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Toys and American
Culture
This page intentionally left blank
Toys and American
Culture
An Encyclopedia



SHARON M. SCOTT

GREENWOOD
An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC
Copyright © 2010 by Sharon M. Scott
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a
review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Scott, Sharon M.
Toys and American culture : an encyclopedia / Sharon M. Scott.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-313-34798-6 (alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-313-34799-3 (ebook) 1. Toys.
I. Title.
GV1218.62.S37 2010
790.1'33—dc22 2009039786

14 13 12 11 10 1 2 3 4 5

This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.

Visit www.abc-clio.com for details.

ABC-CLIO, LLC
130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911

This book is printed on acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America

The author and publisher gratefully acknowledge permission for use of the following
material: Excerpts from The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Popular Culture copyright
© 2007 by Sharon Scott. Reproduced with permission of ABC-CLIO, LLC.
 To
MaxCash and Tojo Yamamoto
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

List of Entries ix
Guide to Related Topics xiii
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Introduction xxiii
The Encyclopedia 1
Timeline 353
Resource Guide 363
Index 389
This page intentionally left blank
 List of Entries

Action Figures Dowst Brothers

Advertising and American Toys Duncan, Donald
Airplane Toys
Alexander, Beatrice Easy-Bake Oven
American Girl Effanbee Doll Company
American International Toy Fair Elmo
Ant Farm Erector Set
Aqua Dots The Ertl Company
Art and Toys Etch A Sketch
eToys.com
Baby Einstein Evel Knievel Toys
Banks
Barbie FAO Schwarz
Barbie Liberation Organization (BLO) Farm Toys
Beanie Babies Fisher, Herman
Berryman, Clifford Fisher-Price
Betsy McCall Flores, Pedro
Betsy Wetsy Food and Toys
Bionic Toys Forsse, Ken
Bobbleheads Frisbee
Bratz Furby

Cabbage Patch Kids Gender Stereotyping and Toys

Cardboard Box G.I. Joe
Carlisle & Finch Company Gilbert, A. C.
Character Toys Glass, Marvin
Chatty Cathy Glow Sticks
Clark, Julie Aigner Gruelle, Johnny
Colorforms GUND
Consumer Product Safety Commission Guns
(CPSC)
Corolle Handler, Ruth
Cowen, Joshua Lionel Happy Meal Toys
Cracker Jack Toys Hasbro
Holgate Toy Company
Daisy Outdoor Products Homies
Designer Toys Hot Wheels
Die-cast Cars Hula Hoop
Disney Company
Dollhouses Ideal Novelty & Toy Company
Dolls
x LIST OF ENTRIES

James, Betty PlanToys

Johnson, Lonnie G. Plastic Toys
PLAY-DOH
Kaleidoscope PLAYMOBIL
Kenner Products The Playskool Institute
Kewpie Dolls Playthings
Kites Pogo Stick
Knerr, Richard Price, Irving
Price, Margaret Evans
LeapFrog PXL 2000
LEGO
Lerner, George Racist Toys
Lincoln Logs Radio Flyer
Lionel Trains Raggedy Ann
Little People Roberts, Xavier
Robots
Madame Alexander Dolls Rocking Horses
Made in America Rockwell, Jarvis
Made in China Rowland, Pleasant
Mama Dolls
Marbles Safety and American Toys
Marx and Company Scheibe, Claire and Cathy
Matchbox Cars Schelle, Helen
Mattel Schoenhut
McFarlane, Todd Science and Toys
McVicker, Joseph Sea-Monkeys
Mego Corporation Sears, Roebuck & Co.
Melin, Arthur “Spud” Shrinky Dinks
Melissa & Doug Silly Putty
Michtom, Rose and Morris Slinky
Model Kits Spirograph
Mr. Potato Head Star Wars Toys
Multicultural Toys Strong National Museum of Play
My Little Pony Stuffed Animals
Super Ball
National Toy Hall of Fame Super Soaker
NERF
Target
Ohio Art Company Teddy Bears
O’Neill, Rose Teddy Ruxpin
Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Tinkertoy
Otis Toy Design Tinplate Toys
Ouija Board Tonka
TootsieToy
Paper Dolls TOTY Awards
Parents’ Choice Foundation Toy Industry Association (TIA)
Pasin, Antonio Toy Soldiers
Pet Rocks Toys “ R” Us
PEZ Trains
 LIST OF ENTRIES xi

Transformers Wham-O
Trolls Wind-up Toys
Women in Toys (WIT)
Uglydolls Wooly Willy
Wright, John Lloyd
View-Master
Yo-Yo
Walmart
Warner, Ty Zufall, Kay
Webkinz
This page intentionally left blank
 Guide to Related Topics

