finally, they resulted, they perceived a result of better labor and cast saving apart from an
increased sale of particular product which are you know which was there.

Now, let us to take a step by step look at how day lighting is you know can be understood and
how we can design for day lighting. The first thing we should know is, what is available to us
how much amount of light at all visible light is available to us this depends on where exactly
you are.

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(Refer Slide Time: 21:13)

If you are in the equator you will have really high amount of light level we typically refer this
as design sky illuminance, it is not you know just putting the sensor directly below sun and
measuring it. Like I said you will have you know close one lack lux if you are putting a
sensor and measuring, but this is something like what you will get from 9 am to 5 pm at least
for 85 percent of the time. So, even if you are measuring on a western facade in the mornings
or eastern facade in the evening, you should be able to get this amount of light that is what we
refer as design sky illuminance that is a minimum best available lighting visible light
available on a particular location.

It varies from equator it is very high it can be around as high as 18000 lux as you go further
you have around 3000 lux in your polar region. What we have to understand if you are
providing a window say for example, two meter by one meter window you will get more than
enough daylight example for a small room - say 3 meter by 3 meter room with 2 meter by 1
meter window on one side you may get more than enough day lighting if the building is
located in equator whereas, the same building if you are designing close to the poles the
available light itself is much lesser. So, you may not be able to ensure the minimum amount
of daylight which is required.

472
For example, when a standard says you should have at least 200 lux daylight available, you
may not able to achieve it with the same design both in equator as well as in the polar regions
because the available daylight are the design sky luminance varies. We are somewhere here
as I said close to you know crisscrossing tropic of cancer. In India we take the design sky
illuminance as 8000 lux some of the standard references they also consider 8500. Typically
we take national codes suggests around 8000 lux as design sky illuminance.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:27)

So, first step when we are starting to do day lighting design we will take 8000 lux as
available to us outside the window. One of the main factors primarily which is talked about is
daylight factor it is expressed in percentage it is a unit expressed in percentage it is nothing
but the ratio of illumination which is available indoor to that of what is available outdoor. So,
when I say at 8000 lux is a standard designs sky or what is available standard design sky
illuminance which is available outside by window if I am located in India. If I am able to
ensure say 80 lux which means I have 1 percent daylight factor this is as simple as that.

So, when a standard says you ensure at least 2 percent daylight factor, it is ideally meaning
that average illuminance in your room, average illuminance I am talking about, it can be
more close to the window it can be further less in the interiors, but overall the average

473
daylight available inside the room should be 160 lux. So, without any artificial lighting you
should ensure you should be able to ensure 160 lux from just day lighting.

So, you have to size your windows appropriately in order to get this. This is what is a simple
definition of daylight factor. Of course, it indicates the effectiveness of building design in
harvesting or harnessing natural lighting. Apart from the direct component we have been
talking about the design sky illuminants which is available.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:35)

This is a direct component, if this much is available this is getting indoor. Apart from that
there are important parameters which affect the daylight into the building - first thing is an
external reflected component and second is internal reflected component

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(Refer Slide Time: 24:53)

Imagine you have a snow cover or imagine you have a water body or imagine you have grass
surface each of this surfaces I am talking about have specific absorption and reflection
characteristic. So, when you grass surface or you have an empty terrain a dark black soil
versus a snow clarity area snow would reflect more amount of light. So, the direct light apart
from entering your window it also falls on these surfaces gets reflected. So, external reflected
component in the case of snow you might get more, whereas in the case of dark wet black
soil you might get much less external reflected component.

The second thing is the internal reflected component what if you paint your ceiling totally
black. Once you have a direct light hitting a particular surface the second reflection, third
reflection will be almost nullified because after the first reflection your black surfaces are
going to absorb not much reflect these light, whereas if you have more reflecting surfaces it
will help you or it will enhance the throw of daylight for into the interior.

So, here overall lighting level will be considerably high if you are internal reflected
components are higher. So, there are three components here - direct component plus external
reflected component plus internal reflected component three important parameters are
associated.

