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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/05/19, SPi

ON T R IAL F OR R E A SON
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/05/19, SPi
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/05/19, SPi
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/05/19, SPi

1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6dp,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Maurice A. Finocchiaro 2019
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2019
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018968360
ISBN 978–0–19–879792–0
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A.
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/05/19, SPi

PR E FAC E A N D AC K NOW L E DGM E N T S

T his book is meant to be a summary, synthesis, and simplification of my

many scholarly works dealing with the Galileo affair: his Inquisition
trial, its intellectual issues, its background, the historical aftermath up to
our day, and the philosophical and cultural lessons involving the relation-
ship between science and religion and the nature of rationality, scientific
method, and critical thinking. Thus, I owe a debt of gratitude to the many
scholars and institutions from whom my scholarly work has benefitted.
They are mentioned in my previous works, and so here it will suffice for me
to express only this general acknowledgment.
Furthermore, this book is also meant to be an expansion and elaboration
of a public lecture which I have had the opportunity to deliver at many ven-
ues in many parts of the world. In fact, after I started publishing scholarly
works on the Galileo affair, it did not take long before I received invitations
to present a one-hour lecture to audiences of intelligent and educated per-
sons who were not specialists on the topic, but were curious and interested
about its details. Although initially challenging and uncomfortable, such
lecturing became increasingly pleasant, and also beneficial to me by forcing
me to focus on the universal and perennial relevance of the topic. I have
never had the occasion to formally thank the organizers and audiences of
such lectures, and so here it seems very appropriate to express my gratitude,
both generally and specifically.
Deserving mention are the following more memorable occasions, when
the organizers were especially wise and effective, and the audiences espe-
cially engaged and engaging: Raymond Erickson and the audience of musi-
cians, musicologists, artists, and art critics, at the Tenth Aston Magna
Academy on Music, the Arts, and Society, on the theme of “Foundations of
the Italian Baroque, 1560–1620,” at Rutgers State University, June 23–30,

v
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pr e face a nd ack now l e dgme n ts

1991; Carlos Alvarez and the interdisciplinary audience of faculty and stu-
dents, at the Colloquium on “Mathematics, History, and Culture,” to inaug-
urate the new library of the Faculty of Science, at the National Autonomous
University of Mexico (UNAM), Mexico City, September 20–2, 1994; Derrick
Pitts and the general public at “The Legacy of Galileo Symposium,” on the
occasion of the International Year of Astronomy, to commemorate the
400th anniversary of Galileo’s telescopic discoveries, at the Franklin
Institute, Philadelphia, June 18–20, 2009; Peter Slezak and the audience at
the public lecture sponsored by the Program in History and Philosophy of
Science and the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of New
South Wales, Sydney, Australia, also to celebrate the International Year of
Astronomy, October 22, 2009; John W. Meriwether and the audience of sci-
entists, engineers, and spouses, at the “Classmate Speaker Program,” 50th
Anniversary Reunion of the Class of 1964, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, June 6, 2014; and Kenneth Wolfe and the audience of mostly
elderly and retired persons at the “Contextual Lecture Series 2014: People
Who Changed the World,” Dulwich Picture Gallery, London, July 8, 2014.
Last but not least, there is a group of persons to whom I am grateful and
who deserve acknowledgment for their assistance concerning this particu-
lar book, attempting to simplify my specialized scholarship and to amplify
my public lecture. John Heilbron, author of Galileo and many other books in
the history of physics, provided both positive support and substantive criti-
cism; I appreciated both, while feeling free to criticize his criticism. Latha
Menon, at Oxford University Press, not only did the usual tasks required of
a commissioning editor, but also read and edited the entire manuscript; her
suggestions significantly improved the literary style and narrative and the
general appeal of my writing. One of the anonymous reviewers of my ori-
ginal proposal provided not only a favorable recommendation, but also a
very perceptive and fruitful interpretation of my project: “without ‘dumb-
ing down’ of historical and philosophical content, to be of interest to a wide
readership”; this was and continued to be my guiding principle in the writ-
ing of this book, and I found this reviewer’s judgment a constant source of
encouragement. Finally, two readers of my manuscript deserve special

vi
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pr e face a nd ack now l e dgme n ts

thanks: Aaron Abbey, a professional librarian at the University of Nevada,

Las Vegas and a former student of mine; and Mark Attorri, a professional
and practicing attorney in New Hampshire, for whom Galileo is a hobby
and diversion from his law practice. They provided numerous and detailed
comments and criticisms, and I feel extremely fortunate to have had this
book read by these two ideal examples of intelligent, educated, interested,
curious, and nonspecialist readers.
In a class by itself is the special debt of gratitude which I owe to the
University of Nevada, Las Vegas, in particular the College of Liberal Arts,
the Philosophy Department, the Chair of the Philosophy Department
(David Forman), my departmental colleagues (David Beisecker, Ian Dove,
Todd Jones, Bill Ramsey, Paul Schollmeier, and James Woodbridge), and the
staff in the Office of Information Technology (Hector Ibarra and Nick
Panissidi). They have continued to provide institutional, material, and moral
support, even after I decided to retire from formal teaching to work full
time on research, scholarship, and writing.