TOYS
Action Figures Kites
Airplane Toys Lincoln Logs
Ant Farm Little People
Aqua Dots Madame Alexander Dolls
Banks Mama Dolls
Barbie Marbles
Beanie Babies Matchbox Cars
Betsy McCall Model Kits
Betsy Wetsy Mr. Potato Head
Bionic Toys My Little Pony
Bobbleheads NERF
Bratz Ouija Board
Cabbage Patch Kids Paper Dolls
Cardboard Box Pet Rocks
Character Toys PEZ
Chatty Cathy Plastic Toys
Colorforms PLAY-DOH
Cracker Jack Toys PLAYMOBIL
Designer Toys Pogo Stick
Die-cast Cars PXL 2000
Dollhouses Raggedy Ann
Dolls Robots
Easy-Bake Oven Rocking Horses
Elmo Sea-Monkeys
Erector Set Shrinky Dinks
Etch A Sketch Silly Putty
Evel Knievel Toys Slinky
Farm Toys Spirograph
Frisbee Star Wars Toys
Furby Stuffed Animals
G.I. Joe Super Ball
Glow Sticks Super Soaker
Guns Teddy Bears
Happy Meal Toys Teddy Ruxpin
Homies Tinkertoy
Hot Wheels Tinplate Toys
Hula Hoop Toy Soldiers
Kaleidoscope Trains
Kewpie Dolls Transformers
xiv G U I D E T O R E L AT E D T O P I C S

Trolls The Ertl Company

Uglydolls eToys.com
View-Master FAO Schwarz
Webkinz Fisher-Price
Wind-up Toys GUND
Wooly Willy Hasbro
Yo-Yo Holgate Toy Company
Ideal Novelty & Toy Company
DESIGNERS Kenner Products
Alexander, Beatrice LeapFrog
Clark, Julie Aigner LEGO
Cowen, Joshua Lionel Lionel Trains
Duncan, Donald Marx and Company
Fisher, Herman Mattel
Flores, Pedro Mego Corporation
Forsse, Ken Melissa & Doug
Gilbert, A. C. Ohio Art Company
Glass, Marvin PlanToys
Gruelle, Johnny Playskool Institute
Handler, Ruth Radio Flyer
James, Betty Schoenhut
Johnson, Lonnie Sears, Roebuck & Co.
Knerr, Richard Target
Lerner, George Tonka
McFarlane, Todd TootsieToy
McVicker, Joseph Toys “ R” Us
Melin, Arthur “Spud” Walmart
Michtom, Rose and Morris Wham-O
O’Neill, Rose
Pasin, Antonio ORGANIZATIONS
Price, Irving Barbie Liberation Organization
Price, Margaret Evans Consumer Product Safety Commission
Roberts, Xavier Parents’ Choice Foundation
Rockwell, Jarvis Toy Industry Association
Rowland, Pleasant
Scheibe, Claire and Cathy PUBLICATIONS
Schelle, Helen Oppenheim Toy Portfolio
Warner, Ty Playthings Magazine
Wright, John Lloyd
Zufall, Kay COLLECTIONS
National Toy Hall of Fame
COMPANIES Strong National Museum of Play
American Girl
Baby Einstein EVENTS
Carlisle & Finch Company American International Toy Fair
Corolle TOTY Awards
Daisy Outdoor Products
Disney Company SPECIAL TOPICS
Dowst Brothers Advertising and American Toys
Effanbee Doll Company Art and Toys
 G U I D E T O R E L AT E D T O P I C S xv

Food and Toys Multicultural Toys

Gender Stereotyping and Toys Racist Toys
Made in America Safety and American Toys
Made in China Science and Toys
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

Despite their innocent plea, toys are more than simple diversions. They teach
intellectual strategies, increase physical agility, and transmit national values. On
many occasions, toys have spurred public debate. Toys and American Culture: An
Encyclopedia is a reference guide to the culture and controversies surrounding
America’s most popular playthings. Alphabetically arranged entries examine the
diverse products, bizarre trends, and impressive individuals who have shaped
America’s culture of fun. Although previously published works provide basic
facts about toys, this book is the first A to Z reference to emphasize the recip-
rocal relationship between toys and popular culture. The purpose of this ency-
clopedia is to examine the invention and development of American toys in
terms of historical events, social movements, and international progress.
Toys are the building blocks of society. The study of a nation’s toys reveals the
hopes, goals, values, and priorities of its people. This encyclopedia documents
America’s shifting cultural values as they are embedded within and transmitted by
the nation’s favorite playthings. Developments in toy making and marketing are
traced across the evolving landscape of 20th-century America. Although the years
between 1900 and 2000 are the concentration of this study, toys from the two
decades that bookend the century are included as bridges to the fascinating past
and inspiring future of American toys.
Over 160 entries within this encyclopedia introduce the reader to the most
significant items, ideas, and individuals within 20th-century toy making.
These are conveniently listed alphabetically in the list of entries and are also
clustered categorically in a guide to related topics. Each entry begins with a
basic description and a summary of the essential facts pertaining to the sub-
ject. A discussion of cultural significance then frames the entry within its
social and historical context. Major events, developments, and controversies
concerning each entry are introduced within the text as a gateway to further
exploration.
The history of American toys is long, diverse, and complex. The contemporary
playroom includes everything from ancient marbles to interactive robots. It would
be impossible for any text to catalog all of the toys that are presently available in
the United States, much less record the uncountable favorites that have enter-
tained previous generations. Instead of chronicling all of America’s toys, this book
focuses on those that most affect and reflect American culture. Discussions of toys
such as die-cast cars and teddy bears, which maintained their popularity through-
out the 20th century, are included alongside generational fads such as the Mama
doll and the Pet Rock.
xviii P R E FA C E

