İRTAD

Sayı: 13, Aralık / December 2024, s. 1-16.

JADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF TURKIC HİSTORY

KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

Abstract: One of the most intriguing products in history is jade. This very rare
stone was not only an expensive luxury item but also used in rituals and medi-
cal treatments. Taken by rulers as tribute and tax, it was considered the most
valuable trade commodity. The fact that jade, which spread from China to
Europe in the early period, is a product of Turkestan is still not properly un-
derstood. Throughout the history of ancient Asia and Europe, East Turkes-
tan, especially Khoten, was the source of authentic—and highest quality—jade.
However, records also exist in the oldest primary sources describing other
regions. In my article, I will try to examine the course of jade in Turkish his-
tory based mainly on Chinese sources.

Keywords: Jade, Turkestan, Trade, Tribute, China, Chinese Sources.

TÜRK TARİHİ BAKIMINDAN YEŞİMTAŞI

Öz: Tarihteki en ilgi çekici ürünlerinden biri yeşimtaşıdır. Çok nadir bulunan
bu taş pahalı bir lüks eşya maddesi olduğu gibi ritüellerde ve tedavilerde de
kullanılmıştır. Hükümdarlar tarafından haraç ve vergi olarak alınan bu taş,
ticarette ise en kıymetli mal olarak kabul edilmiştir. Çin’den Avrupa’ya kadar
erken dönemlerde yayılan yeşimtaşının bir Türkistan ürünü olduğu gerçeği
hâlâ gereği gibi anlaşılamamıştır. Eski Asya ve Avrupa tarihi boyunca gerçek
ve en kaliteli yeşimtaşının kaynağı Doğu Türkistan, bilhassa Hoten olmuştur.
Yine de en eski ana kaynaklarda başka bölgeleri tarif eden kayıtlar da vardır.
Makalemde esasen Çin kaynaklarına dayanarak yeşimtaşının Türk tarihi için-
deki seyrini incelemeye çalışacağım.


Prof. Dr., İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü, kursatyildi-
[email protected], ORCID ID: 0000-0002-8418-6871. This study has been supported by Is-
tanbul University Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (project no: SBA-2022-
38757). In this article I used much information from the Turkish book chapter "Yeşim Taşı
Üzerine Birkaç Not", Orta Çağ'da Ticaret, Ed. T. Karaimamoğlu, Selenge, İstanbul, 2022, pp.
109-120” (by Kürşat Yıldırım and Elvin Yıldırım) and after publishing that chapter I collected
new sources which added to the current article.

1
2 KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

Anahtar Kelimeler: Yeşimtaşı, Türkistan, Ticaret, Haraç, Çin, Çin Kaynakla-

rı.
Introduction
In 1879, European researchers were astonished to find a jade-cutting
tool made among remains unearthed during excavations in the Rhone bed
near Geneva; it was considered to have been produced centuries before
Christ. Proponents of the Indo-European theory began to question whether
this cutting implement was a piece brought by the Aryans from the lands of
their kindred in the Hindu Kush. How this stone, found only in Asia, could
have been brought to Europe in the early ages is a matter of much curiosity.1
Several recent studies have accepted that the raw material for the jade axes
found in Europe, especially in England, which dates back to 6,000 years, did
not originate in England—but in the Italian Alps.2 However, some data in these
studies suggest that the material found in the Italian Alps is jadeite and eclogi-
te, minerals similar to jade. Jadeite and eclogite tests for “jade” axes found in
Bulgaria and Romania are mentioned, along with the Italian Alps origin of the
stones. Moreover, some archaeological studies refer directly to the pieces
from the Italian Alps as jadeite (“jadeite quarries”).3 According to the current
knowledge, no natural jade deposits exist in Europe. Therefore, first, deter-
mining where jade comes from is essential.
Jade and Turkestan
Westerners doubted that the inhabitants of Turkestan could have mi-
ned, processed, and exported this precious and rare stone to such distant pla-
ces; at first, they insistently focused on the thesis that it came from Asia to
Europe via Aryan migrations. At this juncture, one fact needs to be establis-
hed: The people of Turkestan have produced jade from East Turkestan and
sold it to distant lands since very early periods.
According to various assessments, a minimal amount of jade was scatte-
red between Mesopotamia and England. It was highly prestigious to possess
jade or pieces made from it, and this reflects the ambition of humankind.
1
F. Max Müller, Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas, Longmans, Green, and
co., London 1888, p. 209-210.
2
P. Pétrequin et al. (Ed.), Jade. Grandes haches alpines du Néolithique européen, Presses
universitaires de Franche-Comté, Besançon 2012; Pierre Pétrequin et. al. - Estelle Gauthier –
Anne-Marie Pétrequin, Jade: interprétations sociales des objets-signes en jades alpins dans
l'Europe néolithique, Ed: Pierre et al Pétrequin, Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté, and
Centre de Recherche archéologique de la Vallée de l’Ain, Besançon 2017.
3
Lasse Sørensen, “A Critical Approach Towards Jade Axes in Southern Scandinavia”, Danish
Journal of Archaelogy, vol. I, issue 1, 2012, p. 82.
 JADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF TURKIC HİSTORY 3