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(Refer Slide Time: 26:18)

If you have to measure it take a sensor put one out and one in you measure this measure this
you can simply get the ratio to find out what is daylight factor. If you take a look at naturally
building code or SP 32 which is again associated standard with national building code. You
will find the use of nomograms extensively you have you know method called lux grid
method which you can use to determine what is a daylight factor. There are nomograms
nicely which seamlessly helps you to find out what would be the external reflected
component, what is the effect of obstructions outside, what is the effect of internal reflected
component. With these things how do I design or how do I size my window. This is much
easily presented in our national code.

You will have like lux level specification; you will also find some specifications relating to
required daylight factors. Instead of saying this much lux or daylight levels are required
people might say for example, corridors you need 0.5 percent daylight factor whereas lobbies
lounges you will need 1 percent. So, if you are if this standard in case if this standard is
applicable in India you will have to ensure at least 40 lux of day light available in this spaces
because we have 8000 lux as your ambient here, you will have 80 lux, this will be 120 lux
and further high, around 400 lux here for the laboratory. So, this is what the translation
means.

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Now we have been talking about lux levels, daylight factors, external and internal reflected
component, these are for open window. Moment you have glass or glazing system third factor
you know the forth factor comes into picture that is the effect of glass itself, we refer it to
visible light transmittance in the heat.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:01)

You know thermal section we talked about something called solar heat gain coefficient or
SHGC this is for heat we talked about SHGC, here for light we are talking about VLT that is
visible light transmittance this is expressed in percentage how much amount of the incidence
light is able to be pass through a particular glass.

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(Refer Slide Time: 28:09)

For example, if your are taking a single clear glass a single clear glass if you are taking as a
example this will have a visible light transmittance of something close to say 90 percent or let
us take 85 percent VLT is available. Same SHGC will be really high it will be around 0.8 to
0.9, it allows high amount of heat to pass through it also allows high amount of the daylight
to pass through. Say you know 20 years back when energy conservation and energy
conscious design where started to be you know buzzwords (Refer Time: 29:07) people started
realizing the need for it, they started going for the double glass window of course, then they
started going in for dark tinted windows, so that they can cut solar radiation.

So, in this context for example, if you take a dark tinted or bronze tinted windows you will
have an SHGC of something like 0.5 a double class with the bronze tint you, will be able to
achieve a solar heat gain coefficient of 0.5 which means you are able to cut almost half of the
radiative component as well as a conductive component SHGC hass drastically come down.
So, you are able to naturally save some energy there, but what is impact on VLT? VLT will be
as low as 0.2 or 20 percentage.

The visible light available is drastically cut this is going to increase your lighting energy,
lighting electrical energy. this was a negative impact with the new things called spectrally
selective glazing or low e coated glass typically called low e coated glass. These are

478
spectrally selective, if you recollect we saw different spectrums of the electromagnetic rays
one we are talking about is visible spectrum here we are talking about the infrared spectrum.
These spectrally selective glazing will permit the visible light to pass through while they will
cut down the infrared especially the short wave solar radiation to be cut through.

So, if you take a low e double glass low-e coated even a plane glass there are you know even
o planitherm or you know (Refer Time: 30:51) plain kind of glass which are available which
are good in thermal. In those glasses you will find SHGC as low as 0.15 versus VLT of the
order of say 40 to 50 percent which means they are allowing 50 percent of daylight to come
in while SHGC is drastically cut down. You are saving energy as far thermal is concerned you
are also able to manage enough amount of daylight for your interior.

So, that the artificial lighting energy electrical energy consumption is cut down. So, this is a
crucial thing you have to keep in mind when you are designing you are windows as well as
glazing system. Take care of SHGC for energy conservation whereas also take care of the
visible light transmission property of the glaze glass or glazing system. So, that you are
lighting loads can be brought down. There is a simple indicator for this which is called light
to solar gain ratio which is nothing but VLT by SHGC that is the ratio which indicates a
higher light to solar gain ratio means the light transmittance is also better. So, this is SHGC
versus VLT relationship.

So, as far this module is concerned we have talked about we have introduced a concept of
light and various indices use for measuring it. We talked about illuminance luminance we
talked about luminous flux lumens then we talked about luminous intensity we talked about
glare. Apart from that we looked at what is daylight what are the parameters associated with
daylight thing design what is daylight factor and we finally, looked at what is impact of glass
and glazing system on the available daylight inside a building.