vii
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CON T E N T S

Preface and Acknowledgments v

1. Introduction: Avoiding Myths and Muddles 1

2. When the Earth Stood Still 25

3. The Copernican Controversy (1543–1609) 47

4. Re-assessing Copernicanism (1609–1616) 77

5. The Earlier Inquisition Proceedings (1615–1616) 109

6. The Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems (1632) 123

7. The Inquisition Trial (1632–1633) 155

8. Becoming a Cultural Icon (1616–2016) 171

9. Religion vs. Science? 203

10. A Model of Critical Thinking? 225

11. Some Final Thoughts 249

Bibliography 259
Notes 267
Artwork Acknowledgments 275
Index 277

ix
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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Avoiding Myths and Muddles

Galileo’s Legacy

I n 1633, at the conclusion of one of history’s most famous trials, the Roman
Inquisition found Galileo Galilei guilty of “vehement suspicion of her-
esy”; this was a specific category of religious crime intermediate in serious-
ness between formal heresy and mild suspicion of heresy. He had committed
this alleged crime by defending the idea that the Earth is a planet rotating
daily around its own axis and revolving yearly around the Sun; his argu-
ment was found in a book published the previous year and entitled Dialogue
on the Two Chief World Systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican. The problem stemmed
chiefly from the fact that Galileo was implicitly denying the Catholic Church’s
beliefs that the Earth’s motion contradicted Scripture and Scripture was a
scientific authority.
Thus, Galileo became the protagonist of a cause célèbre that continues to
our own day. For example, in the eighteenth century, Voltaire opined that
the tragedy would bring “eternal disgrace” to the Catholic Church; and in
the twentieth century, Arthur Koestler labeled it “the greatest scandal in
Christendom.”1
However, there is also irony in this tragedy. For, as we shall see later, even-
tually the Church came to recognize that Galileo was right not only about
the Earth’s motion, but also about the limited authority of Scripture. This
recognition came in 1893 when Pope Leo XIII issued an encyclical entitled
Providentissimus Deus, propounding the Galilean principle that Scripture is

1
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in t roduc t ion: avoiding m y t hs a nd mu ddl es

not a scientific authority, but only one on questions of faith and morals.
Moreover, another acknowledgment came in the period 1979–92, when
Pope Saint John Paul II undertook a highly publicized and highly controver-
sial “rehabilitation” of Galileo. John Paul made it clear and explicit that
Galileo had been theologically right about biblical hermeneutics, as against
his ecclesiastical opponents; moreover, the pope credited Galileo with hav-
ing preached, practiced, and embodied the very important principle that
religion and science are really in harmony, and not incompatible. In short,
the world’s oldest religious institution, which continues to be one of the
world’s great religions, has found ways and reasons to try to appropriate
Galileo’s legacy with regard to two basic principles, involving the limited
authority of Scripture and the harmonious relationship between science
and religion.
It is not surprising that the Catholic Church would try to appropriate
Galileo’s legacy. In fact, independently of his epoch-making role in the history
and philosophy of religion, his legacy has a second main aspect: Galileo was
one of the founders of modern science. That is, science as we know it today
emerged in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries thanks to the discoveries,
inventions, ideas, and activities of a group of people like Galileo that also
included Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, Christiaan
Huygens, and Isaac Newton. Frequently, Galileo is singled out as the most
pivotal of these founders and called the Father of Modern Science. Although
many people have repeated or elaborated such a characterization, it is signifi-
cant that it originates in the judgment of practicing scientists themselves,
such as Albert Einstein and Stephen Hawking.2 Galileo’s most important con-
tributions involved physics, astronomy, and scientific method.
In physics, Galileo pioneered the experimental investigation of motion.
He also formulated, clarified, and systematized many of the basic concepts
and principles needed for the theoretical analysis of motion, such as an
approximation to the law of inertia, a formulation of the relativity of
motion, and the composition of motion into distinct components. And he
discovered the laws of falling bodies, including free fall, descent on inclined
planes, pendulums, and projectiles.