However, no jade exists among the fine art and religious ornaments of Egypt,
and there is no evidence that the Greeks or Romans ever used it; the metal
does not even have a name. In Europe, jade was mined in the Karakash River
in Khoten from deposits in the Kunlun Mountains region and the north of the
Kashmir Mountains. In prehistoric times, jade was taken to the West because
of its sacred properties. In India, the recognition of jade, or at least its use as a
material for artistic engraving, is more recent. Jade and a similar material,
jadeite, are found in Burma, Mexico, and Polynesia. 4
Stanley Charles Nott writes about the jade: “The Chinese term for Jade,
Yü (Yu- narrator), covers a large range of stones including the Agate, Quartz, and
Fluor families, in contrast to the accepted mineralogical classification of the present
day European scientist, who confines the term Jade to three varieties, Nephrite, Jadei-
te and Chloromelanite”. “Chinese classify this material under three headings: (1) Yü
5

(Yu- narrator)- its general name. (2) Pi Yü (Bi Yu- narrator) the dark green variety,
similar in character to serpentine obtained mainly from Barkul, Manas, Sungaria, the
country surrounding Lake Baikal and the mountain slopes of Western Yunnan. (3)
Fei-ts’ui (Feicui- narrator)- an emerald green variety first obtained from Lan-t’ian (La-
tian- narrator) on the borders of the province of Shensi, and later imported from
Burma.” 6

Outside Turkestan, the Chinese later obtained jade from the Amur in
the north and some small sources in Southeast Asia; however, natural, high-
quality jade came to them from East Turkestan. Chinese archaeological cultu-
res dating back several centuries BC used it for ritual purposes.7 According to
the Chinese source Guanzi 管子, which dates back to the 7th century BC,
jade was produced in Yuezhi territory, and the Yuezhi brought jade to the
Chinese.8
Now let's look at the places where jade comes from according to Chine-
se sources. I will attempt to provide a general overview of these documents
below.

4
Müller, a.g.e., p. 210-214.
5
Stanley Charles Nott, Chinese Jade Throughout The Ages, B. T. Batsford LTD, London
1962, p. 7.
6
Nott, a.g.e., p. 1.
7
Li Liu, “The Products of Minds as Well as Hands: Production of Prestige Goods in Neolithic
and Early State Periods of China”, Asian Perspectives, vol. XLII, issue 1, 2003, p. 3 etc.
8
K. Enoki et al - G. A. Koshelenko - Z. Haidary, “The Yüeh-chih and Their Migration”, His-
tory of Civilizations of Central Asia, vol. II, Ed: B. N. Puri-G.F. Etemadi, UNESCO, Paris
1994, p. 172.
4 KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

