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The Science of Reading
 THE
Science
OF
Reading
Information, Media ,
and Mind in
Modern America

Adrian Johns

The University of Chicago Press

Chicago and London
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637
The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London
© 2023 by The University of Chicago
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or repro-
duced in any manner whatsoever without written permission,
except in the case of brief quotations in critical articles and
reviews. For more information, contact the University of Chicago
Press, 1427 E. 60th St., Chicago, IL 60637.
Published 2023
Printed in the United States of America

32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 1 2 3 4 5

ISBN-13: 978-0-226-82148-1 (cloth)

ISBN-13: 978-0-226-82149-8 (e-book)
DOI: https://doi.org /10.7208/chicago/9780226821498.001.0001

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Johns, Adrian, author.

Title: The science of reading : information, media, and mind in
modern America / Adrian Johns.
Description: Chicago ; London : The University of Chicago Press,
2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022026310 | ISBN 9780226821481 (cloth) |
ISBN 9780226821498 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Reading, Psychology of—Research—United
States—History. | Reading—Research—History.
Classification: LCC BF456.R2 J65 2023 | DDC 418/.4—dc23/
eng/20220715
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022026310

♾ This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/ NISO Z39.48-1992

(Permanence of Paper).
For Zoe
 Contents

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction: The Mysterious Art of Reading 1

1 A New Science 29

2 The Work of the Eye 65

3 Reading, Looking, and Learning in Chicago 115

4 What Books Did to Readers 169

5 Readability, Intelligence, and Race 207

6 You’re Not as Smart as You Could Be 229

7 Exploring Readers 271

8 Reading Wars and Science Wars 323

9 Readers, Machines, and an

Information Revolution 375

Conclusion: Reading, Science, and History 417

Notes 429
Index 469
 Acknowledgments

This book was largely written during 2020– 21 under the constraints of
the COVID-19 pandemic. But I have been thinking about the themes that
it addresses for some years— decades, in fact. I initially started reflecting
on the science of reading back in the mid-1990s, when I was a research
fellow at Downing College in Cambridge (a research fellowship is roughly
equivalent to a postdoctoral fellowship in the United States). That gave
rise to a chapter on “the physiology of reading” in my first book, The Na-
ture of the Book (1998). The period that that book dealt with was the sev-
enteenth century, however, long before modern scientific research enter-
prises came into being. Since then I have returned to the topic every so
often, wondering about how people in later times conceived of the prac-
tice and impact of reading and how their conceptions affected cultural
experiences. For the most part, those reflections took the form of talks
rather than publications. They did range increasingly widely, however,
and eventually they extended into the modern era. Once or twice I even
dared to mention neuroscience. The notion of writing in earnest about
the topic came to seem a real possibility, if still a remote one.
For the stimulus to develop all those piecemeal ideas into a book I
must thank Paula McDowell of NYU. In the spring of 2020, just days before
New York locked down, Paula ran a conference on the theme of Marshall
McLuhan as a reader, and she invited me to give a keynote speech. It was
a gamble on her part given that I had been professionally under the radar
since the death of my wife in 2016. But it worked out: I found myself bitten

ix
 x Acknowledgmen ts

by the research bug once again. I followed the science of reading down a
rabbit hole, reaching back from McLuhan’s rendezvous with Samuel Ren-
shaw (for which, see chapter 7) to, at one end, James McKeen Cattell and
Edmund Burke Huey, and, at the other, the strange contemporary tech-
nology of “machine reading.” So my first gratitude is to Paula for making
possible my own version of Berlioz’s Lélio— a return to intellectual life.
It so happened that that conference happened just before I began a
period of research leave. This sabbatical, which ran from July 2020 to June
2021, occurred thanks to a grant from the National Endowment for the
Humanities (FEL-267420-20) and additional support from the Univer-
sity of Chicago. I am extremely grateful to both. Without the freedom to
concentrate wholly on this project without the distractions of teaching,
administration, and pandemic-avoidance, it could never have been sub-
stantially begun, let alone completed. As it was, I was able to retreat from
the world and submerge myself in the extensive and often odd literature
of the science of reading.
The first tentative version of this book was completed on the day of
the presidential election in November 2020. Karen Darling at the Univer-
sity of Chicago Press then took it in hand. She saw its potential immedi-
ately. That it eventually appeared in this form is a tribute to her editorial
prowess. She and I have worked together for some years on the Press’s
science.culture series, and it would be impossible to imagine a better col-
laborator. I am also very grateful to both the outside readers— I have no
idea who they were— to whom she sent the manuscript. They not only
agreed to read through the whole thing but also provided a number of ex-
traordinarily acute observations, both on what the text said and on what
it neglected to say. The final version has been improved immeasurably
thanks to their insights.
Other than that, my debts are mainly general ones, for conversations
undertaken over many years. It would be possible and warranted to list
hundreds of such occasions. I have been at the University of Chicago since
2001, and the community there has been a constant source of inspiration.
I am especially thankful to Bob Richards, who is a truly extraordinary hu-
man being, generous and humane to an extent that few can match. James
Evans has been a constant friend and coworker on allied topics, espe-
cially those to do with the information sciences. And although they won’t
 Acknowledgmen ts xi