Toys are differentiated from games in that they have no specific instructions for
play. Although items such as puzzles and jacks are similar to toys, the inclusion of
rules places them within the category of games and disqualifies them from the
range of this book. This book strictly deals with items that pertain to imaginative
play. Although the majority of the entries herein are dedicated to individual play-
things, others focus on the events, organizations, and individuals who have
shaped American play.
Toy inventors are often referred to as Santa’s Helpers. They are the unseen indi-
viduals who toil year-round creating magical items that enhance the imaginary
world of children. Aside from a few notable exceptions, toy inventors receive lit-
tle credit for their important work. This encyclopedia serves to recognize the many
great thinkers who have molded America’s childhood. Although the inventors cat-
alogued within this encyclopedia are exclusively American, it is important to
remember that brilliant minds from all over the world have contributed to the
development of the nation’s playthings.
From birth, American children are given toys that are not only fun, but also use-
ful in their development. Early childhood toys improve basic capabilities, such as
shape matching and word recognition. The toys of older children introduce more
advanced skills, such as building and reading. In recent years, collectible toys
made specifically for adults have emerged as objects of investment. Americans, it
seems, will never outgrow their toys.
The commerce of a toy can be as important as its composition. Among the fol-
lowing entries, the reader will find an examination of the marketing and mass pro-
duction of America’s toys. Toy manufacturers such as Mattel, Ideal, Kenner, and
Hasbro are included in this encyclopedia, as are distributors such as Sears, Target,
McDonald’s, and Toys “R” Us. The majority of the corporations herein are Ameri-
can-owned, although several international companies such as LEGO and PLAY-
MOBIL have been included on account of their undeniable influence on American
childhood.
The inception and development of the major American toy enterprises is a sub-
ject of much interest within this book. Special attention is given to the marketing
techniques and advertising campaigns that have been successful for domestic toy
manufacturers. A single “hit” item, such as Barbie for Mattel or Frisbee for Wham-
O, can transform a small home business into a billion-dollar corporation. Like-
wise, years of persistent dedication have helped companies such as Lionel Trains
and Radio Flyer overcome hardships and take their place as powerhouses in the
industry. The cutthroat world of toys is chronicled within the entries of this book,
as are the creative means by which success is achieved.
A number of important institutions, publications, and non-profit organiza-
tions exert a powerful influence over the toy industry. The Consumer Product
Safety Commission, Toy Industry Association, and the Parents’ Choice Founda-
tion are among the important players within the larger culture of American toys.
The scope, history, and mission of these organizations is covered by the pages of
this encyclopedia. This book also discusses the rules, regulations, and expecta-
tions issued by these institutions and how they influence the shape of American
play.
 P R E FA C E xix