Thank you.

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 Principles and Applications of Building Science
Prof. E Rajasekar
Department of Architecture and Planning
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture – 20
Lighting – Design Concepts

In the last module, we looked at the basics of lighting that is a indices which are used in
lighting like luminance. Luminance few parameters we looked at in this section we will look
at design concepts, how you can harvest day lighting. So, primarily we will look at daylight
harnessing systems.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:42)

There are two types harnessing and harvesting systems. We will look at specific types and
few products which are available then, we will look at what are the typical design
considerations for harnessing daylight. Typically we know that daylight is very effective
efficient as well as more realistic form of light, you get the actual color radiation of a
particular object. Any object seen in natural daylight is you know more realistic than
rendering it with artificial lighting it is more energy extensive. If you have to really render it
to the actual in color of it.

480
So, typically you know we have been studying about various methods or logically we know
that various methods of you. You know effectively getting natural light into the building
instead of having single large panel windows.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:30)

For example, you can have two clear you know sets of window like glazing, one catering to
the work area close to the periphery in the other you know the typical sky light or the top you
the top part of the thing can be split which will throw light on to the interiors of the building
or the core areas of the building. The other simple option is instead of having linear
horizontal you know elements, you can have vertical where you have a better through of light
far to the core areas of the building other ways include provision of louvers provision of
skylights clear stories north lighting roof trusses.

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(Refer Slide Time: 02:03)

industry lighting- see look at this is a naturally lit apart from simple, specific led lighting
which is just used for a backup, there are certain lights which are still there seen there, but
primary amount of light which you receive here is daylight well lit on both the surfaces it use,
uses all the possible daylight harvesting techniques, as to provide more or less uniform
lighting across the work area. different types of harnessing as well as harvesting daylight.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:35)

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First is as we looked at effective design of fenestrations. So, we have to take an account of
what type of fenestration what glass, if it is present what type of glass we are using what type
of reflections re-reflections diffusions we are using what strategy is specifically we are
adapting in the fenestration design.

First is design of fenestrations second is use of daylight harnessing systems. What are the
specific things where you can improve or enhance the amount of daylight available? So, you
have specific harnessing systems with which are strategies adopting which, you will be able
to improve direct as well as diffuse light which is entering the building third think is specific
systems like harvesting system which are used even to remote part of the building core areas
dark areas even to the basements. For example, we will be able to transport and get specific
amount of illumination which is required. we will take a look at the details of systems which
are available- daylight harnessing systems typically, daylight know there are two types; one is
which shading other is without shading the one which shading the lighting system harnessing
system which shading.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:44)

They primarily rely on diffuse skylight and reject the direct skylight which is available, there
are also system that use primarily direct sunlight, which will reflect or send it into the
locations which are above the eye height. For example, there is this. This particular system

483
will diffuse the light and reflect back the direct light the second type of system will like light
shelf, we will look at the details further there is a reflective part which is getting direct light
and reflecting it into the ceiling it is not allowing, It to affect your eye level where as, it is
reflecting into the ceiling or the interiors of the building to get further re-reflection, light the
core part of your space.

Second type is daylight system without shading here you have, diffuse light guiding system
and direct light guiding system.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:29)

Third type is light scattering or diffusing system mainly they are used in top lit apertures they
are primarily light scattering systems. If you are trying to use it in windows they will cause
glare excess amount of diffuse light will be available primarily they are used in skylights or
on the top clerestory’s and then you have light transport system which we will take a closer
look at simple example of light reflecting system shades you have light shelf very commonly
used it can be active it can be passive.

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(Refer Slide Time: 05:01)

You have conventional and optically treated light shelves available it works on a simple
phenomena you split the whole glazing or window area in to two the first part it caters to the
peripheral areas directly then, you have it can be also attached and used as shading system it
shades this particular glazing area from direct sunlight it improves the energy performance of
your window then you have additional advantage. If the top surface is reflective it will get
direct light reflected back here and then it will re reflected to the interior parts of it.

It can also be optically treated say for example, different times of the day winter sun versus
summer sun. winter sun is very low you get light directly in summer sun is very high it gets
you know reflected from this and caters here. some of these things are also adjustable. It can
be upward or low you know downward tiltable depending on the requirement like you say in
this example, it can also incorporate a specific manual or automatic tilting facility.

