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Springer Mineralogy

Prakash R. Golani

Assessment
of Ore Deposit
Settings, Structures
and Proximity
Indicator Minerals
in Geological
Exploration
Springer Mineralogy
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13488
Prakash R. Golani

Assessment of Ore Deposit

Settings, Structures
and Proximity Indicator
Minerals in Geological
Exploration

123
Prakash R. Golani
Formerly Head, Training Institute,
Geological Survey of India
Jaipur, India

ISSN 2366-1585 ISSN 2366-1593 (electronic)

Springer Mineralogy
ISBN 978-3-030-65124-4 ISBN 978-3-030-65125-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65125-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Dedicated to
Field Geologists of
The Geological Survey of India
Preface

The conception of making the present write up in an almost atlas format emanated
from my interaction with officer trainees while working as faculty in the Training
Institute of the Geological Survey of India. There appeared a perceptible lack of
ability in the fresh pass outs from academic institutions to observe and comprehend
geological features at outcrop levels in hydrothermally altered, multiply deformed,
metamorphosed and mineral-rich Precambrian terrains. Among others, the present
book brings to fore the field visuals that attempt to bridge the gap between the
knowledge acquired in classrooms and its applied aspects in various facets of
geological exploration.
The book addresses the basic aspects of ore deposit settings, structural consid-
erations and proximity indicators minerals that together constitute key factors in
mineral targeting and searching new ore deposits. In addition, geophysical frame-
work of various ore deposit types and mineralogical transformations that are
commonly associated with the mineralized tracts during and subsequent to the
ore-forming processes forms a chapter to complement geological aspects.
Challenges in mineral exploration especially in searching new ore deposits beneath
the barren cover sequences and efficacy of different geoscientific surveys in
acquisition of new data to obviate the declining rate of new mineral discoveries are
the important components that are dealt briefly in later two chapters of the book.
This book is written with my experience and expertise in geological mapping,
metallogenic studies and field-related aspects in mineral exploration on
well-exposed and richly mineralized belts in the Precambrian terrains of India. It is
strongly supported by geological maps and over 200 field photographs that display
permeability-related structural elements including their reactivations, hydrothermal
features and proximity indicator minerals of ore deposits and their repository
sequences. Besides, various world-class and major metalliferous mineral deposits
belonging to different ore-forming set ups find place in several tables indicating
their size, key geological and structural parameters, age relations and geophysical
responses.

vii
viii Preface

The book is addressed to graduate students and young professionals who aspire
to work in the field of mineral exploration and other aspects of applied geology.

Jaipur, India Prakash R. Golani

Acknowledgements

Geological mapping for structural geometry and stratigraphy of a complexly tec-

tonized Archean–Paleoproterozoic basement-cover tract in the type Aravalli region
kindled my interest in field-based research in the very early part of my career.
Geological mapping and other field studies carried out for more than 30 years on
various structurally complex tracts and mineral belts enriched my experience and
knowledge while in the Geological Survey of India. I express my deep gratitude to
this legendary organization and to all my fellow colleagues who interacted with me
during all these years.
I have been benefitted by discussions with Prof. A. B. Roy, late
Dr. J. Bhattacharjee, N. K. Kavadia, S. K. Ray, R. Choudhuri, M. Sridhar,
R. S. Garkhal, J. Bagchi, Pradeep Singh, M. N. Mishra, L. P. Singh, B. B. Sharma,
Amit Shrivastava, H. B. Sahoo, L. K. Soni, Harish Mistry, Somesh and R. L. Jat.
I am also grateful to my younger colleagues who provided some field photographs
that were lacking in my own thematic collection. Their names figure along with
their photographs. Atanu Mukherjee converted my conception into two cartoons
diagrams. Most of the line diagrams have been digitized by Manmohan. I am short
of words in appreciating Bharati, my wife, who has cared my field photographs,
thin sections and select samples all along the last 35 years.