recognize their contributions, I want to signal my appreciation for impor-

tant critical insights I gleaned from conversations with Mauricio Tenorio,
Michael Rossi, Susan Goldin-Meadow, and David Nirenberg. Debby Davis,
an elementary-school teacher at the University of Chicago Laboratory
Schools, in fact inspired a lot of the conceptualization and planning of
this book, although I don’t think she realized that she was doing so at
the time. Her creativity, intelligence, acute critical insight, profession-
alism, and kindness combined to make me see the interest and impor-
tance of themes that I would surely have missed otherwise. The students
at Chicago are frighteningly smart, dedicated, and imaginative, and I have
learned an immense amount from them too; I must mention here Michael
Castelle, Jillian Foley, Eric Gourevitch, Carmine Grimaldi, Alex Moffett,
Parysa Mostajir, Justin Niermeier-Dohoney, Elizabeth Sartell, Adam Sha-
piro, Joy Wattawa, and Tali Winkler, but the reality is that such a short list
represents an injustice: it is really the collective that is so extraordinary.
For advice on particular subjects I am thankful to Michael Sokal (for
Cattell), Andrew Abbott (for library sciences), and Jamie Cohen-Cole
(for psycholinguistics and the cognitive revolution). Jane Dailey pro-
vided some crucial help about issues of African American education in
the South. Norman Stahl and Douglas Hartman provided important as-
sistance on Edmund Burke Huey at a late stage. And Nate Bolt and Edwin
Hutchins were very helpful on contemporary issues of cognition, comput-
ing, and display technologies. Beyond those, I shall merely mention a few
individuals who have had especially extensive influence in a more general
sense. Steven Shapin and Dan Kevles are two senior figures who have be-
come my guiding lights over many years now; I do not think I would have
dared take on this project but for their support. Conversations with Ann
Blair, Alex Csiszar, and Lisa Gitelman over the years have been as influen-
tial on the project as their work has been on the information-history field
in general. Nancy Barnes was a greatly supportive pen pal during much of
the writing. Although Bob Brain and I did not happen to speak during the
writing of this book, his work on modernism and psychophysics has long
fascinated me— not only for its content, but for the curious, intellectually
generous way in which it is pursued. And Olena Marshall provided sharp
comments when needed, and, much more significantly, put up with me
throughout.
 xii Acknowledgmen ts

Most of the materials I used in writing The Science of Reading are

printed texts of one kind or another. A thorough exploration of the archi-
val sources for the science of reading could not be undertaken because
of the pandemic. (It is worth noting here that they are extensive— future
researchers will find a lot to fascinate them.) But I am greatly indebted to
the Special Collections Department at the University of Chicago Library,
the University Archives at Ohio State University, and the Archives at the
Cummings Center for the History of Psychology in Akron, Ohio, for per-
mission to use original materials— and even to see original instruments—
in their care. Other archives and collections supplied images and are ac-
knowledged as appropriate in picture credits.
The text of this book is almost entirely new. But along the way, early
thoughts on the broad topic have appeared in print here and there. In
particular, some parts of chapter 1 were aired in “The Physiology of Read-
ing,” in Books and the Sciences in History, ed. N. Jardine and M. Frasca-
Spada (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 291– 314; and the
story about Samuel Renshaw and Marshall McLuhan that forms part of
chapter 7 was published in “Watching Readers Reading,” Textual Practice
35, no. 9 (September 2021): 1429– 52. Otherwise nothing you read here has
appeared before.
Researching and writing a book is, for me at least, an all-consuming
activity. So I am particularly grateful to my family, David, Lizzie, Zoe, and
Benjamin, for tolerating my absence of mind during this strange time.
The last thing I will say is that producing this book has been a helter-
skelter intellectual adventure. I found myself pursuing at great speed top-
ics that were new to me, in a discipline (psychology) about which I knew
little, for a period outside my usual zone of expertise, and in a country not
my own. I heartily recommend this kind of recklessness: it can be quite
exhilarating. But I shall certainly have made mistakes, and I want to stress
that, however embarrassing they may be, they are my own responsibility.
 Introduction
The Mysterious Art of Reading