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(Refer Slide Time: 06:12)

So as to adjust the amount of lighting which is required in a particular space it works as I said
in a simple principle it can extend into the building. If it extends further the amount of light
penetration will be much higher where as if your closing it up to this it is a simple shading
device which is only used the interior projects is not available then, it will only reflect to
specific areas the further interiors will not be lit very well.

Of course there are other associated things I will talk about in a moment. summer sun is high
you get directly into the interiors not into the core they are not much heat. Whereas winter
sun is directly falling and the low winter sun you will get direct skylight where, as summer
sun it will reflect into the building there are other considerations. For example, one of the
projects we ended up you knows giving a nice light shelf as we predicted or as we calculated
the performance was also good interiors. Where well lit, but there was a problem of you
know the rain fall which is causing nice this was a simple double glass which was provided
here there was you know, it was a high rainy area there was a rain high rain fall which is
falling on a the rain drop was creating excessive noise level into the interior then we have to
also take care of sound proofing. We have to take care of water proofing there are other
things associated well designing light shelf you know it is not a simple insertion of a panel
there are associated factors which has to be taken into consideration.

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A simple graph which says without this light shelf the light level will be very high here
daylight level or light factor relates factor would be very high, eventually it will drop down.
If you have only exterior shelf if this portion is not existing only a external shading kind of
then the light level will be very high here eventually it will drop down, if you are also
increasing it from exterior to interior like I said there if this extending in to the building then
it is not excessively lit here, while the interiors are also fairly getting improved amount of
lighting levels it is also not right practice to get excessive amount of light in the periphery
and making it too darker in the interior.

So, ideally this type of light shelf extending into the interior of the building will have a fair
distribution at least for two-third of the room area depends on the fenestration size and the
depth of the system itself typical example of light shelves you can closely look at it they are
projected inside without any artificial lighting.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:34)

You get the desired amount of light which is available again here it is getting reflected to the
ceiling getting back to the work place. Without artificial light they are able to perform typical
office activity the second type is use of louvers and blind system different sub divisions are
there fixed and operable louvers as well as blinds you are translucent blinds and you have
light directing louvers.

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(Refer Slide Time: 08:57)

It can be used separately as a component or they can be tag to window elements itself, some
of these cases they are made part of the double glazing unit's some of them are placed inside
double glass unit where you know between the two panes inside the air gap.

So, they acts also act as light reflectors some of the examples. For example, these are
reflective louvers placed in between two panes of glass.

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(Refer Slide Time: 09:23)

The reflect and re-reflect light into the interiors you also have fish system, for example, they
are another type of reflections where the light falling on it gets scattered and then you are
getting more diffuse reflections focused into the particular space another concept which is in
use is called prismatic panel. These are typically acrylic panels which are cut and each one of
it acts as a prism backing and the angle the shape of it and the angle of it the size of it
determines.

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(Refer Slide Time: 09:54)

The reflection which is happening into it they are mostly inserted in to double glass units like
we saw in the previous case between two panes. These are inserted and what happen this will
reflect and diffuse the direct light which is falling on it different types are there simple diffuse
daylight they are normally used in vertical plane facades to redirect light from outside the sky
and it will be reflected into the inside the room and typically on the ceiling surfaces. The light
direct light will fall these prisms will reflect these are typically placed inside the window or
glazing systems.

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(Refer Slide Time: 10:18)

There is another type which is sunlit they can you know we used to get are direct the direct
sunlight the natural light into the room if you are wanting to use it on the vertical surface
typically these are used on skylight. If you are wanting to use it on vertical surfaces they may
cause glare. So, it is better to closely look at or work upon the type of profile and it is also
better idea to give seasonal tilting of panels. So, as to avoid any glare related discomfort the
other types include fix sun shading system they can be used as you know typically where
seen in glaze roof, you know they can track the movement of the sun automatically moved or
they can be adjusted you know or sometimes they are integrated into double glazing unit.
There are also movable sun shading system where they are placed in front of double glazing
system or behind it or sometimes inside it they also act as sun shading devices.