ix
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Assessment of Ore Deposit Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Regional Geological Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.1 Cratons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.2 Fold Belts and Orogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.3 Magmatic Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Intracontinental Basins and Platformal Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Tectonic Set Ups and Metallogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Geological Assessment in Deformed and Metamorphic
Terrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4.1 Assessment of Metavolcanic Set Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4.2 Recognition of Ancient Evaporitic Set Ups . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.3 Recognition of Unconformable Relationships . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Mineral Deposit Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.1 Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) Deposits . . . . . . 26
2.5.2 Sedimentary-Exhalative (SEDEX) and Sediment-Hosted
Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5.3 Porphyry Cu Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5.4 Epithermal Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.5.5 Iron Oxide Copper Gold (IOCG) Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.6 Weathering-Related Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.7 Magmatic Type Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.5.8 Granite-Hosted Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.9 Gold Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.5.10 Evaporite-Associated Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

xi
xii Contents

3 Structural Set Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.1 Geodynamic Set Ups: Major Structures in Relation
to Metallogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.1.1 Supercontinents: Accretions, Break Ups
and Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.1.2 Supercontinents and Geodynamic Framework . . . . . . . . . 109
3.1.3 Geodynamic Set Ups and Mineral Endowment . . . . . . . . 112
3.1.4 Exhumation and Preservation Potential of Mineral
Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.1.5 Ore Deposit Types in Geological Record,
and the Supercontinents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.1.6 Duration and Episodic Nature of Ore Forming
Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.1.7 Time Relations Between Structural Permeability
and Ore Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.1.8 Craton Level Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.1.9 Metallogenic District Level Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.1.10 Structural Conduits: Melt and Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.2 Structures: Geometric Relations and Field Observations . . . . . . . . 150
3.2.1 Brittle-Ductile Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2.2 Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.2.3 Breccia-Looking Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.2.4 Shear Zones and Related Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.2.5 Folds and Related Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4 Proximity Indicator Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.1 Extent of Hydrothermal Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.2 Proximity Indicator Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.2.1 Alkali Feldspars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.2.2 Tourmalines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.2.3 Garnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.2.4 Spinels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
4.2.5 Micas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.2.6 Chlorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.2.7 Cordierite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
4.2.8 Amphiboles, Talc and Serpentine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4.2.9 Aluminosilicates and Staurolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.3 Indicator Minerals of Ancient Evaporitic Set Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.4 Weathering-Related Indicators and Features of Ore Deposits . . . . 301
4.5 Anthropogenic Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
4.6 Significance of Mineral Chemistry of Indicator Minerals . . . . . . . 306
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Contents xiii

5 Geophysical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

5.1 Geophysical Framework in Relation to Regional Geological
Set Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.1.1 Delineation of Fault Splays and Lineaments . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.1.2 Gravity Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
5.1.3 Magmatic Structures and Concealed Mafic-Ultramafic
Intrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
5.1.4 Deep Crustal and Lithospheric Architecture . . . . . . . . . . 320
5.1.5 Estimation of Basement Configuration Under Cover
Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
5.2 Geological Factors Relevant to Geophysical Responses . . . . . . . . 322
5.2.1 Geological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.2.2 Mineralogical Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.3 Ore Deposit Types and Geophysical Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.3.1 Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) Deposits . . . . . . 324
5.3.2 Sediment-Hosted Deposits (SEDEX, BHT, MVT) . . . . . 325
5.3.3 Iron Oxide Copper Gold (IOCG) Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.3.4 Porphyry Copper Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.3.5 Magmatic Ni-PGE-(Cu), Chromite and Magnetite
Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.3.6 Epithermal Precious Metal Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5.3.7 Unconformity-Related U Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.3.8 Carbonatite-Hosted Ore Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6 Challenges in Mineral Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.1 Declining Rate of Major Mineral Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
6.2 Nature of Concealment—Characterizing Cover Sequences . . . . . . 355
6.3 Seeing Through the Post-mineralized Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
6.3.1 Challenges in Geophysical Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
6.3.2 Geological Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
6.3.3 Geochemical Footprints of Concealed Terrains
and Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
6.4 Toxic Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.5 Pre-competitive Geoscientific Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7 Acquisition of Geoscientific Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 365
7.1 Mineral Exploration Specific Geoscientific Data . . . . . . . . . . . .. 365
7.2 Generation of Regional Data: Type, Area and Scale of Surveys . .. 367
7.2.1 Airborne and Ground Geophysical Surveys . . . . . . . . .. 367
7.2.2 Regional Geochemical Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 368
7.2.3 Geological Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 369
xiv Contents

7.3 Assessment of Outputs of Geoscience Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

7.3.1 Geological Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.3.2 Airborne and Other Geophysical Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
7.3.3 Geochemical Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
7.4 Acquisition of Deep Geophysical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Locality Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Chapter 1
Introduction

