Treatise on Geomorphology The Foundations of

Geomorphology 1st Edition Antony R. Orme And Dorothy

Sack (Eds.) Pdf Download

https://ebookfinal.com/download/treatise-on-geomorphology-the-
foundations-of-geomorphology-1st-edition-antony-r-orme-and-dorothy-
sack-eds/

★★★★★
4.9 out of 5.0 (16 reviews )

DOWNLOAD PDF

ebookfinal.com
Treatise on Geomorphology The Foundations of Geomorphology
1st Edition Antony R. Orme And Dorothy Sack (Eds.) Pdf
Download

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

Collection Highlights

Geomorphology and Plate Tectonics 1st Edition David M.

Ferrari

Large Rivers Geomorphology and Management 1st Edition

Avijit Gupta

Applied geomorphology theory and practice 1st Edition

Robert J. Allison

Arid and Semi Arid Geomorphology 1st Edition Andrew S.

Goudie
Fundamentals of Geomorphology Fundamentals of Physical
Geography Second Edition Richar Huggett

Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology 2nd Edition G. Mathias

Kondolf

Mathematical Morphology in Geomorphology and GISci 1st

Edition Behara Seshadri Daya Sagar

Seismic Geomorphology applications to hydrocarbon

exploration and production Geological Society Special
Publication No 277 1st Edition R. J. Davies

The Antibody Molecule From antitoxins to therapeutic

antibodies 1st Edition Antony R. Rees
Treatise on Geomorphology The Foundations of
Geomorphology 1st Edition Antony R. Orme And
Dorothy Sack (Eds.) Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Antony R. Orme and Dorothy Sack (eds.)
ISBN(s): 9780123983435, 0123983436
Edition: 1st
File Details: PDF, 51.50 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
 1.1 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology
D Sack, Ohio University, Athens, OH, USA
AR Orme, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1.1.1 Introduction to Geomorphology 1

1.1.2 Establishment of the Discipline 3
1.1.3 Cycle and Process: Early and Middle Twentieth-Century Trends 4
1.1.4 Climate and Humans: Late Twentieth and Early Twenty-First-Century Trends 5
1.1.5 Historical and Conceptual Foundations 6
1.1.5.1 The History of Geomorphology 6
1.1.5.1.1 The scientific roots of geomorphology before 1830 6
1.1.5.1.2 Major themes in British and European geomorphology in the nineteenth century 6
1.1.5.1.3 Geomorphology and nineteenth-century explorations of the American West 6
1.1.5.1.4 Geomorphology in the first half of the twentieth century 6
1.1.5.1.5 The mid-twentieth revolution in geomorphology 6
1.1.5.1.6 Geomorphology in the late twentieth century 7
1.1.5.2 Changing Concepts and Paradigms 7
1.1.5.2.1 Philosophy and theory in geomorphology 7
1.1.5.2.2 Spatial and temporal scales in geomorphology 7
1.1.5.2.3 Tectonism, climate, and geomorphology 7
1.1.5.2.4 Process in geomorphology 7
1.1.5.2.5 Denudation, planation, and cyclicity: myths, models, and reality 7
1.1.5.2.6 Sediments and sediment transport 7
1.1.5.2.7 Systems and complexity in geomorphology 7
1.1.5.2.8 Geomorphology and late Cenozoic climate change 7
1.1.5.3 Investigative Traditions and Changing Technologies 8
1.1.5.3.1 The field, the first and latest court of appeal: an Australian cratonic landscape and its wider relevance 8
1.1.5.3.2 Laboratory and experimental geomorphology: examples from fluvial and aeolian systems 8
1.1.5.3.3 Present research frontiers in geomorphology 8
1.1.5.3.4 Geomorphology for future societies 8
References 8

Abstract

Geomorphology, the study of landforms and their formative processes, is a multidisciplinary field most strongly associated
with the geographical and geological sciences. It encompasses numerous subfields of specialization that are not necessarily
mutually exclusive. Like all disciplines, what geomorphology is like today derives in part from the practitioners, ideas,
controversies, and events involved in its development. This paper presents a brief perspective and overview of the history of
geomorphology as an introduction to the subsequent chapters in the volume, each of which focuses on a specific period of
the discipline’s history or on concepts that have figured prominently in its past development or current status. A brief
summary of the following 18 papers in this volume provides insight into the range of ideas and methods that are engaged
in the theory and practice of geomorphology. The volume as a whole provides historical and thematic context for the
subsequent volumes in the Treatise on Geomorphology.