- Tengri Mountains-Kumul-Barkol: According to the Chinese source

Shan Hai Jing 山海經, which dates to the 4th century BC, 290 li west of the
Tengri Mountains one could find You 泑 Mountain. There were short jade
samples of various colors on the top of this mountain. On the south side of
the mountain, large amounts of green xionghuang 雄黃 could be found. This
mountain was the place where the sun rose when looking westward. The sur-
rounding area was circular. The Ying 英 River flowed 100 li westward from
that point and arrived near Yiwang 翼望 Mountain; there were no plants or
trees on this mountain, but gold and jade were abundant.9 According to the
Guo Pu Commentary (郭璞注), Yiwang was also called Tucui 土翠 Moun-
tain.10 The Tengri Mountains mentioned in this source were the Tengri Moun-
tains in the territory of Kumul. If one traveled west from there, the traveler
would reach Mount You and then Mount Yiwang after 400 li.11 This corres-
ponded to the western parts of Barköl and Mount Patkaklık. Although the
information given in the Shan Hai Jing about the Tengri Mountains is not
mentioned in the Chinese sources of the Huns and Turk Khaganate, the Da
Ming Yitong Zhi 大明一統志, written in 1461, mentions that jade was mined
in Yiwu (Kumul) lands at the foot of the Tengri Mountains.12 According to
another record in the Shan Hai Jing, getting there entailed going 190 li west
from a mountain called Sanwei 三危 to Mount Kuei 騩 and then 350 li west
from this mountain to the Tengri Mountains. In the Tengri Mountains, large
amounts of gold, jade, and green xionghuang could be found.13
- Yarkend: Jade came from Yarkend, located west of Khoten. Accor-
ding to the Taiping Yulan 太平御覽, completed in 983, there was an iron-rich
mountain in Yarkend from which green jade could be collected.14 Additio-
nally, in Yarkend, a “Jade River” flowed. The Yellow River could be observed
to the south, and the Pamir Mountains to the west.15

9
Shan Hai Jing Quanyi, Guizhou 1992, p. 40.
10
Shan Hai Jing Quanyi, p. 47.
11
Yuan He Jun Xian Tuzhi, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 1983, p. XXI, 4a.
12
Da Ming Yitong Zhi, San Qin, Xi’an 1990, p. 5505.
13
Shan Hai Jing Quanyi, p. 39-40.
14
Taiping Yulan, Shangwu, Taipei 1997, p. 796, 1a-1b.
15
Qin Ding Huan Xing Xiyu Tuzhi, Library of Tokyo Chuan-men University’s copy, Beijing
1755, p. XVIII, 17a.
 JADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF TURKIC HİSTORY 5

According to Xiyu Wen Jian Lu 西域文見錄, jade was mined from the
river in the land of Yarkend; the larger pieces were the size of bowls or pianos,
and the smaller ones were the same size as palms or chestnuts. Some weighed
300–400 jin.16 The colors were not all the same; pieces colored snow white,
kingfisher green, wax yellow, chainifre red, and ink black were all of high qua-
lity. One kind of jade looked like sheep’s fat and was speckled with bright red.
Another variant was bluish-green, like a Persian cocoon, and yet another had
gold flecks and seemed to float in the water where it was found. It was difficult
to pick up the large and small stones and shiny jade pieces that settled at the
bottom of the water. The jade that fell and spread was mixed, and there were
rules for talking about the jade and collecting it. The source continues with
descriptions of human interaction with the jade: an officer on the far bank of
the river and a barracks officer (soldier) on another bank nearby kept watch;
Twenty or thirty Muslims (or Uighurs) from the same group who had maste-
red the art of removing the jade moved forward and entered the river toget-
her, shoulder to shoulder, and barefoot. They stepped on the stones, and one
Muslim/Uighur who stumbled on a jade stone now realized that jade was un-
derfoot; he bent down, picked it up, and threw it on the bank of the river. The
soldier struck the gong once, and the official drew a dot in red ink (on the
paper). When the Muslim/Uighur came out of the river, he checked the dot
to see if it was the same as the stone he had thrown before; 230 li from Yar-
kend, there was a mountain called Miertai, and there were jade stones all over
that mountain of five colors—and not the same kind of stones. Those who
wanted to retrieve the big jade stones, which were not cracked and weighed
1000–10,000 jin, had to climb the high peaks with clefts. The local people
could not go. A locally raised yak was used for climbing and walking. The
Muslims/Uighurs took their tools, loaded them onto the animal, climbed up,
and broke the stones with their maces and chisels; the stones would fall by
themselves, and then the workers picked them up. In their tradition, this was
called a rub stone and a mountain stone. Every year, during two seasons,
spring and autumn, Yarkend did not wait to send jade tribute weighing 7–8 to
10 thousand jin. Yarkend and Khoten sent jade from the Yurunkkash and
Karakash rivers as tribute—as much as possible—but in different amounts every
time; it was brought to the capital by imperial carriage, passing by the watch-
towers. It was forbidden to hide jade. Watchtowers and fortresses were always
very strictly controlled. The Muslims/Uighurs carried it secretly and cunningly,

