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 C A L E N D R I C A L C A L C U L AT I O N S
The Ultimate Edition

An invaluable resource for working programmers, as well as a fount of useful

algorithmic tools for computer scientists, astronomers, and other calendar enthu-
siasts, the Ultimate Edition updates and expands the previous edition to achieve
more accurate results and present new calendar variants. The book now includes
algorithmic descriptions of nearly forty calendars: the Gregorian, ISO, Icelandic,
Egyptian, Armenian, Julian, Coptic, Ethiopic, Akan, Islamic (arithmetic and astro-
nomical forms), Saudi Arabian, Persian (arithmetic and astronomical), Bahá’í
(arithmetic and astronomical), French Revolutionary (arithmetic and astronomical),
Babylonian, Hebrew (arithmetic and astronomical), Samaritan, Mayan (long count,
haab, and tzolkin), Aztec (xihuitl and tonalpohualli), Balinese Pawukon, Chinese,
Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Hindu (old arithmetic and medieval astronomical,
both solar and lunisolar), and Tibetan Phug-lugs. It also includes information on
major holidays and on different methods of keeping time. The necessary astronom-
ical functions have been rewritten to produce more accurate results and to include
calculations of moonrise and moonset.
The authors frame the calendars of the world in a completely algorithmic form,
allowing easy conversion among these calendars and the determination of secular
and religious holidays. Lisp code for all the algorithms is available in machine-
readable form.

Edward M. Reingold is Professor of Computer Science at the Illinois Institute of

Technology.
Nachum Dershowitz is Professor of Computational Logic and Chair of Computer
Science at Tel Aviv University.
 About the Authors

Edward M. Reingold was born in Chicago, Illinois, in

1945. He has an undergraduate degree in mathematics from
the Illinois Institute of Technology and a doctorate in com-
puter science from Cornell University. Reingold was a
faculty member in the Department of Computer Science
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign from
1970–2000; he retired as a Professor Emeritus of Computer
Science in December 2000 and moved to the Department
of Computer Science at the Illinois Institute of Technology
as professor and chair, an administrative post he held until
2006. His research interests are in theoretical computer
science—especially the design and analysis of algorithms
and data structures. A Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery since
1996, Reingold has authored or coauthored more than 70 research papers and 10
books; his papers on backtrack search, the generation of combinations, weight-
balanced binary trees, and the drawing of trees and graphs are considered classics.
He has won awards for his undergraduate and graduate teaching. Reingold is
intensely interested in calendars and their computer implementation; in addition
to Calendrical Calculations and Calendrical Tabulations, he is the author and for-
mer maintainer of the calendar/diary part of GNU Emacs. In the accompanying
photograph he is wearing a tie showing the twelve animal totems of the Chinese
calendar.
Beyond his expertise in calendars, Nachum Dershowitz
is a leading figure in software verification in general
and the termination of programs in particular; he is an
international authority on equational inference and term
rewriting. Other areas in which he has made major contri-
butions include program semantics, analysis of historical
manuscripts, and combinatorial enumeration. Dershowitz
has authored or coauthored more than 100 research papers
and several books and has held visiting positions at promi-
nent institutions around the globe. He has won numer-
ous awards for his research and teaching, including the
Herbrand Award for Distinguished Contributions to Auto-
mated Reasoning (2011) and Test-of-Time awards for the IEEE Symposium on
Logic in Computer Science (2006), for the International Conference on Rewrit-
ing Techniques and Applications (2014), and for the International Conference on
Automated Deduction (2015). Born in 1951, his graduate degrees in applied math-
ematics are from the Weizmann Institute in Israel. He is currently Professor of
Computational Logic and Chair of Computer Science at Tel Aviv University and
was elected to Academia Europaea in 2013.
Calendrical Calculations
THE ULTIMATE EDITION

EDWARD M. REINGOLD
Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago

NACHUM DERSHOWITZ
Tel Aviv University, Israel
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA

477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia

314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107057623
DOI: 10.1017/9781107415058

© Cambridge University Press 2018

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First edition 1997
Second edition 2001
Third edition 2008
Fourth edition 2018

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Reingold, Edward M., 1945– author. | Dershowitz, Nachum, author.
Title: Calendrical calculations : the ultimate edition / Edward M. Reingold,
Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Nachum Dershowitz, Tel Aviv University, Israel.
Description: Fourth edition. | Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017024295| ISBN 9781107057623 (hardback)
| ISBN 9781107683167 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Calendar–Mathematics.
Classification: LCC CE12 .R45 2017 | DDC 529/.3–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017024295

ISBN 978-1-107-05762-3 Hardback

ISBN 978-1-107-68316-7 Paperback
Additional resources for this publication available at www.cambridge.org/calendricalcalculations
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of
URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 q[o\ r ]d\ od
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b]pY epc^ a\a
 Contents

