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Genetic and Evolutionary Computation

Wolfgang Banzhaf
Penousal Machado
Mengjie Zhang Editors

Handbook
of Evolutionary
Machine
Learning
Genetic and Evolutionary Computation

Series Editors
Wolfgang Banzhaf , Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Kalyanmoy Deb , Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
The area of Genetic and Evolutionary Computation has seen an explosion of interest
in recent years. Methods based on the variation-selection loop of Darwinian natural
evolution have been successfully applied to a whole range of research areas.
The Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Book Series publishes research mono-
graphs, edited collections, and graduate-level texts in one of the most exciting areas of
Computer Science. As researchers and practitioners alike turn increasingly to search,
optimization, and machine-learning methods based on mimicking natural evolution to
solve problems across the spectrum of the human endeavor, this growing field will
continue to surprise with novel applications and results. Recent award-winning PhD
theses, special topics books, workshops and conference proceedings in the areas of EC
and Artificial Life Studies are of interest.
Areas of coverage include applications, theoretical foundations, technique extensions
and implementation issues of all areas of genetic and evolutionary computation. Topics
may include, but are not limited to:
Optimization (multi-objective, multi-level) Design, control, classification, and
system identification Data mining and data analytics Pattern recognition and deep
learning Evolution in machine learning Evolvable systems of all types Automatic
programming and genetic improvement
Proposals in related fields such as:
Artificial life, artificial chemistries Adaptive behavior and evolutionary robotics Artifi-
cial immune systems Agent-based systems Deep neural networks Quantum computing
will be considered for publication in this series as long as GEVO techniques are part of
or inspiration for the system being described. Manuscripts describing GEVO applica-
tions in all areas of engineering, commerce, the sciences, the arts and the humanities are
encouraged.
Prospective Authors or Editors:
If you have an idea for a book, we would welcome the opportunity to review your
proposal. Should you wish to discuss any potential project further or receive specific
information regarding our book proposal requirements, please contact Wolfgang
Banzhaf, Kalyan Deb or Mio Sugino:
Areas: Genetic Programming/other Evolutionary Computation Methods, Machine
Learning, Artificial Life
Wolfgang Banzhaf Consulting Editor BEACON Center for Evolution in Action Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA [email protected]
Areas: Genetic Algorithms, Optimization, Meta-Heuristics, Engineering
Kalyanmoy Deb Consulting Editor BEACON Center for Evolution in Action Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA [email protected]
Mio Sugino [email protected]
The GEVO book series is the result of a merger the two former book series: Genetic
Algorithms and Evolutionary Computation https://link.springer.com/bookseries/6008
and Genetic Programming https://link.springer.com/bookseries/6016.
Wolfgang Banzhaf · Penousal Machado ·
Mengjie Zhang
Editors

Handbook of Evolutionary
Machine Learning
Editors
Wolfgang Banzhaf Penousal Machado
Department of Computer Science Department of Informatics Engineering
and Engineering University of Coimbra
Michigan State University Coimbra, Portugal
East Lansing, MI, USA

Mengjie Zhang
School of Engineering and Computer
Science and Centre for Data Science
and Artificial Intelligence
Victoria University of Wellington
Wellington, New Zealand

ISSN 1932-0167 ISSN 1932-0175 (electronic)

Genetic and Evolutionary Computation
ISBN 978-981-99-3813-1 ISBN 978-981-99-3814-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-3814-8

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
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Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