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(Refer Slide Time: 11:23)

One of the emerging things which is you know lot of research is being conducted in this type
of system they are also in the market some products are available these are laser cut panels
they are you know typical arrays or cut within.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:44)

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You know typical rectangular arrays or cut main advantage here is they are able to give you
unaffected or less affected views. You know views are being maintained. So, the glass itself is
like a see through glass you do not have any concerns about it, but still it is able to reflect or
deflect through a very large angle it also gives you flexibility of manufacturing in small or
large quantities, apart from this you have light guiding shades simple devices which can
specifically, reflect and re-reflect the primary concept with any of these devices is either it
cuts the direct light diffuses or gets only the diffuse light or diffuses the light itself into the
building or there are systems which will reflect the direct light into the interiors of the
building periphery anyway is getting well lit.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:14)

The main idea is to transit or pass through these reflections, into the core or interiors of the
building which typically is a comparatively or relatively darker area compared to the
periphery.

So, this is another type light guiding shades which you know the radius and the curvature of it
versus the tilt of it determines, where it is getting actually reflected apart from this you have
deflecting panels vertical as well as horizontal deflections. Can happens there are many such
types of more than, this there are also other varieties these are some common you know
things which are in the field. Let us take a look at specific guidelines for designing skylights

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if you are wanting to put these skylights into your building simple example you can distribute
them evenly, so that you will get more uniform light across your space second idea are you
can have certain splayed adjust.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:15)

So, that you know instead of sharp adjust if you have splays here the distribution will be
much wider. Then you can place them near the wall if the wall surface is reflective you will
get good amount of reflection or you can place certain reflective panels. So, that they get
reflected and re reflected.

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(Refer Slide Time: 13:43)

Some examples for you know for instance there is a skylight on top here they have used
reflectors now the light is incident it is getting reflected back and then, it is lighting the space
apart from this you can also notice they have certain supplementary lights when, daylight is
less or it is not available then these lights can be turned on.

This is another type where, they have try to employ day lighting again here only few of the
artificial lights are on still they are able to manage a dramatic interior with good amount of
visibility. We have been looking at harnessing systems light pipes which is also another
emerging technology.

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(Refer Slide Time: 14:21)

They are also there are also commercial products which are available which you can you
know simply buy and assemble and fix it in your building light pipes which are typically day
light harvesting system there is a unit it can be dome or pyramidal shape or in there are
different types available in that. They will typically cultivate or harvest daylight on your roof
top or any outside surface and they will transport it to the interiors of your building three
components are there first is there is a receiving element then there is a transitional portion
which will have to have good reflecting surfaces. So, that in the light is simply reflected the
losses are less then you will have a final internal component which acts as your light source.

Lot of buildings have you know tried using this for dark basement areas where instead of
artificial lighting you can have it in your gardens from which the light is harvested and put in
to your interiors lot of energy sayings can be attained, but there is a major concern here the
sky lighting gets you know fluctuated when there is cloud movement. There is a dark sky
there is a bright sky by virtue of this the amount of light which is varying you know which is
get you know received inside highly is fluctuating in that case, you will always need a
supplementary light.

Whenever there is a dearth or reduction in the amount of daylight which is available here this
supplementary lighting there will be a sensor which measures the amount of light, which is

496
getting through if the light levels are lesser this will be actuated this light will supplement the
amount. So, that interiors suddenly do not turn darker and you know you do not loose vision
in that case particularly. For example, you have a basement parking you definitely need
specific set of back up lights there should be a sensor and an actuator mechanism which will
sense the amount of light coming in it will actuate the artificial light. So, whenever there is a
less amount of light which is received this will get activated and you will have artificial light
interior light levels or lux levels does not get drastically effected.

There are also certain other methods like you know, vanes or dampers which are available
when there are excessive amount of light you can control them. So, that you have a constant
amount of light say you only need 300 lux. When there is excessive amount of light these
dampers or vanes can tilt and minimize the amount of light which is coming in. So, that they
can be maintained, somewhere between 22 to 350 lux there is a range within which it can be
maintained.