Reading is a good thing. We like to believe that it is a fundamental ele-

ment of any modern, enlightened, and free society. We may even think of
it as the fundamental element. It has long been standard to identify the
emergence of contemporary virtues like democracy, secularism, science,
and tolerance with the spread of literacy that occurred in the wake of Jo-
hannes Gutenberg’s invention of printing in the fifteenth century. And of
course we maintain that the ability to read successfully is functionally es-
sential for anyone who wishes to become a fully actualized, participating
citizen in the modern world. Almost nobody nowadays would argue that
reading is anything but a beneficial and intrinsically meritorious prac-
tice for everyone. If there is one practice that unites the most elevated
moral reflections on modernity with the most quotidian of everyday ex-
periences, reading is it.
All of us who are literate— and it is worth remembering for a moment
that many even in the developed world are not— have, of course, learned
to become so. Reading, as one of its first scientific investigators pointed
out, is not natural. No nonhuman creature has ever done it, as far as we
know. And yet, “this habit,” as Edmund Burke Huey marveled in 1908, “has
become the most striking and important artificial activity to which the
human race has ever been moulded.” Huey was surely right in that arrest-
ing realization. And the questions that forced themselves upon his mind
in consequence of it were surely the appropriate ones too. Since reading
is unnatural, he asked, “What are the unusual conditions and function-

1
 2 In troduction

ings that are enforced upon the organism in reading? Just what, indeed,
do we do, with eye and mind and brain and nerves, when we read?”1 Ap-
parently simple, these questions are in fact deep and complex; and they
are extremely difficult to answer. They require not only sophisticated psy-
chological and physiological concepts but stances on such matters as the
mind-body relationship and the nature of knowledge itself. All of science
and philosophy, we might almost say, are implicit in them. That is surely
why, Huey observed, in ancient times reading was accounted “one of the
most mysterious of the arts,” and why its operation was still accounted
“almost as good as a miracle” even in his own day. And yet, starting in
about 1870, generations of scientists did take on Huey’s questions. The Sci-
ence of Reading is about the rise and fall— and subsequent rise again— of
the enterprise these scientists created to answer them.
Huey posed those questions at the beginning of what was the first ma-
jor book in this new science to be published in America. The Psychology
and Pedagogy of Reading first appeared in 1908 and proved to have ex-
traordinary longevity. It was reissued several times in the next two de-
cades, it was reprinted again by MIT Press in 1968 as a classic of cognitive
science, and it enjoyed a new edition as recently as 2009. The volume is
valuable as a gateway into the subject of this book, not only because of
its prominence in the field, which is unrivaled, but also because Huey
was remarkably and explicitly reflective about the cultural concerns that
underpinned his new science and gave it its purpose. I shall say more
about this in chapters 1 and 2, but for now it is useful simply to call to
mind the historical distance that separates readers today from those
whom Huey investigated in the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen-
turies. Although the questions that he posed in his research were in one
sense naturalistic— that is, they were questions about the properties of
readers considered as human beings in general, independent of time and
place— Huey was well aware that what made those questions meaning-
ful were contemporary contexts both large and small. He was writing in
the era of the first mass education and the first mass democracy. Indus-
trialization and the Gilded Age had given rise to giant capitalist institu-
tions that transformed perceptions of society and people’s places in it.
Telegraphy and telephony were transforming communications, and ra-
dio would soon do so even more. The mass-circulation newspaper was
changing how people thought about themselves, their privacy, and that
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