The Handbook of Evolutionary Machine Learning in front of you is the work of

many authors. Even if the field is still small compared to either Machine Learning
or Evolutionary Computation, no single author can any more hold all the methods,
techniques, and applications present in their head.
A look at the references cited by the authors in each of these chapters reveals
that many of the developments of the last decade, which really is the time of visible
exponential growth of this new field, have been in the making for many more years.
The history of Evolutionary Machine Learning is rich, and as a tree in nature, it has
many roots.
The editors of this handbook have strived to give voice to a multitude of research
directions in the field. Initially, it was not easy to structure all the material appro-
priately, but we believe we have arrived at a good balance of the presentation as the
book grew.
We start with the basics of the field in Part I, then report on the interpretation of
some Evolutionary Computation techniques as Machine Learning (Part II). We next
delve deeper into the modern understanding of Machine Learning as embodied by
Neural Networks, with its exciting methods of generative systems in Part III. Part IV
reports on the applications of Evolutionary Computation in Machine Learning, which
exemplifies the beneficial hybridization of both techniques. Finally, Part V discusses
applications of Evolutionary Machine Learning in diverse fields, providing many
fascinating perspectives.
This handbook is primarily intended for researchers, engineers, graduate and post-
graduate students interested in evolutionary machine learning, evolutionary compu-
tation, machine learning, and broad artificial intelligence and use them for different
applications. It is highly suitable as a reference book for postgraduate research
students with directions in evolutionary machine learning, where they can use the
techniques in this handbook as a baseline for further improvement and innovations.
It is also suitable to use a selection of chapters for postgraduate and high-level under-
graduate courses in artificial intelligence, data science and machine learning majors.
Furthermore, this handbook can also contribute potentially to real-world applications

v
vi Preface

in primary industry, climate change, (bio)medical and health, cybersecurity, renew-

able energy, high-value manufacturing, economy and finance, and public policies and
decision-making that generate impact on the economy, environment, health outcome
and social aspects.

East Lansing, MI, USA Wolfgang Banzhaf

Coimbra, Portugal Penousal Machado
Wellington, New Zealand Mengjie Zhang
July 2023
Acknowledgments

In 2020, the annual EvoStar series of conferences established the EvoApps special
session on Evolutionary Machine Learning. Over time, the event grew organically,
eventually becoming a joint track of EuroGP and EvoApps. The increasing interest
in the field and the high quality of the submissions made us realize that the time
was ripe to bring forth this book. Therefore, the origins of this book are closely
connected with these EvoStar events, and we seize this opportunity to extend our
heartfelt gratitude to all the EvoStar chairs, organizers, authors and participants with
whom we have had the privilege of collaborating and engaging over the years.
We express our appreciation to our colleagues and friends in the field who have
contributed to one or more chapters of this handbook. Thanks should also go to the
reviewers who provided constructive comments, suggestions and feedback to the
chapters’ authors, improving the handbook through this process. We appreciate the
help of MSU postdoctoral fellow Dr. Jory Schossau, who helped create this volume’s
index.
The sabbatical leaves of Penousal Machado, which was partially spent at Michigan
State University with Wolfgang Banzhaf, and Wolfgang Banzhaf’s sabbatical,
partially spent at Victoria University of Wellington University with Mengjie Zhang,
played a crucial role in the design and development of this book. They allowed us to
collaborate closely, filling whiteboards with sketches, taxonomies, ideas and topics,
many of which have ultimately made it into this book. We sincerely thank our insti-
tutions, the University of Coimbra, Portugal, Michigan State University, USA, and
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, for their invaluable support and the
exceptional conditions they have provided us and our guests.
Finally, we thank the publisher, Springer-Nature, and particularly Computer
Science book editor Mio Sugino, who supported the handbook from its inception
to its final publication in the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation book series.

East Lansing, MI, USA Wolfgang Banzhaf

Coimbra, Portugal Penousal Machado
Wellington, New Zealand Mengjie Zhang
July 2023

vii
Contents

Part I Evolutionary Machine Learning Basics

1 Fundamentals of Evolutionary Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Wolfgang Banzhaf and Penousal Machado
2 Evolutionary Supervised Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Risto Miikkulainen
3 EML for Unsupervised Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Roberto Santana
4 Evolutionary Computation and the Reinforcement Learning
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Stephen Kelly and Jory Schossau