As a means of setting the history of toys within the greater social context, spe-
cial topic entries are included within this book. These articles frame American toys
in relation to contemporary themes such as gender, class, and multiculturalism. In
response to the contemporary concern over the safety of American toys, special
entries discuss the hazards lurking within American toys in terms of how they got
there and how they might be avoided. These special topic essays serve to connect
the more specific entries with broader academic issues.
Cross-references and further reading suggestions are provided with each entry
to encourage further investigation of the given topic. Additionally, a timeline and
a resource guide are situated at the end of the book. The timeline illustrates the
chronological relationship of American toys to significant historical events, and the
resource guide provides the reader with many avenues for continuing his or her
individual study of American toys. In addition to books, Web sites, and scholarly
journals, the resource guide includes information about museum exhibitions,
annual events, and professional organizations. Through these avenues, the reader
can become a participant within the living culture of American toys.
Information about the history of toys and their impact on culture is everywhere.
It is on TV, billboards, and bumper stickers. It is also in books, magazines, and
patent registrations. I am deeply thankful to the many individuals that have helped
me navigate this seemingly infinite stream of information pertaining to American
toys. This book would not have been possible without the Librarians at the
Louisville Free Public Library, Memphis Public Library, Central Arkansas Library,
New York Public Library, and the University of Louisville. Historical archives
maintained by toy manufactures have been most useful in tracing the inception
and development of specific toys. Toy collector organizations have provided this
book with obscure information pertaining to the use history of specific toys.
National institutions such as Smithsonian Institution, the Consumer Product
Safety Commission, and the Toy Industry Association have been helpful in the col-
lection of official statistics and historical facts.
Books published for collectors and journals published for the trade have like-
wise been a great resource for the author of this encyclopedia. Krause Publications
of Iola, Wisconsin and Collector Books of Paducah, Kentucky have successfully
catalogued a considerable amount of American toy history complete with photo-
graphs and price values. Similarly, Playthings and Toy Collector magazines have
published important reports on developments within the business of toys. The
articles contained within these magazines have been useful in understanding the
trade value and market impact of specific toys.
Thanks to Tim Berners-Lee, developer of the World Wide Web, a wealth of
official documents pertaining to consumer trends, corporate earnings, and national
safety recalls is readily available from the comfort of a home computer. The Inter-
net also provides access to eBay and other online distribution centers which are a
fun, but sometimes addictive means of toy research. In the world of first hand expe-
rience, toy departments and mega-stores offer much information about the current
state of toy consumption. The shelves of these retail locations speak volumes about
the culture to which they cater. Antique stores, likewise, offer a hands-on experi-
ence with older toys that books and museums cannot provide.
xx P R E FA C E

In addition to the traditional avenues of research, personal conversations have

contributed to this study of America’s playthings. Individuals who work within the
business of toys are a wealth of undocumented knowledge. I am grateful to Tom
Murray of Holgate Toys, Frank Trinca of the Schoenhut Toy Piano Company, Louie
Brofsky of Uglydoll, Matthew Connelly of McFarlane Toys, and Claire Green of the
Parents’ Choice Foundation for providing the insider information that makes this
encyclopedia unique. Thanks also to Joe Ley of Joy Ley Antiques and Rob Auer-
bach of CandyRific for their colorful perspectives on the past, present, and future
of American toys.
While the stories and images provided by toy enthusiasts are invaluable to the
study of American toys, friends, grandparents, and neighbors are treasure-troves
of memories and heart-felt stories that provide the true meaning of toys. I am so
thankful to everyone who has taken the time to share.
This encyclopedia has been written for a wide range of readers. Toys, after all,
seem to interest everyone. This volume consciously avoids industry lingo and aca-
demic jargon to present the complexities of each entry in a straightforward man-
ner. Although children will be interested to learn many of the facts included
within this book, the entries are geared toward high school and college students
who are better equipped to understand mature themes.
From realistic guns to sexy dolls, there is virtually nothing American parents
won’t give their children as toys. This text provides a unique look at the relation-
ship between toys and the development of 20th-century consciousness. This is the
first encyclopedia to document the controversies of American toys alongside the
history of their development. As such, this work tackles complicated social issues
that are excluded by other toy reference works.
Toys are the building blocks of society. Playthings are essential to the develop-
ment of American culture. Surprisingly, however, the symbiotic relationship
between toys and contemporary society has received minimal academic attention.
This encyclopedia sneaks behind the innocent veneer of toys to reveal the social,
moral, and economic character of America’s playtime products. Though this book
provides the cultural and historical framework for understanding American toys,
it is the reader who provides the real-life experiences that bring each entry to life.
Comprehensive though it may be, this work only scrapes the surface of a limitless
subject. Every individual has something to add to the unending history of Amer-
ican toys. It is hoped—and expected—that the information within this encyclo-
pedia will inspire new investigations into the sophisticated relationship between
toys and the development of culture.
 Acknowledgments