16
觔. Like 500 grams.
6 KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

and merchants carried it secretly through difficult routes, as well, so it was

difficult to stop them.17
- Cherchen-Chakılık: It was also recorded that jade was mined in the
territory of Kroran (Chinese sources: Loulan) State, which was established in
the eastern parts of the Taklamakan Desert in present-day Cherchen-Chakılık
region.18 In East Turkestan, jade is mined today in Khoten and the Cherchen-
Chakılık region.
- Karasheher: According to Shui Jing Zhu 水經注, in Karasheher, there
was a mountain called Daxian 大咸, a four-cornered mountain with no water
and no grass; its peak could not be climbed, and large amounts of jade were
mined from its slopes.19
- Kagilik: Jade also existed in Kagilik in the southwest on the present-
day Yarkend-Hoten road. According to Han Dynasty chronicles, jade was
mined in the territory of the Xiye State established there.20
- Khoten: According to the Dawan (Fergana) chapter of the Shi Ji 史記,
the first Chinese dynastic history completed in the 1st century BC, the water
east of Yutian (Khoten) used to flow eastward and join the Salt Lake 鹽 澤.
The water went underground and disappeared. The river’s source was south
of this area (Yellow River: Huang-he 黃 河). Large quantities of jade could be
found in the water. The Huns’ right branch was located east of this lake.21 The
second dynasty history of the Han Shu 漢書 also recorded that copious quan-
tities of jade came from Khoten.22 According to the Wei Dynasty history, Wei
Shu 魏書, completed in 554, the Shouba 首拔 was located 30 li east of the
city of Yutian (Hoten), and jade was extracted from that river.23 According to
the dynastic historical text Xin Tang Shu 新唐書, during the Turk Khaganate,
a jade river ran through Khoten. The river was mentioned directly in the sour-
ces as Yuhe 玉河, meaning “Jade River.” According to the records, people in

17
Xiyu Wen Jian Lu, Beijing, 1802, I, p. 38-39.
18
Han Shu, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing, 1997, p. 3875-3876; Tong Dian, Zhonghua Shuju, Bei-
jing, 2003, p. 5199.
19
Shan Hai Jing Quanyi, p. 63-64.
20
Han Shu, p. 3882-3884; Hou Han Shu, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 1997, p. 2917.
21
Shi Ji, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 1997, p. 3160.
22
Han Shu, p. 3881.
23
Wei Shu, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 1997, p. 2262-2263.
 JADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF TURKIC HİSTORY 7

that area would look for places with bright moonlight in the evening and mine
the jade there.24 According to the Tong Dian 通典, written in 801, there was a
river in Khoten from which jade could be extracted called the “Jade River.”25
Yelü Chucai (d. 1244) mentions in Xi You Lu 西游錄 that there was a river
with white and black jade in Wuduan (Hoten).26 According to Ming-era Chi-
nese sources, Khoten is bordered to the east by the Baiyu (“White Jade”)
River, to the west by the Lüyu (“Green Jade”) River, and further west by the
Heiyu (“Black Jade”) River. All of these rivers originated from Kunlun (Ku-
rum) Mountain. The locals went into the water at night to collect the jade that
shone in the moonlight, and it must have been beautiful. China’s neighbors
often collected jade from these places and offered it as tribute.27
In the al-Jamâhir fi ma'rifat al-jahâvir, Al-Biruni mentioned Karakash
while describing jade: “The jade comes out of two valleys in the district of
Khoten, the center of which is Ahma. One of these valleys is called Kâsh... the
other is called Karâkâsh...” In his Kitāb al-Saldana, the author stated, “As for
28

jade, this stone is mined from two valleys in Khoten. One of these valleys is
called Yûrenk Kâsh, from which the white and precious stone is mined.” 29