The book lays emphasis on ore deposit set ups, structural permeability and proximity
indicator minerals that have relevance in assessing mineral potential of prospec-
tive terrains. It also covers aspects of geophysical framework, data acquisition and
challenges posed by the declining rate of new mineral discoveries of economic
significance.
It is believed that a geological map on reasonably good scale, appropriate to
the complexity of a given terrain is a strong scientific document in its own right.
Unlike the current trends in research that appear to lay excessive stress on lab-
generated data on geologic materials, this book keeps the field-related visuals on
higher pedestal, believing that it kick starts thinking process on multiple lines. The
book draws strength from field observations that were made during the unusually
long stint of about 35 years in the Geological Survey of India. The write up reflects
author’s experience and perspective developed during all those years in geological
and structural mapping, exploration and metallogenic studies in the richly miner-
alized and intensely deformed Precambrian terrains. The examples are drawn from
western, central and northeastern India and the extra peninsular region covering some
parts of complexly tectonized Himalayas.
The terms like mineral belt/district, regional/province and cratons are used for
progressively larger expanses of terrains. The phrase terrain is used in general sense
for larger tracts that show comparable and a ‘linked’ up geological framework.
Apart from introduction, the book contains six chapters, each is linked to the next
in a conceived logical sequence. A significant component of the second chapter on
assessment of ore deposit settings focuses on major ore deposit types. It includes
key geologic and geochemical parameters that characterize and distinguish various
ore deposit type and are useful in planning exploration programs. The section is
preceded by geodynamic framework from transcontinental to craton-level geologic
set ups including orogens, fold belts and large magmatic provinces that together
govern regional level localization of the ore deposits. The chapter also discusses
problems faced by field geologists in assessing intensely deformed metavolcanic

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

P. R. Golani, Assessment of Ore Deposit Settings, Structures and Proximity
Indicator Minerals in Geological Exploration, Springer Mineralogy,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65125-1_1
2 1 Introduction

sequences and recognition of unconformities and metaevaporites in ancient terrains.

All these three aspects added in this chapter have metallogenic implications.
Structural permeability is a major consideration in assessing mineral potential
of a given geological set up. The third chapter introduces different geodynamic
set ups, supercontinental assemblies, break ups and dispersals, and their possible
relationship with formation and preservation of various types of ore deposits. Craton
level structures, metallogeny and magmatism are discussed with examples that show
different type of relationships. The chapter also discusses about structural conduits
that facilitate fluid flow in varied geologic milieus. The second part the chapter is
the most illustrated section that depicts and describes classical structural features
related to faults, breccia looking structures, ductile shear zones, folds and associated
planar and linear structures. The write up of this chapter is strongly supported by
field photographs, appropriate geological maps, and relevant photomicrographs. It
is believed that this chapter will enhance the power of observing structural features
in field.
The ore accumulations leave their trails in far more bigger area than occupied by
the ore deposit itself. The expanse covered by the mineralogical footprints depends on
the extent of hydrothermal alterations that are commonly associated with ore forming
processes. The minerals developed during such processes may be common rock-
forming minerals that may incorporate certain specific minero-chemical attributes
and act as pathfinder to mineralization. In contrast, some minerals may contain the
signatures of ore metals and serve as proximity indicators. This fourth chapter deals
with various aspects of proximity indicator minerals that are known to have cause and
effect relationship with ore deposits. Throughout this chapter, term ‘proximity indi-
cators’ is used in liberal sense for all those minerals that serve as vectors pointing
favourable parts of the geological sequences as well as mineralization. Minerals
like anhydrite and halite constituting index saline minerals in evaporite series of
rocks, rarely survive in Precambrian terrains. They may however, be represented
by pseudomorphs. Looking at the significance of salinity considerations in metal-
logenic studies, minerals indicative of evaporitic affinity are specially added in this
chapter. This chapter, too is strongly supported by photographs and tables which
show chemistry of minerals that are associated with ore deposits.
Inspiration for including a chapter on geophysical framework came from ground
evaluation work in the Airborne Mineral Survey and Exploration (AMSE) Wing
of the Geological Survey of India which made author realize that a geologist must
know about constraints that a geophysicist faces while making meaningful interpre-
tation of geophysical responses from different geological set ups. The fifth chapter
is focused on geological parameters common to various ore deposit types including
their inhomogeneities that have relevance in making a well-constrained geophysical
interpretation. Significance of mineralogical transformations during and in the after-
math of ore forming processes are discussed in relation to geophysical signatures
of ore deposits. The geophysical responses of major ore deposit types constitute an
important component of the chapter.
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