A number of talented individuals have contributed to this publication and with-

out them this encyclopedia would not exist. I am grateful to them all. Many thanks
to Kristi Ward for recognizing the need for this book and to Greenwood
Press/ABC-CLIO for making it possible. Much appreciation also goes to ABC-
CLIO editor George Butler who joined this project at the midway point and con-
fidently steered it to completion. I am sincerely thankful for the help of my
research assistant George Fox. His wealth of technical and historical knowledge
has absolutely kept me on track. I am, likewise, indebted to copy editor Annie
Morrisette of Publication Services, Inc. Her careful attention found what my eyes
could not see. Robin Tutt, Submissions and Permissions Coordinator at ABC-
CLIO, has also been a fantastic ally in the preparation of this book.
Many other behind-the-scenes individuals at ABC-CLIO have helped make this
encyclopedia a reality. Important among these are Scott Wich, Editorial Manager
of Pop Culture, Bridget Austiguy-Preschel, Production Coordinator, and Devon
Hay, Marketing Coordinator. I am also grateful to Ted Young and his team at Pub-
lication Services, Inc. who were essential in completing the post-production
chores necessary to get this book to press.
Toys and American Culture: An Encyclopedia would not have been possible with-
out my friend and mentor Mary Carothers. Thanks also to David Horvath, Diana
Brown, Christopher Fulton, and Ying Kit Chan for their valuable lessons in schol-
arship that have served this encyclopedia well. Elaine Scott and Norma Barton
provided the backbone of this book, while Bridget Harris and Ernestine Modupe
Campbell built much of the strength on which it stands. Don Evans, Rebecca
Vaughan, Bill Barton, were inspirational during the composition of this work. Jen-
nifer Ahlrich and Gail Lawless offered the encouragement necessary for success.
Much appreciation is owed to Gaia, Kai, and Vincent for helping me find the
time to write this book and to the Arkansas’ Selby’s for providing the perfect get-
a-way. Throughout the research and writing process, Meagan Roberts was a bril-
liant source of comic relief. Thank you.
Lennon, Blessing, Kyleigh, Grace Ella, and Maxwell Cash filled these pages with
the magical perspective of youth. Bless them all. Bo Diddley and Yoko Ono pro-
vided the soundtrack for this book and Marsha Sue Maxwell made the toasted
peanut butter and jelly sandwiches. Love you.
Thanks to my Dad Kenneth Edward Scott for giving me the spirit to accept this
project and to my Mother Nancy Barton Scott for giving me the courage to see it
through. This book would not have been possible without the endless love, con-
stant support, and true friendship of my husband Sean Michael Selby.
This page intentionally left blank
 Introduction

Regardless of individual differences and political polarization, Americans share a

collective vocabulary of play. Teddy bears are essential to the American home and
Frisbees have become a requirement of American childhood. Although many pas-
times and playthings have immigrated to the Americas, many are indigenous to
the land. It would be impossible to imagine Sea-Monkeys or Mr. Potato Head com-
ing from any other spot on the globe. The unique toys that emerge from the
United States represent interesting cultures, competing technologies, and an
undying faith in the American dream.
Toys have arrived in America on foot, by boat, and by plane from every corner
of the globe. The immense diversity of toys in the United States attests to the eco-
nomic prosperity and social freedom that has developed across the nation. Like
the children who carried toys in their pockets and suitcases to the New World,
many imported playthings have adapted to suit the melting pot culture of North
America. The yo-yo, for instance, is a Filipino toy and the Hula Hoop originated
in Australia. In the United States, however, mass marketing and the development
of the assembly line allowed these toys to flourish domestically and subsequently
became popular all over the world.
At the dawn of the 20th century, the nation’s toys were precious, rare, and hand-
made. Playthings such as dolls, pop-guns, and whirligigs were made by children
and people they knew. Aside from a handful of companies that produced tinplate
toys, paper dolls, and BB guns, the American toy industry was virtually non-exis-
tent prior to 1900. General stores carried a limited inventory of playthings: dolls,
hooptoys, and marbles. In addition to locally made goods, neighborhood stores
carried a number of European toy imports. These expensive items would mainly
serve as display window attractions, but would sometimes be purchased as status
symbols for wealthy households.
Toy soldiers, porcelain dolls, and wooden pull toys were among the imported
toys found in early 20th-century American stores. German companies that
exported manufactured goods received subsidies from their government that off-
set the cost of shipping and production. These benefits enabled them to sell qual-
ity toys at low prices. Because American toy makers received no such federal
assistance, they found it difficult to compete with the imported goods.
As the century progressed, new inventions such as the Model T Ford and the
man-powered airplane proved America’s ingenuity to the world. Equipped with
the new technologies of mass production and distribution, American manufac-
turers learned to captivate audiences on both coasts. As the nation developed a
treasury of native playthings, it was weaned from its dependence on imported
toys. Toys that embodied the nation’s progress became fashionable internationally.
xxiv INTRODUCTION