Mahmud of Kashgarlı indicated the following about rivers from which

jade was extracted in a work titled “Kash Öküz”: “They are two streams
flowing on either side of the city of Khotan. One of them is called “Ürünğ
Kash Öküz”, a clean white stone is found here; the stream got its name from
this stone. One is called “Karakash Öküz”, a clean black stone is found here.
This stone is the only one in the whole world.” The Chinese source Wen
30

Xian Tong Kao 文獻通考, completed in 1317, mirrors this information.31

In the Zafernâme, written in 1425, the record is as follows: “There are
two rivers in Khoten. One is called Arangkash and the other Karakash. Both
rivers contain jade. They export this jade to other countries. The water of

24
Xin Tang Shu, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 1997, p. 6235.
25
Tong Dian, p. 5225.
26
Kürşat Yıldırım, (Ed.), Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri. Ötüken, İstanbul 2013, p. 203.
27
Ming Shi, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 1997, p. 8614.
28
Ramazan Şeşen, İslam Coğrafyacılarına Göre Türkler ve Türk Ülkeleri, TTK, Ankara 2001,
p. 202.
Şeşen, a.g.e., p. 204.
29

Kâşgarlı Mahmut, Divanü Lûgat-it-Türk. cilt III, Trans: Besim Atalay, TDK, Ankara 2006, p.
30

152.
Wen Xian Tong Kao, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 2006, p. 337, 2643a-b-c, 2644a.
31
8 KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

these two rivers comes from Karangutagh.” The Karangutag mentioned in

32

this source is the mountain range known today as the Kunlun.

The Karakash River made up the upper course of the Khoten River; it
originated from the same source as the Yurunkkash River. The water flowed
west of the former city of Kashtash. For 60 li, it flowed north and arrived in an
area south of Karakash. There, it split into two branches; it then flowed nort-
heast to Koghish and merged with the Khoten River. The water came from
the east of Karakash, and Jade was extracted from this water.33 According to
Jin Gao Ju Hui Shi Tian Ji, this was the Wuyu 烏玉 River west of Khoten
territory.34 According to the Wei Shu, there was a large body of water 55 li
west of Khoten called the Dali 達利 River.35 The Wuyu and Dali mentioned
in the sources were part of the Karakash River.
In Ali Akbar’s Hıtayname, which is said to have passed through Khotan
in 1500, the author mentioned the following: “There are two rivers in Khotan.
One of them is called Ak-kash. White jade came out of it. The other is called
Kara-kash. Black and green jade was mined from there. When the waters rose
and receded back into its course (or in a place called Dascu), they would gat-
her jade on its banks for ten days and it would go everywhere from there.” 36

Today, jade is still mined in Khoten. The place and water names of Ürünk
(ürünk: “white”) Kash, Kara Kash, or Kash are still used; Kash is the Turkic
equivalent of ‘jade’ in the oldest Turkic texts.
- Kunlun (Kurum) Mountains: In the travel report Xi Shi Ji by Chang
De, a Chinese envoy sent by the Mongol Khan Mengü to his brother Hülagü—
who had just overthrown the Caliph in Baghdad—the author related that there
were copious amounts of jade originating in the Kunlun Mountains.37
According to Qing period records, the territory of Kashtashi in the so-
uthern part of Khoten province was 160 li southwest of Khoten City. There
were city walls there. One could find the Yorungkash and Karakash rivers to
the south of this area. Water flowed eastward through the city, surrounded by
rivers on three sides, each 20 li long. Since the time of the Huns, these bodies

Şerefüddin Ali Yezdî, Emir Timur (Zafernâme), Trans: D. Ahsen Batur, Selenge, İstanbul
32

2013, p. 329.
Qin Ding Huan Xing Xiyu Tuzhi, p. XXVIII, 16a.
33

Hsiyu Tongwenzhi, Beijing National Library’s copy, Beijing 1763, p. VI, 23a.
34

Wei Shu, p. 2263.