Part II Evolutionary Computation as Machine Learning

5 Evolutionary Regression and Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Qi Chen, Bing Xue, Will Browne, and Mengjie Zhang
6 Evolutionary Clustering and Community Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Julia Handl, Mario Garza-Fabre, and Adán José-García
7 Evolutionary Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Bach Nguyen, Bing Xue, Will Browne, and Mengjie Zhang
8 Evolutionary Ensemble Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Malcolm I. Heywood

Part III Evolution and Neural Networks

9 Evolutionary Neural Network Architecture Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Zeqiong Lv, Xiaotian Song, Yuqi Feng, Yuwei Ou, Yanan Sun,
and Mengjie Zhang

ix
x Contents

10 Evolutionary Generative Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

João Correia, Francisco Baeta, and Tiago Martins
11 Evolution Through Large Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Joel Lehman, Jonathan Gordon, Shawn Jain, Kamal Ndousse,
Cathy Yeh, and Kenneth O. Stanley
12 Hardware-Aware Evolutionary Approaches to Deep Neural
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Lukas Sekanina, Vojtech Mrazek, and Michal Pinos
13 Adversarial Evolutionary Learning with Distributed Spatial
Coevolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Jamal Toutouh, Erik Hemberg, and Una-May O’Reilly

Part IV Evolutionary Computation for Machine Learning

14 Genetic Programming as an Innovation Engine for Automated
Machine Learning: The Tree-Based Pipeline Optimization
Tool (TPOT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Jason H. Moore, Pedro H. Ribeiro, Nicholas Matsumoto,
and Anil K. Saini
15 Evolutionary Model Validation—An Adversarial Robustness
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Inês Valentim, Nuno Lourenço, and Nuno Antunes
16 Evolutionary Approaches to Explainable Machine Learning . . . . . . 487
Ryan Zhou and Ting Hu
17 Evolutionary Algorithms for Fair Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Alex Freitas and James Brookhouse

Part V Applications of Evolutionary Machine Learning

18 Evolutionary Machine Learning in Science and Engineering . . . . . . 535
Jianjun Hu, Yuqi Song, Sadman Sadeed Omee, Lai Wei,
Rongzhi Dong, and Siddharth Gianey
19 Evolutionary Machine Learning in Environmental Science . . . . . . . . 563
João E. Batista and Sara Silva
20 Evolutionary Machine Learning in Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Michael A. Lones and Stephen L. Smith
21 Evolutionary Machine Learning for Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Moritz von Looz, Alexander Hadjiivanov, and Emmanuel Blazquez
22 Evolutionary Machine Learning in Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Guy Y. Cornejo Maceda and Bernd R. Noack
Contents xi

23 Evolutionary Machine Learning in Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

Eric Medvet, Giorgia Nadizar, Federico Pigozzi, and Erica Salvato
24 Evolutionary Machine Learning in Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Michael O’Neill and Anthony Brabazon
25 Evolutionary Machine Learning and Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
Julian Togelius, Ahmed Khalifa, Sam Earle,
Michael Cerny Green, and Lisa Soros
26 Evolutionary Machine Learning in the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
Jon McCormack

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
Contributors

Nuno Antunes University of Coimbra, CISUC, DEI, Coimbra, Portugal

Francisco Baeta Department of Informatics Engineering, Centre for Informatics
and Systems of the University of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
Wolfgang Banzhaf Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
João E. Batista LASIGE, Department of Informatics, Faculty of Sciences, Univer-
sity of Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
Emmanuel Blazquez European Space Agency ESA, Noordwijk, Netherlands
Anthony Brabazon Natural Computing Research & Applications Group, School
of Business, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
James Brookhouse School of Computing, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
Will Browne Faculty of Engineering, School of Electrical Engineering and
Robotics, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
Qi Chen Evolutionary Computation Research Group at the School of Engineering
and Computer Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
Guy Y. Cornejo Maceda School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation,
Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, PR China
João Correia Department of Informatics Engineering, Centre for Informatics and
Systems of the University of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
Rongzhi Dong Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of
South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Sam Earle Computer Science and Engineering, New York University, Brooklyn,
NY, USA
Yuqi Feng College of Computer Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China

xiii
xiv Contributors

Alex Freitas School of Computing, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK

Mario Garza-Fabre Cinvestav, Campus Tamaulipas, Victoria, Tamaulipas,
Mexico
Siddharth Gianey Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University
of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Jonathan Gordon OpenAI Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
Michael Cerny Green Computer Science and Engineering, New York University,
Brooklyn, NY, USA
Alexander Hadjiivanov European Space Agency ESA, Noordwijk, Netherlands
Julia Handl University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Erik Hemberg MIT CSAIL, Cambridge, MA, USA
Malcolm I. Heywood Faculty of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
NS, Canada
Jianjun Hu Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Ting Hu School of Computing, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
Shawn Jain OpenAI Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
Adán José-García Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Lille, France
Stephen Kelly Department of Computing and Software, McMaster University,
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Ahmed Khalifa Institute of Digital Games, University of Malta, Msida, Malta
Joel Lehman OpenAI Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
Michael A. Lones Department of Computer Science, Heriot-Watt University, Edin-
burgh, UK
Nuno Lourenço University of Coimbra, CISUC, DEI, Coimbra, Portugal
Zeqiong Lv College of Computer Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
Penousal Machado Department of Informatics Engineering, Centre for Informatics
and Systems of the University of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
Tiago Martins Department of Informatics Engineering, Centre for Informatics and
Systems of the University of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
Nicholas Matsumoto Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Jon McCormack Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Eric Medvet University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
Contributors xv

Risto Miikkulainen Department of Computer Science, University of Texas at

Austin, Austin, TX, USA;
Cognizant AI Labs, San Francisco, CA, USA
Jason H. Moore Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Vojtech Mrazek Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Tech-
nology, Brno, Czech Republic
Giorgia Nadizar University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
Kamal Ndousse Anthropic Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
Bach Nguyen Centre of Data Science and Artificial Intelligence & School of Engi-
neering and Computer Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New
Zealand
Bernd R. Noack School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Harbin
Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, PR China
Michael O’Neill Natural Computing Research & Applications Group, School of
Business, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Una-May O’Reilly MIT CSAIL, Cambridge, MA, USA
Sadman Sadeed Omee Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Yuwei Ou College of Computer Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
Federico Pigozzi University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
Michal Pinos Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Technology,
Brno, Czech Republic
Pedro H. Ribeiro Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Anil K. Saini Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Erica Salvato University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
Roberto Santana University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), San Sebastian,
Gipuzkoa, Spain
Jory Schossau Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Lukas Sekanina Faculty of Information Technology, Brno University of Tech-
nology, Brno, Czech Republic
Sara Silva LASIGE, Department of Informatics, Faculty of Sciences, University of
Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal
Stephen L. Smith Department of Electronic Engineering, University of York, York,
UK
xvi Contributors

Xiaotian Song College of Computer Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China

Yuqi Song Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Lisa Soros Computer Science, Barnard College, New York, USA
Kenneth O. Stanley OpenAI Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
Yanan Sun College of Computer Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
Julian Togelius Computer Science and Engineering, New York University,
Brooklyn, NY, USA;
Odl.ai, Copenhagen, Denmark
Jamal Toutouh ITIS Software, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
Inês Valentim University of Coimbra, CISUC, DEI, Coimbra, Portugal
Moritz von Looz European Space Agency ESA, Noordwijk, Netherlands
Lai Wei Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Bing Xue Evolutionary Computation Research Group at the School of Engineering
and Computer Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand;
Centre of Data Science and Artificial Intelligence & School of Engineering and
Computer Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
Cathy Yeh OpenAI Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA
Mengjie Zhang Evolutionary Computation Research Group at the School of Engi-
neering and Computer Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New
Zealand;
Centre of Data Science and Artificial Intelligence & School of Engineering and
Computer Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
Ryan Zhou School of Computing, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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