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The Fragmentation of a Sect
I) /\
Rite y
B37
2013

THE FRAGMENTATION
OF A SECT
Schism in the Worldwide Church of God

David V. Barrett

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further

Oxford University’s objective of excellence
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Copyright © 2013 by David V. Barrett

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Barrett, David V.
The fragmentation of a sect : schism in the Worldwide Church of God /
David V. Barrett.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-98615 1-4 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Worldwide Church of God—History. 2. Church controversies.
3. Conflict management—Religious aspects—Christianity.
4. Church management. I. Title.
BX6177.B37 2013
289.9—dce23 2012010985

Theology Library
CLAREMONT
SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY
Claremont, CA

LB5S
7 98,614 2

Printed in the United States of America

on acid-free paper
CONTENTS

Author's Note
Acknowledgments xi
List ofPhotographs Xili
List of Tables and Figures xv
List ofAbbreviations xvii

1. The Fragmentation of a Sect: An Introduction

Introduction
1.1 The Story
1.2 A Brief Theoretical Discussion of Schism
1.3 The Inquiry and Outline of the Book W
KR
COCA
1.4 Theoretical Basis and Methodology 10
1.5 Literature and Other Sources 10
1.6 Definitions 10
1.7 Conclusion 12

PART ONE: The Story

2. Doctrines of the Worldwide Church of God 1
Introduction £7
2.1 Historical and Doctrinal Background of the Worldwide
Church of God 18
2.1.1 Sabbatarianism and Observance of the Law 18
2.1.2 Millenarianism 20
2.1.3 Seventh-day Adventism 23
2.1.4 The Ten Lost Tribes and British Israelism 25
2.2 Doctrines of the Historical Worldwide Church of God 29
2.2.1 A Brief Outline of the Main Heterodox Doctrines 29
2.2.2 Sabbatarianism and Observance of the Law 32
2.2.3 Millenarianism and British Israelism 34
2.2.4 Church Governance and Authority 38
2.3 A Brief Comparison between Worldwide and Mormonism 39
2.4 Conclusion 40
3. Origins and History of the Worldwide Church of God 41
Introduction 4]
3.1 Different Perspectives 42
3.2 Origins and History of the Worldwide Church of God
3.2.1 1920s: How Herbert W. Armstrong Found the Truth 44
3.2.2 1930s—1960s: Birth and Growth of aNew Church 52
3.3 Different Perceptions of Worldwide: A Brief Summary 58
3.4 Conclusion 61
4. Schism and Scandals in the Seventies 63
Introduction 63
4.1 When Prophecy Fails 64
4.2 Changes in Doctrine 67
4.2.1 Pentecost 68
4.2.2 Divorce and Remarriage 70
4.2.3 The Liberal Dilemma 73
4.3 Sex Scandals 74
4.4 The Ousting of the Heir 77
4.5 Further Problems 82
4.6 Conclusion 83
5. Revolution and Schism 85
Introduction 85
5.1 A Doctrinal Revolution 85
S.1.1 Joseph W. Tkach, Armstrong’s Successor 85
$.1.2 Literature Withdrawal and Reassessment 87
5.1.3 The Fallout 92
5.2 Membership of Worldwide Church of God 97
S.3 The Worldwide Church of God Today 99
5.4 Conclusion 102
6. Continuing Schism in the Offshoots 103
Introduction 103
6.1 Aspects of the Offshoot Churches 104
6.1.1 Membership of the Major Churches 104
6.1.2 “The Work” 107
6.1.3 “Hardline” or “Liberal” 108
6.1.4 Complications with Church Literature 110
6.1.5 Worldwide Family Services 111
6.2 The Major Churches and Their Own Offshoots
113
6.2.1 1989: Philadelphia Church of God
113
6.2.1.1 Philadelphia Church of God Offshoots
118
6.2.2 1992-93: Global/Living Church of God and Offshoots
121
6.2.2.1 Restored Church of God
125
6.2.3 1995: United Church of God
126

[vi] The Fragmentation of a Sect

 6.2.3.1 Church of God, an International Community 129
6.2.3.2 Church of God, a Worldwide Association 131
6.3 Garner Ted Armstrong’s Legacy 133
6.4 The Variety of Smaller Offshoots 137
6.4.1 A Small Selection of Other Churches 138
6.4.2 Unaffiliated Churches 140
6.4.3 Living-room Churches’ 141
6.4.4 Special Focus Organizations 141
6.4.5 Ministries 145
6.4.5.1 The Journal 146
6.5 Conclusion 147

PART TWO: The Analysis

7. Authority in the Churches of God 1S1
Introduction 154
7.1 Armstrong’s Authority 152
7.2 Authority in the Tkach Era 15S
7.3 Authority in the Offshoots 1S9
7.3.1 Authority and Governance in the Larger Offshoots 1S9
7.3.2 Offshoot Members’ Views on Authority and Governance 164
7.3.3 Other Offshoots on Authority and Governance 166
7.4 Herbert W. Armstrong as a Guru 170
7.5 Conclusion 175
8. After the Founder Dies: How Movements Change lig
Introduction 177
8.1 A Model of How Movements Can Change after
Their Founder’s Death 179
8.1.1 Convergence and Divergence 180
8.2 The Model Applied to Various New Religions 181
8.2.1 A: Continuation 181
8.2.2 B: Dissolution 184
8.2.3 C: Reform/Revolution 185
8.2.4 D: Schism 187
8.2.5 Future Successions 189
8.2.6 The Worldwide Church of God: A Complex
Combination of Types 190
8.3 Some Factors Affecting a Movement after the Death
of Its Founder 190
8.3.1 The Second Leader 191
8.3.2 The Continuing Organization 193
8.3.3 Demography 194
8.3.4 Doctrine 194