35

Lin Yih-min, Ali Ekber’in Hıtayname Adlı Eserinin Çin Kaynakları ile Mukayese ve Tenkidi,
36

Taipei 1967, p. 132.

Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 280.
37
 JADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF TURKIC HİSTORY 9

of water surrounded mountains called the “Southern Mountains,” and jade

was mined there.38
Jade as a Material
One of the most important reasons jade has been in high demand thro-
ughout history is the mystical belief that it is beneficial for curing or helping
with disease, brings good fortune, and protects its owner from trouble or bad
luck. Jade was also used in activities such as magic.
According to a narrative by Biruni, people called jade or a stone similar
to it “galebe tashi” (conquering stone). Therefore, Turks used to decorate
their swords, belts, and horse saddles with this stone to be victorious in battle.39
Mahmud of Kashgarli said the following about jade: “It is a pure white
stone without blemish, it is put into rings, and the owner of the ring is not
touched by lightning; for this is the way it is created. If it is wrapped in a cloth
and thrown into the fire, neither the cloth will burn, nor the stone...This has
been tested. If a man takes it in his mouth when he is thirsty, it will quench his
thirst.” Turk shamans from ancient times used some jade stones, also called
40

yada, to make it snow, rain, hail—and have the wind blow. 41

According to researchers such as Max Müller, raw or unprocessed jade

has never been found anywhere in Europe, and there is no ancient name for
jade in Europe. The word “jade” is not used or found in any European source
before the discovery of America. The Spaniards who brought jade from Ame-
rica called it “piedra de yjada” because, for a long time, it was believed to reli-
eve pain. Monardes was the first to introduce this new terminology in Europe
in his Historia Medicinal de las Cosas que se traen de las Indias Occidentales
(Seville, 1569). He used “piedra de yjada,” also spelled “piedra de ijada,”
which means groin stone or stone that relieves pain in the groin. The Spanish
word “ijada” means “il lado del animal debaxo del vientre junto al anca,” ac-
cording to the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, and there is little doubt
that it comes from the Latin ilia. The “iliaco” in Spanish is “il dolor colico”.
The words “ijada,” “jada,” or “jade” are a mere coincidence in terms of the
belief in the healing power of the stone originating in America. Some of the

38
Qin Ding Huan Xing Xiyu Tuzhi, p. XIX, 13b.
39
Şeşen, a.g.e., p. 202.
Divanü Lûgat-it-Türk, III, p. 22.
40

A. Duvarcı, Türkiye’de Falcılık Geleneği ile Bu Konuda İki Eser, Kültür Bakanlığı, Ankara
41

1993, p. 26. See Hikmet Tanyu, Türklerde Taşla İlgili İnançlar, Ankara Üniversitesi, Ankara
1968.
10 KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

books written by Charles V’s court physicians and others describe treatments
that require wearing jade.42
In addition to its use for therapeutic purposes in China, jade had a pla-
ce in Chinese religion, especially Daoism. According to the Chinese, death
was not an obstacle to coming back to life; therefore, jade amulets were placed
between the lips of the deceased to ensure that the body came back to life.
Jade also influenced Chinese alchemy. According to the Daoists, the entire
body was a “jade tree”.43
Throughout history, jade was a luxury item and an ornamental material;
it was the most spectacular material in clothing and the decoration of dwellings
and buildings. Several examples from the primary sources are required here.
The Töles in Turfan wore gold and jade belts.44 The ruler of Kucha had arc-
hes decorated with precious stones.45 Chang De’s travel report, Xi Shi Ji noted
that the walls of the palace of the Caliph of Baghdad were covered with black
and white jade.46 In Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit, the word “yedâ” was
called a material but not an ornamental one. From the time of the early Tur-
kic dynasties of Delhi, jade had been an ornamental material in India.47 In the
city of Kash, pleasant palaces and a beautiful place of worship could be seen,
and many structures had pillars made of jade.48 In China, the most popular
ornaments were made of jade; it was also used in ceremonies in ancient Chi-
nese cultures before Christ. For the first time, Tang Emperor Gaozu (618–
627) ordered all princes, nobles, soldiers, and officials above the 2nd rank to
wear jade-encrusted belts.49 Qing Dynasty emperors were also known to be
fond of jade.50 In Europe, grandiose dreams about acquiring jade began to take
hold in the 16th century.51 Everyone wanted to own this stone because it rep-
resented wealth and prestige.