List of Frontispieces page xii

List of Figures xiii
List of Tables xiv
List of Calendar Functions xvi
Abbreviations xxiv
Mathematical Notations xxvi
Preface xxxi
The Ultimate Edition xxxv
Calendrical Tabulations xxxvii
The Cambridge University Press Web Site xxxvii
The Authors’ Web Page xxxvii
Acknowledgments xxxviii
References xxxix
Credits xli
License and Limited Warranty and Remedy xlii

1 Calendar Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Calendar Units and Taxonomy 4
1.2 Fixed Day Numbers 10
1.3 Negative Years 15
1.4 Epochs 15
1.5 Julian Day Numbers 16
1.6 Unix Time Representation 19
1.7 Mathematical Notation 20
1.8 Search 23
1.9 Dates and Lists 25
1.10 Mixed-Radix Notations 27
1.11 A Simple Calendar 29
1.12 Cycles of Days 33
1.13 Simultaneous Cycles 35
1.14 Cycles of Years 39
1.15 Approximating the Year Number 46
1.16 Warnings about the Calculations 47
References 49

vii
viii Contents

I Arithmetical Calendars
2 The Gregorian Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.1 Structure 55
2.2 Implementation 59
2.3 Alternative Formulas 63
2.4 The Zeller Congruence 67
2.5 Holidays 69
References 71

3 The Julian Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

3.1 Structure and Implementation 75
3.2 Roman Nomenclature 77
3.3 Roman Years 81
3.4 Olympiads 82
3.5 Seasons 83
3.6 Holidays 84
References 85

4 The Coptic and Ethiopic Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.1 The Coptic Calendar 89
4.2 The Ethiopic Calendar 91
4.3 Holidays 92
References 93

5 The ISO Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Reference 97

6 The Icelandic Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

References 102

7 The Islamic Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

7.1 Structure and Implementation 105
7.2 Holidays 108
References 109

8 The Hebrew Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

8.1 Structure and History 114
8.2 Implementation 119
8.3 Inverting the Molad 125
8.4 Holidays and Fast Days 128
8.5 The Drift of the Hebrew Calendar 133
8.6 Personal Days 134
8.7 Possible Days of the Week 137
References 139

9 The Ecclesiastical Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

9.1 Orthodox Easter 145
 Contents ix

9.2 Gregorian Easter 147

9.3 Astronomical Easter 150
9.4 Movable Christian Holidays 150
References 152

10 The Old Hindu Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

10.1 Structure and History 155
10.2 The Solar Calendar 158
10.3 The Lunisolar Calendar 160
References 166

11 The Mayan Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

11.1 The Long Count 170
11.2 The Haab and Tzolkin Calendars 171
11.3 The Aztec Calendars 177
References 181

12 The Balinese Pawukon Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

12.1 Structure and Implementation 185
12.2 Conjunction Days 190
References 192

13 Generic Cyclical Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

13.1 Single Cycle Calendars 195
13.2 Double Cycle Calendars 198
13.3 Summary 200

II Astronomical Calendars
14 Time and Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
14.1 Position 204
14.2 Time 206
14.3 The Day 212
14.4 The Year 219
14.5 Astronomical Solar Calendars 226
14.6 The Month 227
14.7 Rising and Setting of the Sun and Moon 240
14.8 Times of Day 245
14.9 Lunar Crescent Visibility 249
References 253

15 The Persian Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

15.1 Structure 257
15.2 The Astronomical Calendar 259
15.3 The Arithmetical Calendar 261
15.4 Holidays 265
References 266
x Contents

16 The Bahá’ı́ Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

16.1 Structure 269
16.2 The Arithmetical Calendar 271
16.3 The Astronomical Calendar 273
16.4 Holidays and Observances 277
References 278

17 The French Revolutionary Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

17.1 The Original Form 283
17.2 The Modified Arithmetical Form 284
References 286

18 Astronomical Lunar Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

18.1 The Babylonian Calendar 289
18.2 Astronomical Easter 292
18.3 The Observational Islamic Calendar 293
18.4 The Classical Hebrew Calendar 297
18.5 The Samaritan Calendar 300
References 302

19 The Chinese Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

19.1 Solar Terms 306
19.2 Months 309
19.3 Conversions to and from Fixed Dates 316
19.4 Sexagesimal Cycle of Names 318
19.5 Common Misconceptions 321
19.6 Holidays 322
19.7 Chinese Age 324
19.8 Chinese Marriage Auguries 325
19.9 The Japanese Calendar 326
19.10 The Korean Calendar 327
19.11 The Vietnamese Calendar 329
References 330

20 The Modern Hindu Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

20.1 Hindu Astronomy 341
20.2 Calendars 347
20.3 Sunrise 351
20.4 Alternatives 354
20.5 Astronomical Versions 358
20.6 Holidays 362
References 371

21 The Tibetan Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

21.1 Calendar 375
21.2 Holidays 379
References 382
 Contents xi

Coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

III Appendices
A Function, Parameter, and Constant Types . . . . . . . . 389
A.1 Types 389
A.2 Function Types 394
A.3 Constant Types and Values 409