The American toy industry developed in unison with the technologies of the 20th
century. Model cars and airplanes, for example, were produced alongside their
prospective industries. These toys replicated, and sometimes predicted, changes in
production.
As the nation grew more urban-minded, so did its toys. The Erector Set, a steel
construction toy, was introduced by A. C. Gilbert in 1913. The popular set
enabled children to build models of the massive skyscrapers that were taking over
American cities. Another famous construction set, John Lloyd Wright’s Lincoln
Logs, made its debut in 1916. Wright’s notched beam building system was based
on the architectural framework his father, Frank Lloyd Wright, was using at the
Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. With these and other assemblage toys, children rebuilt
the industrial progress of America in miniature.
During World War I, the U.S. Council of National Defense imposed a materials
ban that stopped the production of all products that were not essential to Ameri-
can life. When A. C. Gilbert, then President of the Toy Industry Association, got
word that toys were on the list of restricted goods, he marched to Capitol Hill in
protest. In his well-publicized speech to the Defense Council, Gilbert distributed
miniature airplanes and army vehicles to the Generals. He proceeded to success-
fully argue that toys were essential to the development of society. As a result, toy
production was uninterrupted during World War I, and the international press
crowned A. C. Gilbert “The Man Who Saved Christmas.”
The continued production of toys during the First World War gave the new
industry a chance to grow. As American sentiment turned against the German
enemy, domestic manufacturers reaped the benefits. Virtually all products from
Axis-affiliated countries were pulled off the shelves, and in their absence Ameri-
can products such as Lionel Trains, Effanbee dolls, and Ideal Teddy Bears became
popular. After the war, when German companies attempted to return to the U.S.
market, they found that they could not compete with the young, but sophisti-
cated, American toy industry.
The Depression years were surprisingly good for American toy manufacturers.
With one-third of the total population out of work, the country needed to be
entertained. Inexpensive toys with high play value, such as the yo-yo and the
Radio Flyer Wagon, were very lucrative investments. Whereas other American
entrepreneurs lost fortunes, toy inventors such as Pedro Flores and Antonio Pasin
acquired millions.
The outbreak of World War II stumped the American toy industry. U.S. metal
was rationed and, without Gilbert to campaign on their behalf, toys were placed
on a list of unnecessary goods. A number of manufacturers, including Daisy Out-
door Products and the Smethport Specialty Company, were suddenly prohibited
from making the playtime items their factories were built to produce. Although
many toy companies were forced out of business, others retooled and enlisted with
the U.S. Government. Buddy “L,” Hubley, Strombecker, and the Louis Marx Com-
pany were among the American companies that went from making children’s
products to military supplies during the 1940s.
Metal toys were not only banned during World War II, they were also destroyed.
Because lead was scarce and necessary for the war effort, Boy and Girl Scouts of
 INTRODUCTION xxv

America were sent door-to-door to collect old metal toys that could be melted
down and made into war materials. Children patriotically contributed to the war
effort. Toys by the dozen were recycled into war products. As a result, metal toys
pre-dating 1945 are presently rare and valuable on the collectors’ market.
During World War II, the U.S. Government offered substantial incentives
towards the development of a synthetic rubber. They hoped such a material could
be used for making military items such as tires, boots, and grenades. A number of
chemical companies, including Beattis and G.E., got involved in the project.
Although the engineers were ultimately unsuccessful in their mission, great toys
including Silly Putty and the Super Ball grew out of the experimentation.
The birth of plastic in the mid-1940s revolutionized the look, feel, and compo-
sition of American life. Toy manufacturers were among the first to use the new
material commercially. Durable, inexpensive, lightweight, and easy to clean, plas-
tic was quickly embraced by American toy makers and used for a wide range of
purposes. The new substance soon became the standard material for dolls, play
sets, miniature boats, infant toys, and more.
The Baby Boom following World War II brought a new period of growth to
American toy manufacturing. The G.I. Bill provided veterans of the conflict with
more disposable income to spend on their growing families. Larger families with
more income created a greater market for toys. Mega-shops like Toys “R” Us and
FAO Schwarz flourished at mid-century. Domestic manufactures such as Wham-O,
Tonka, and Fisher-Price proved America’s playtime ingenuity to the world.
Radio programs such as Paul Wing’s Spelling Bee and the Little Orphan Annie
Radio Show invited children of the 1930s and 1940s to purchase toys that were
related to the on-air programming. Using mail-in coupons, children ordered items
such as magnifying glasses and decoder pins that were used at home in conjunc-
tion with the drama of the show. By the time television was introduced to Ameri-
can households in the 1950s, children had well-established habits of purchasing
items directly related to broadcast programming. In 1952, Mr. Potato Head
became the first toy advertised on TV. Sales of the “Funny Face Man” skyrocketed
and the marketing of toys was changed forever. In 1956, Ideal released miniature
versions of Roy Rogers and his horse Trigger to coincide with NBC broadcasts of
the Roy Rogers Show. These toys were the first of many that allowed American chil-
dren to play-along with television broadcasts at home.
The history of American toys can be as unsettling as it is inspiring. Until the
mid-century, “darkie toys” that promoted stereotypes of African Americans were
not only acceptable, they were popular. As American consciousness grew, it
became impossible to see Golliwogs, Pickaninnies, and Mammies as playful or
fun. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s helped all Americans real-
ize the negative potential of these toys, and they eventually went out of produc-
tion. Such ugly toys are not, however, out of existence. When encountered in
museums and antique stores today, these racist items are sobering reminders of
America’s difficult struggle with equality.
Though many industries have traditionally been closed to females, the busi-
ness of toys has always been welcoming to them. Rose Michtom, co-created the
Teddy Bear and co-founded the Ideal Toy Company in 1903. Beatrice Alexander
xxvi INTRODUCTION