Müller, a.g.e., p. 217-218, 220.

42

T. Zarcone, Yeşimtaşı Yolu, Trans: Canan Çankaya, Türkiye İş Bankası, İstanbul 2009, p. 17-
43

18, 20.
Tong Dian, p. 5258-5259.
44

Jin Shi, Zhonghua Shuju, Beijing 1997, p. 917.

45

Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 286.

46

Müller, a.g.e., p. 214, 220.

47

Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 478.

48

B. Laufer, Jade, Chicago 1912, p. 286.

49

Zarcone, a.g.e., p. 30.

50

Müller, a.g.e., p. 220.

51
 JADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF TURKIC HİSTORY 11

Jade in the China-Turkistan Tribute-Trade Relationship

Ancient China had a tribute-trade process in its international relations
system. According to this system, China, which considered itself the center of
the world, recognized the states in Turkestan in return for a tribute they were
obligated to pay. The Chinese granted the Turkistanis commercial privileges
in return. During this practice, these outside states were not subordinate to
China; a trade relationship was established only by accepting China’s superio-
rity. Jade was one of the most important tribute commodities given to the
Chinese by other states in this relationship. Throughout history, powerful
states have received this stone from others as a tribute or gift. Jade, a very co-
lorful and attractive stone, was even given as a bribe. For example, in 90 AD,
the regent of the Yuezhi (Kushan) rulers, a man named Xie, sent jade with
horse riders as a bribe to the rulers of Kucha.52 The states that ruled the region
imposed the burden of collecting jade on the people of Khoten. The work
was so laborious that when exemptions were granted, this was recorded in the
sources. In the Yuan Shi from 1274, it was reported that the people of Khoten
were relieved of the burden of collecting jade for the Yuan Emperor.53
For many centuries, Chinese dynasties made every effort to obtain the
stone. One of China’s last two constructed gates in the empire’s west was cal-
led the Jade Gate Pass. This gate, opened in prehistoric times, was used for
long periods. There are numerous records of jade as an item of tribute. It was
constantly at the center of relations between the Ming Dynasty in China and
Turkestan. I will only mention several documents from the 15th century here
as examples. After Emperor Yongle ascended the throne (after 1402), the
ruler of Bashbalik sent an envoy to the Emperor and offered uncut jade as
tribute.54 In 1406, the ruler of Bashbalik sent an envoy to the Chinese court,
and this visitor transported jade to offer as tribute.55 In 1407, the ruler of Qoc-
ho sent a piece of jade and other items from his country to the Ming Emperor
as tribute.56 In 1422, an envoy from Khoten sent to China presented his hosts
with fine jade.57
Emperor Yongle of China (1402–1424) established close relations with
Turkestan, and every year, envoys arrived from the western countries. The
Turks were very fond of Chinese goods, especially silk, and profited by

52
Hou Han Shu, p. 1580.
53
Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 378.
54
Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 459.
55
Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 440.
56
Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 436.
57
Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 463.
12 KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