2
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in t roduc t ion: avoiding m y t hs a nd mu ddl es

In astronomy, Galileo introduced the telescope as an instrument for sys-

tematic observation. He made a number of crucial observational discover-
ies, such as mountains of the Moon, satellites of Jupiter, phases of Venus,
and sunspots. And he understood the cosmological significance of these
observational facts and gave essentially correct interpretations of many of
them; that is, he provided a robust confirmation of the theory that the Earth
moves, daily around its own axis and yearly around the Sun.
With regard to scientific method, Galileo pioneered several important
practices. For example, he was a leader in the use of artificial instruments
(like the telescope) to learn new facts about the world; this is to be contrasted
to the use of instruments like the compass for practical purposes. Moreover,
he pioneered the active intervention into and exploratory manipulation of
physical phenomena in order to gain access to aspects of nature that are not
detectable without such experimentation; this is the essence of the experi-
mental method, as distinct from a merely observational approach. He also
contributed to the establishment and extension of other more traditional,
but little used, methodological practices, such as the use of a quantitative
and mathematical approach in the study of motion. He contributed to the
explicit formulation and clarification of important methodological prin-
ciples, such as the setting aside of biblical assertions and religious authority
in scientific inquiry. And he was also an inventor, making significant contri-
butions to the devising and improvement of such instruments as the tele-
scope, microscope, thermometer, and pendulum clock.
Finally, there is a third aspect to Galileo’s legacy. In fact, the historical
circumstances of his time and his own personal inclinations made him into
a kind of philosopher. Of course, he was not a systematic metaphysician
who speculated about the eternal problems of being and nothingness.
Instead he was a concrete-oriented and practical-oriented critical thinker
who not only was engaged in a quest for knowledge of nature, but also
reflected on questions about the nature of knowledge. In the eloquent words
of Owen Gingerich, for Galileo “what was at issue was both the truth of
nature and the nature of truth.”3 Now, let us define epistemology as the branch
of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge in general, and scientific

3
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in t roduc t ion: avoiding m y t hs a nd mu ddl es

knowledge in particular, including the principles and procedures that are

useful in the acquisition of knowledge; if one focuses on just the latter prin-
ciples and procedures, that defines the branch of epistemology called meth-
odology. In this regard, Galileo was like the ancient Greek philosopher
Socrates, their main difference being that Socrates reflected on moral or
ethical questions of good and evil and the meaning of life. Thus, just as
many regard Socrates as the Father of Western Philosophy, we may regard
Galileo as the Socrates of methodology and epistemology.
That is, as already hinted at and as we shall see in more detail later,
Galileo’s contributions to scientific knowledge were so radical that he con-
stantly had to discuss with his opponents (scientific as well as ecclesiastic)
not only what were the observational facts and what was their best theoretical
interpretation, but also what were the proper rules for establishing the facts
and for interpreting them. With scientific opponents he had to discuss
questions such as whether artificial instruments like the telescope have a
legitimate role in learning new truths about reality; whether scientific
authorities, such as Aristotle (384–322 bc), should be relied upon to the
exclusion of one’s own independent judgment; whether mathematics has
an important, and perhaps essential, role to play in the study of natural
phenomena; and so on. With ecclesiastic opponents, Galileo had to discuss
whether Scripture should be treated as a source of scientific information
about physical reality; whether scientific theories that contradict the literal
meaning of Scripture should be summarily rejected or treated as hypotheses;
whether hypotheses are potentially true descriptions of reality or merely
convenient instruments of calculation and prediction; and so on.
In short, Galileo’s legacy clearly has a three-fold character, relating to sci-
ence, religion, and philosophy. These three things are such major and cru-
cial cultural elements, and their interaction has such significant cultural
ramifications, that we may also speak more generally of his cultural legacy.
In this book, all aspects of Galileo’s cultural legacy are discussed by focus-
ing on his trial by the Inquisition, stressing its intellectual developments
and issues, and elaborating, in turn, its background, proceedings, after-
math, and significance. However, before articulating the background, it is

4
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Learning Objective 1: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 4: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Part 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Example 10: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 15: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 17: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 19: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 3: Ethical considerations and implications
Practice Problem 20: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 21: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 25: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 27: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 28: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 29: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Quiz 4: Study tips and learning strategies
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 32: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 34: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 38: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 5: Practical applications and examples
Practice Problem 40: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 41: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 42: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 46: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Conclusion 6: Historical development and evolution
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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