B Cross References for Functions and Constants . . . . . 415

C Sample Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

References 467

D Lisp Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

D.1 Basics 469
D.1.1 Lisp Preliminaries 469
D.1.2 Basic Code 474
D.1.3 The Egyptian and Armenian Calendars 476
D.1.4 Cycles of Days 477
D.1.5 Akan Calendar 478
D.2 The Gregorian Calendar 479
D.3 The Julian Calendar 484
D.4 The Coptic and Ethiopic Calendars 489
D.5 The ISO Calendar 490
D.6 The Icelandic Calendar 491
D.7 The Islamic Calendar 493
D.8 The Hebrew Calendar 494
D.9 The Ecclesiastical Calendars 502
D.10 The Old Hindu Calendars 503
D.11 The Mayan Calendars 505
D.12 The Balinese Pawukon Calendar 510
D.13 General Cyclical Calendars 513
D.14 Time and Astronomy 513
D.15 The Persian Calendar 535
D.16 The Bahá’ı́ Calendar 538
D.17 The French Revolutionary Calendar 541
D.18 Astronomical Lunar Calendars 543
D.19 The Chinese Calendar 549
D.20 The Modern Hindu Calendars 557
D.21 The Tibetan Calendar 570
References 572
Index 575
Envoi 617
About the Cover 618
 List of Frontispieces

Page from a 1998 Iranian synagogue calendar page xxx

Two pages of Scaliger’s De Emendatione Temporum xliv
Swedish almanac for February, 1712 54
Give us our eleven days 74
Ethiopic computus 88
Banker’s calendar from 1884 94
Icelandic oak calendar wheels 98
Illustration of Mohammed instituting the lunar calendar 104
Gezer calendar 112
Finger calculation for the date of Easter 142
Stone astrolabe from India 154
Mayan New Year ceremonies 168
Balinese plintangen 184
Painting of Joseph Scaliger 194
Kepler’s mystical harmony of the spheres 202
Arabian lunar stations 256
Shrine of the Bāb on Mount Carmel 268
Vendémiaire by Laurent Guyot 280
Lagash calendar month names 288
The 12 traditional Chinese calendrical animals 304
Stone slab from Andhra Pradesh with signs of the zodiac 334
Tibetan calendar carving 374
Chinese New Year greeting card 384
Page from a 1911 Turkish calendar 388
Sixteenth-century Hebrew astrolabe 414
Japanese calendar volvelles 444
Rasmus Sørnes astronomical clock number 3 468
First page of the index to Scaliger’s De Emendatione Temporum 574
Blue and white glazed jar from the reign of Kāng Xī 616

xii
 List of Figures

1.1 Tel ‘Aroer calendar plaque page 8

1.2 Meaning of a “day” in various calendars 14

2.1 A corrective term in the Gregorian calendar calculation 64

8.1 Molad of Nisan versus the actual moment of the new moon 120
8.2 First day of Passover versus the Spring equinox 134

9.1 Garrigues nomogram for the date of Easter 144

9.2 Distribution of Gregorian Easter dates 149

10.1 Old Hindu lunisolar calendar 161

11.1 Haab month signs 172

11.2 Tzolkin name signs 174

14.1 Differences in local time relative to Washington, D.C. 207

14.2 Standard time zones of the world as of January, 2017 209
14.3 Difference between DT and UT for −500 to 1600 213
14.4 Difference between DT and UT for 1620 to 2012 214
14.5 Equation of time 216
14.6 Equation of time wrapped onto a cylinder 217
14.7 Length of the year 222
14.8 Length of the synodic month 228

19.1 Possible numberings of the months on the Chinese calendar 312

19.2 Hypothetical Chinese year 314
19.3 Distribution of Chinese New Year dates 323

20.1 Modern Hindu lunisolar calendar 338

20.2 Hindu calculation of longitude 343
20.3 The traditional Hindu equation of time in 1000 c.e. 358
20.4 Tithi time differences, 1000–1001 c.e., in hours 363

xiii

.
 List of Tables

Abbreviations page xxiv

Mathematical notations xxvi

1.1 Mean year and month lengths on various calendars 11

1.2 Epochs for various calendars 17
1.3 Functions δ(d) for use in formula (1.69) 35
1.4 Constants describing the leap-year structure of various calendars 40

3.1 Roman nomenclature 79

9.1 Comparative dates of Passover and Easter, 9–40 c.e. 151

10.1 Samvatsaras 157

10.2 Hindu solar (saura) months 159

12.1 Pawukon day names 186

12.2 The 210-day Balinese Pawukon calendar 191

13.1 Constants for generic arithmetic calendars 200

14.1 Arguments for solar-longitude 224

14.2 Solar longitudes and dates of equinoxes and solstices 225
14.3 Arguments for nth-new-moon 231
14.4 Arguments for nth-new-moon 231
14.5 Arguments for lunar-longitude 233
14.6 Arguments for lunar-latitude 237
14.7 Arguments for lunar-distance 239
14.8 Significance of various solar depression angles 244

15.1 Astronomical versus arithmetic Persian calendars, 1000–1800 a.p. 264

19.1 Solar terms of the Chinese year 307

20.1 Suggested correspondence of lunar stations and asterisms 340

xiv
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