The other technology which is in practice in some of the places it is lightly prices. So, it is not
you know widely available in market, but as a technology it has been proven. One is the cost
like LEDs. Once say 8-10 years back LEDs where, too costly now every house tries to buy
LED lights it has become very cheap you know cost effective method as well the prices of
drastically come down right now. Light tubes these transport light through them without
much of losses.

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(Refer Slide Time: 17:28)

They have very thin slender fibers there is an almost 0 reduction in terms of reflection losses
the light is transmitted through them. So, you have a you know receiver or a harvesting
mechanism you can have it you know facing the sun this will be receiving the daylight, it will
be reflected and pass through these optical fibers these are typically optical fibers called light
tubes these will transmit this and then through the fiber optic cables it will be letting your
interiors.

Simple mechanism, but it is slightly I said you know as I said it is slightly expensive in the
current day. So, the technology is eventually picking up, but as such it is a very good
harvesting system which is technically proven it can be easily tag to other light controls and
actuating devices. So, supplementary artificial lights can you know act in tandem with this.
So, as to maintain a uniform indoor lighting then, we talked about sensing and actuating any
type of daylight harvesting system like say light tube or light pipes will require a back up
artificial lighting control. So, in this there are two types typically there is a sensor which is
capturing the amount of light which is falling on it. You know essentially the lux levels are
measured then it is trying to give the signal to or actuate to the actuator which will be
controlling the artificial light. There are two types here one is open loop and other is a close
loop. open loop system measures only the natural light and then it does not consider the
electric light contribution.

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(Refer Slide Time: 18:58)

In the close loop system it is measuring the combined contribution from natural and artificial
lighting system. There are two different types of lighting control systems one is a switch base
or switching daylight control system, other is a dimming daylight control system switching is
working.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:17)

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You know it is a simple binary logic it is 0 or 1. So, you have a threshold of 300 lux which is
required inside a class room or an office space you said this limit to a switching control there
will be a small you know buffer, which is given it can be 20 or 25 lux. So, if you say 20 lux,
when the light level falls below 280 instead of 300, there will be a buffer up to 280. Once it is
below 280 the artificial lights will be turned on where as in the dimming control there is a
provision for adjusting increasing or decreasing the light levels initially with our conventional
lighting system like incandescent and CFL lights there was a problem of wear and tear and
the light fixtures getting worn away very easily.

There was you know with LED lights the dimming control are become more seamless
because the life of these LED systems are very long they work very easily with the dimming
controls there are 3 things associated which we have to understand first is the dead band it
essentially represents a threshold beyond which or below which the actuation actually
happens.

Then there is delay time for example, there is a cloud passage suddenly the sky gets dark for
a moment and then it is you know it is reverting back to original. We are actually having 8000
to 10,000 lux, suddenly there is a cloud dark cloud which is passing by though you have a
very small amount of instance at time within which the light level drops and then it comes in.
So, you work around with the dead band and delay time. So, that the sensors and actuators are
not very constantly you know standing on turning off or dimming increasing or brightening
dimming or brightening, the internal lights. Then there is a fade time for example, how much
time it takes for the light it is a curve how much time it takes for the lights to fade away or to
start with it. It is a dimming.

So, it has to turn bright. So, how much time it takes whether that is suitable for a specific
task. For example, if you are working on a very sophisticated thing you do not have the
provision to lose even for a fraction of second the required amount of light level then the fade
time should be very low which should immediately turn on to supplementive or if it is like a
general office worker household things the fade time can be slightly longer it these all these 3
thinks, will affect your efficiency or energy consumption of your overall lighting system.

500
So, there are two components we have to keep in mind one is effective daylight harnessing or
harvesting and second is the use of control system, which is also crucial the type of control
which we are tagging to the actual artificial lighting will also determine the efficiency or
energy performance of your whole system that actually determines your daylight efficiency
and the reduction in artificial lighting energy.

So, in this session, we looked at two main things one is we talked about day lighting design,
we continue to with the daylight factor which we start in the previous module. We talked
about daylight harnessing system, we looked at daylight harvesting things like light pipes and
light tubes. Then we also looked at certain design considerations for skylights apart from the
type of controls, which are available with this you are closing the whole you know, program
we so far we have been looked at the thermal acoustical as well as lighting park of building
science. So, now, I wish you all the best for your exams.

Thank you.

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