established the prestigious Alexander Doll Company in 1923. Betty James coined
the term Slinky in 1943 and made her husband’s accidental invention one of the
most recognized toys in the world.
Like their mothers and grandmothers before them, women of the 1950s were
expected to take care of the home and family. They typically sacrificed professional
ambition in support of men who pursued competitive careers. From this unlikely
environment, emerged the most powerful woman in the North American toy
industry. Ruth Handler, cofounder of Mattel, obtained the rights to a German doll
named Lilli and renamed her after her daughter Barbara. Instead of selling the doll
to its intended audience, European bachelors, Handler marketed the voluptuous
toy to American girls.
When Barbie made her dramatic debut at the International Toy Fair in New
York in 1959, the shape of dolls was changed forever. In contrast to Effanbee’s
baby dolls, the new doll physique was that of a well-developed woman. In con-
trast to Madame Alexander’s prim and proper dolls, Barbie was curvaceous and
scantily clad. Instead of nurturing Barbie, young girls began idolizing her. Barbie
quickly became America’s best-selling doll and retained this title for the duration
of the 20th century.
Hoping to emulate Mattel’s success with Barbie, Hasbro began shaping a similar
item for boys. In 1964, a 12-inch tall plastic solider Hasbro called G.I. Joe was intro-
duced as the world’s first “action figure.” The Rhode Island based company thus
established a new genre of playthings that would soon dominate the American toy
market.
Hasbro’s “Government Issue” Joe represents the ultimate American soldier. He
is the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines. He comes in several generic shades to
become every race and any background. His face, hair, and outfits change with the
times, but his fearless strength remains the same. Like Barbie, G.I. Joe is sold inex-
pensively, but his accessories—Assault Vehicles and Ninja Hovercycles—are not.
Based on a character from David Berger’s 1940s comic strip, the G.I. Joe action fig-
ure was developed at a time when public support for the military was high. In the
mid-1960s, when Americans grew weary of the conflict in Vietnam, G.I. Joe sales
dropped significantly. Hasbro saved G.I. Joe’s career by pulling him out of the jun-
gle and sending him into space.
The Final Frontier served the American toy industry well during the 1950s,
’60s, and ’70s. Children’s products such as Robbie the Robot by Ideal and the
Sonic Ray Gun by Marx were developed alongside the human exploration of outer
space. Kenner’s action figures based on the Star Wars cinematic trilogy by George
Lucas reached a popularity beyond expectation. Whereas other action figures of
the 1970s stood 8- to 12-inches tall, the 3.75-inch size of the Star Wars universe
made play sets and miniature spacecraft affordable to most families.
Although Princess Leia was the only female character among the original line of
figures, her presence was enough to encourage boys and girls to play with Star Wars
toys together. By luring girls into the world of action figures, Kenner doubled their
audience. Numerous toy companies attempted to replicate Kenner’s success with
their own lines of outer space toys. Mattel created a line of Battlestar Galactica toys
and Mego produced Star Trek action figures.
 INTRODUCTION xxvii

The country’s obsession with Star Wars toys was not fully realized until Kenner
ceased production at its Cincinnati plant in 1985. When the figures were no
longer available in stores, Americans began trading them among one another. Star
Wars figures in good condition became increasingly rare. As a result, their value
grew astronomically. The art of collecting Star Wars figures become popular all
over the world. Collectors’ conventions were organized across the United States
and in international locations such as Singapore, Mexico City, and Helsinki.
The Star Wars figures introduced the concept of collectible toys. When vintage
Star Wars toys in good condition became quite expensive, consumers began to
realize that other toys in good condition might become valuable over time as well.
From the 1980s onward, it became common for Americans to purchase toys and
keep them for collectible purposes.
Cable television revolutionized the lives of American children in the 1980s and
exposed them to hundreds of advertising hours each year. In 1983, the Regan
Administration deregulated television and repealed FCC legislation that had been
designed to prevent companies from airing children’s shows based on their prod-
ucts. As a result, American toy manufacturers rushed to get programs on the air.
Mattel was the first to succeed with the He-Man and the Masters of the Universe
series. The hour and a half daily show was based on a line of action figures by
Mattel. Although the He-Man toys initially flopped, the 1983 debut of the televi-
sion program quickly placed the muscular action figures among America’s best-
sellers. Other companies soon followed suit. Kenner/Parker Brothers introduced
an animated program based on a line of plush toys called Care Bears in April of
1983. Hasbro’s Transformers made their simultaneous TV/toy store debut in 1984.
During the 1980s, a variety of Free-Trade Agreements and industrial incentives
moved American toy manufacturing overseas. The Chinese government convinced
American companies to relocate by offering them the ancient fishing village of
Shenzhen as a “Special Economic Zone.” In Shenzhen, manufacturers were not
plagued by burdens such as minimum wage and factory safety inspections.
Despite the added expense of transportation, the overall cost of production was
greatly reduced. Companies, such as Mattel and Hasbro, that moved their facto-
ries overseas quickly began to undersell those that kept facilities in the United
States. Ultimately, the economic benefits of manufacturing toys in China began to
outweigh the moral incentives to remain stateside. Within the decade, the major-
ity of American toy making was moved to the Far East.
The 1990s brought the introduction of the World Wide Web and a significant
increase in global awareness. Multi-cultural dolls by Guidecraft, PlanToys, and
Kabito Kids became the popular manifestations of a collective consciousness that
had changed for the better. By the year 2000, children had developed a fascina-
tion with technology. As electronics, computer processors, and mass communica-
tions filled American homes, they also became an important component of
national play. Computer chips allowed high-tech toys such as the Robotic Dog by
Sony to fulfill practical tasks and respond to their owner’s commands. The
connection between toys and the Internet was not fully realized until 2005 when
Ganz introduced the Webkinz line. These stuffed animals were the first toys with
a virtual life in which they must be fed, exercised, and digitally groomed.
xxviii INTRODUCTION