CONTENTS [vii]
 8.3.5 Inward- or Outward-Looking 197
8.3.6 The Internet 198
8.3.7 Personality of New Leaders 200
8.4 After the Offshoot Leaders Die 201
8.5 Conclusion 202
9. Who Went Where and Why 205
Introduction 205
9.1 Questionnaire Caveats 206
9.2 Members or Ministers 208
9.3 The Final Doctrinal Straw 210
9.4 Family and Friends pasLe)
9.5 Church Governance and Leadership 214
9.6 Religious Choices: Social Capital and Religious Capital 2G
9.7 Experience of Leadership as a Factor in Reaffiliation 219
9.8 An Extension of Stark and Finke: Moral Capital PIES
9.9 Conclusion 228
10. The Fragmentation of a Sect: A Conclusion 231

Appendices
1 Sect, Cult, New Religious Movement 239
2 Theoretical Basis and Methodology 239
3 Literature and Other Sources 243
3.1 Books about Worldwide Church of God 243
3.2 Academic Work on Worldwide Church of God 244
3.3 “Worldwide Family” Works 245
3.4 Other Sources 247
3.5 Personal Communications 247
3.6 Questionnaire 248
4 Church Affiliation of Respondents 249
S Demographics of Respondents Zak
6 The Future State of Schism 253

References 257
Index 271

[viii] The Fragmentation of a Sect

AUTHOR’S NOTE

Most of my books on aspects of religion over the last decade or so were aimed at the
general reader; they have a scholarly underpinning, but they were deliberately writ-
ten for people who were interested in the subject but did not necessarily have a
degree in religious studies, anthropology, or sociology. In a sense they were the reli-
gion equivalent of popular science books.
This book is different from my previous work in that it is based on my doctoral
thesis. Although it is therefore an academic book which I hope will contribute to
social science and religious scholarship, I also hope it will be read by members of
the religious groups of which it is a study: the many Churches of God which are
offshoots of the Worldwide Church of God. It is, after all, their story. It should also
be of interest to anyone who is fascinated by the complexities of contemporary reli-
gion, especially in America.
For the sake of readability I have tried to keep jargon to a minimum. In places,
however, it is inevitable; sociological phrases like “social construction of reality,”
“legitimation of authority,” and “rational choice theory” are crucial elements in the
theoretical discussion of this story; I explain them as they occur, and try not to
allow them to dominate the text.
I hope that all readers will find this account of a group of heterodox, millenarian,
Sabbatarian, British-Israelite Churches, which splintered in hundreds of directions
after their founder died, even a fraction as absorbing as I have for all the years I have
been observing them. I don’t expect the leaders, ministers, and members of those
Churches to agree with or approve of everything I say about them in these pages,
but I would like to think that they will feel I have treated them fairly and will find the
perceptions of an outside observer of interest.
David V. Barrett
June 2012
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book is based closely on my 2009 PhD thesis in the Department of Sociology
at the London School of Economics. I would like to thank:

* my supervisor, Professor Emeritus Eileen V. Barker OBE, one of the foremost

specialists in new religious movements in the world, for all that I have learned
from her.
¢ Dr. Don Slater, Doctoral Program Director, Sociology, for his invaluable
administrative assistance enabling me to complete and submit my thesis.
¢ Dr. Amanda van Eck Duymaer van Twist and the staff at Inform (Information
Network Focus on Religious Movements), for their encouragement and
assistance.
- David L. Biggins, proprietor of User Management Services, for encoding my
questionnaire and hosting it online.
« Dr. Dominic Erdozain, for suggesting, during my viva voce (thesis defense),
that I use the term “moral capital” for my extension to rational choice theory
in chapter 9.

Any social science research benefits immensely from the cooperation of those on
the inside who, in a variety of ways, open doors, offer introductions, and provide
invaluable sounding boards. I would like to thank particularly Dixon Cartwright,
editor of The Journal: News ofthe Churches ofGod; Alan Ruth of Barnabas Ministries;
Gavin Rumney of the Ambassador Watch and later Otagosh blogs; the late John
Trechak, editor of Ambassador Report; Craig White, for both scholarly material and
some crucial archive material; Barbara Fenney and later Lewis D. McCann for sup-
plying me with the newspapers In Transition and The Journal; and the many other
former Worldwide Church of God members, ministers, and leaders in America,
Britain, Australia, and New Zealand who have provided me with huge amounts of
information, helped me track down other people, and been willing to answer what
must have seemed a constant stream of questions.
Thanks to Dixon Cartwright and Gavin Rumney again, both for reading my
questionnaire and making a number of invaluable criticisms and for publicizing it in
an article in The Journal and online. Because of the delay in copies of The Journal
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