exchanging goods from their lands with Chinese products. Therefore, foreign
merchants traveled to China under the pretext of bringing tribute, and the
most valuable commodity they brought was jade. Once they entered China,
officials and normal subjects handled their accommodation and transporta-
tion. In time, as these services and trade negatively affected the Chinese eco-
nomy, the Emperor asked visitors from Turkestan not to send envoys anymo-
re.58
The Manuscripts Department of the V. I. Lenin State Library preserves
the valuable donations of Konstantin Andrianovich Skachkov, collected by the
Russian Consul in Chuguchak (Tarbagatay). The collection contains Chinese
manuscripts, maps, and picture albums from the 1450s until 1859. The most
prized part of the collection is the Xinjiang Collection. Some manuscripts are
in three parts and contain the short petitions of rulers and their envoys to the
Ming Dynasty court. These documents, which do not have Chinese titles,
were labeled by Skachkov as “Dokladı Imperatoram Dayminskoy Dinastii iz
Inozemnıh i Dannicheskih” (Reports from Foreigners and Subjects to the
Emperors of the Daymin Dynasty). According to the documents, whose exact
dates are not precisely known but are believed to be between the 14th and
15th centuries, Komul Khan Muhammad sent 200 jin of jade with his envoy
Hasan.59 Aladdin, an envoy from the Arab Caliphate, presented 50 jin of jade
to the Chinese Emperor as tribute.60 Ali, an envoy from Samarkand, presented
50 jin of jade as a gift to the Emperor.61 Lastly, Sanhal of Huozhou (Karahoca)
sent a messenger with a jade stone weighing five jin.62
In their dealings with China, the Turkestanis sometimes sent poor-
quality jade, and the Chinese suffered financial losses. For example, Imil
Khoja, who succeeded Isen Buka, the ruler of Ili Balyk (a khanate in East
Turkestan), who died in 1445, sent camels to China as tribute; he also gifted
an unprocessed jade stone weighing 3,800 jin,63 but it was not of good quality.
To avoid losses, the Chinese rulers demanded that for every two jin of jade,
one ball of white silk would be sent, envoys should only come once every
three to five years, and the delegation should not exceed ten individuals.64 On
another occasion, envoys from Samarkand brought jade to China, but only 24

58
Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 464.
59
Kitayskiye Dokumentı i Materialı po İstorii Vostoçnogo Turkestana, Sredney Azii i Kazakhs-
tana, Almatı 1994, p. 24.
60
Kitayskiye Dokumentı, p. 25.
61
Kitayskiye Dokumentı, p. 25.
62
Kitayskiye Dokumentı, p. 28.
63
1 jin is about 500 grams.
64
Ming Shi, p. 8608; Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 461.
 JADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF TURKIC HİSTORY 13

pieces of it, weighing 68 jin, were suitable for processing. The remaining 5,900
jin were useless. The Chinese court offered to sell this jade themselves; the
visiting delegation asked for one ball of cheap silk for every five jin of jade, to
which the Chinese side agreed.65
Merchants from Turkestan called themselves envoys and offered jade
as tribute. Once they entered Chinese borders, all of their expenses were co-
vered by China.66 However, this put a significant burden on Chinese finances.
The Turks were not the only ones who used jade as an offering during
official visits; frequently, the Chinese emperors presented jade as a gift in their
dealings with states in Turkestan. For example, jade vessels were among the
gifts sent by the Chinese Emperor to the ruler of Samarkand in the 10th
month of 1445.67
Conclusion
The people of Turkestan have mined and processed jade from East
Turkestan and sold it to distant lands since very early periods. European his-
torical sources have never recorded the mining and processing of jade. Except
China, there are very few places outside Turkestan where this stone is proces-
sed; no raw jade has yet been found in excavations in Europe. Jade is of great
importance in Turkestan-China relations. In my article, I tried to give informa-
tion about the extraction of jade in Turkestan cities according to Chinese so-
urces. In doing so, I presented detailed information from Chinese sources.
Particularly interesting is the account of the extraction of jade in Yarkend in
Xiyu Wen Jian Lu. I have also added information from some Arabic and
Persian main sources. On the other hand, as a source of magic and healing
Jade was helping with disease, brings good fortune, and protects its owner
from trouble or bad luck. It also had a religious importance. In Turkic cultu-
re, jade also had sacred aspects. Shamans and common people were very
interested in jade. It was a luxury item and an ornamental material. There
were numerous historical records of this. There was a great importance of jade
in tribute-trade relationship China-Turkistan. Chinese dynasties made every
effort to obtain the stone. Traders from Turkestan called themselves envoys
and offered jade as tribute and this material had the main value in these relati-
ons. Throughout history jade was the most precious gift that presented to the
rulers. I have also tried to give examples from Chinese sources in the text.

65
Ming Shi, p. 8600.
66
Ming Shi, p. 8601.
67
Çin Kaynaklarında Türkistan Şehirleri, p. 473.
14 KÜRŞAT YILDIRIM

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