Whereas early 20th-century youngsters had just a few toys to accompany them
throughout their childhood, today’s kids demand a constant renewal of playthings
that quickly become out of date. An unlimited supply of toys is paraded before the
contemporary child in television commercials, shopping centers, and on the
World Wide Web. The massive American toy market now includes everything
from ancient marbles to space age robots. Manufactured toys, which were once a
luxury, have become essential to the American home. Most of these items are
short-lived. Contemporary children often grow weary of their toys before they are
broken or worn out. Although the contemporary attitude contends that the con-
stant introduction of new toys stimulate a young imagination, a counter argument
suggests that a surplus of manufactured toys may stifle a child’s natural ability to
create their own playthings. The commodification of childhood over the course of
the 20th century has been significant. Television commercials, buzz marketing,
and character branding encourage kids to want the products they do not yet own.
In the United States, as in most countries, there is an economic stratification of
play. Some items, such as American Girl dolls and Schoenhut toy pianos, are
exclusive to wealthier families, and other items, such as Hula Hoops and yo-yos,
are enjoyed by the nation’s collective youth.
In the past, when toys were made within the household, each child had unique
items made specifically to suit his or her desires. The contemporary situation in
which playthings are designed by major firms and produced in factories all the
way around the world is a new development in social history. Instead of consider-
ing the needs of an individual child, new toys aim to please thousands of kids with
many diverse backgrounds. Although some amount of individual variation has
been lost, the mass-distribution of these homogeneous toys has unified the nation
in a common language of play.
Toys are the accoutrements of childhood. They teach physical, mental, and social
skills. They unlock magical worlds and provide the imagination with space to roam.
Toys are how children make sense of their world and few Americans will deny their
importance. Whether they are a necessity, however, has been the subject of much
national debate. The U.S. Government has pondered the question on two separate
occasions during the 20th century. Legislators voted differently each time.
In the spirit of A.C. Gilbert, this book argues that toys are essential to the
progress of American society. They teach reading, arithmetic, and social behavior.
They aid the development of mental and motor skills. Through the world of toys,
children gain the skills they will need to succeed as adults. The inconsequential
space of play allows them to try on careers, behaviors, and lifestyles free from the
burdens of reality. As a result of this important play, youngsters acquire the expe-
rience necessary to become well-rounded individuals.
In addition to stimulating the imaginary life of children, toys consistently
enhance the real world of adults. Items intended as playthings have taught
humans how to fly and allowed people to communicate over massive distances.
Although toys are created for the purpose of play, they have proven useful in a
number of practical applications. Toys used for unintended purposes have often
led to advancements in science and society. From professional sports to nuclear
 INTRODUCTION xxix

physics, virtually every intellectual field has contributed to—and benefited

from—the use of toys.
The use and circulation of toys often reveals more about a society than the
objects themselves. The transformation of playthings into new objects attests to
the complexity of the human imagination. Whereas previous toy histories have
only covered one-half of the story, this encyclopedia is written with the unique
understanding that the use (and misuse) of a toy is equally as important as the his-
tory of its invention.
The remarkable toys of America’s 20th century are a testament to the persist-
ence of creativity and the endurance of youth. They are an homage to the nation’s
ingenuity, and they are proof that not everyone grows old. Because of the success
of American toys, the entries within this book will be familiar to children of all
ages and many nationalities. While engaged with this text, the reader will come to
recognize the broad effect that America’s playthings have had on the development
of the world. The history provided by this book attests to the critical role toys have
played in the development of contemporary society. The myths, meanings, and
social histories of America’s toys are investigated in this encyclopedia with the pur-
pose of learning more about America’s character, strategy, and personality.
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