1.1.1 Introduction to Geomorphology and approaches from physics, chemistry, biology, math-
ematics, and engineering, in addition to the two parent dis-
Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and ciplines with which it is most closely aligned – geography and
land-forming processes. It is a multidisciplinary and inter- geology. Almost any scientific method or technique that may
disciplinary field involving knowledge, methods, techniques, contribute to a better understanding of the different types of
landforms, how and why they form, and how and why indi-
vidual examples of a given type vary in space and time,
is welcome within the discipline of geomorphology. By con-
Sack, D., Orme, A.R., 2013. Introduction to the foundations of
vention, methodological exceptions seem only to consist
geomorphology. In: Shroder, J. (Editor in Chief), Orme, A.R., Sack, D.
(Eds.), Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 1, of actions that might directly or indirectly harm organisms,
The Foundations of Geomorphology, pp. 1–10. especially those above the microscale, and actions that destroy

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00001-4 1

2 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology

or seriously mar the landforms themselves. Indeed, two of the (e.g., Baker and Milton, 1974; Baker, 2001; Bourke et al.,
more compelling aspects of geomorphology are the inter- 2010). Rather than being remote and irrelevant, determining
actions between landforms and people, and the aesthetic ap- how natural forces and materials interact under constraints
peal of the landforms themselves. different from those on Earth contributes to a better under-
Most geomorphologists today specialize in one or perhaps standing of common processes within the solar system
a few of its many topical subfields. Various criteria have been (Mouginis-Mark and Rowland, 2001). Earth-based geo-
used in designating geomorphic subfields. For example, flu- morphic knowledge helps scientists to interpret present
vial, aeolian, coastal, and glacial geomorphologies focus on and past environmental conditions on other planets and
one of the geomorphic agents (flowing water, wind, waves, moons (e.g., Parker and Currey, 2001; Bourke et al., 2008;
and moving ice, respectively). To this list can be added sub- Szynkiewicz et al., 2010); conversely, observations from other
fields related to other exogenic geomorphic processes or sets of celestial bodies help scientists to understand better the pro-
processes that originate at or near Earth’s surface, including cesses and evolution of conditions on Earth (Inbar and Risso,
weathering, solution (karst), and mass wasting. Some sub- 2001). Knowledge derived from extraterrestrial bodies, and at
fields are based on a geographical or environmental criterion, spatial and temporal scales different from Earth, is important
such as climate type, topographic position, or the role of or- for two major reasons: first, it helps to assuage human curi-
ganisms. These criteria can be associated with specific types of osity about worlds beyond Earth, and, second, it may help to
landforms or suites of landforms and processes that create a understand and improve Earth as a habitat for people. As with
distinctive landscape. Examples are the geomorphologies of all lines of inquiry, what may seem irrelevant today may be-
arid, semiarid, and humid tropical lands, of glacial and peri- come very relevant in the future.
glacial (cryospheric) environments, of mountains and hill- Most of the multivolume Treatise on Geomorphology
slopes, of submarine, coastal, and lacustrine environments, pertains to the present state of the science, emphasizing the
and of soils and various biological habitats and phenomena. extent of current geomorphic knowledge and the established
Karst, structural, volcanic, tectonic, and neotectonic geo- and developing methods and techniques in its wide array of
morphologies represent the more strictly geologic criteria of subfields. This compendium would be incomplete if it did not
lithology and endogenic processes originating within the present, at the outset, major aspects of the history of geo-
Earth. This list reveals that subfields are not always discrete, morphology and discussions of important concepts and
mutually exclusive segments of the discipline. Some are clas- paradigms that have impacted the field as a whole.
sified by more than one criterion (e.g., process or environment The academic disciplines of history and geomorphology
for coastal geomorphology; process or lithology for karst subscribe to similar standards of quality scholarship. As with
geomorphology); others overlap one or more subfields de- any intellectual endeavor, historical research is marked by es-
rived by different criteria (e.g., aeolian geomorphology over- tablished methods and evolving trends. Historians of science
laps that of arid lands and coasts). Still other designations may seek to maintain standards of quality and integrity common to
apply. Whether a geomorphologist tends to emphasize rela- both history and science. The current state of a discipline de-
tively short-term events, or largely ahistorical processes, or pends in part on its history, as it actually happened; the his-
long-term landform change is another common distinction, torical account of a discipline, however, also relies on the
which may be labeled as applied, or process, or Quaternary perspective of the historian. The latter will be colored to some
(late Cenozoic) geomorphology, respectively. Another char- extent by the historian’s own time and by the challenge of
acterization may distinguish between geomorphologists who seeking to comprehend the contemporary context of the past
specialize in field, experimental, or theoretical aspects of the concepts (Tinkler, 1985; Herries Davies, 1989). Historians
discipline. Multiple appellations, for example, a fluvial process endeavor to minimize the biases introduced by this temporal
geomorphologist or an arid-lands Quaternary geomorph- difference so as not to judge past researchers and their work
ologist, are typical for many practitioners. Any modifier that on the basis of present knowledge, concepts, and perspectives.
helps to communicate a particular mix of geomorphic inter- Standards of quality scholarship decry distorting, selectively
ests and expertise is acceptable. sampling, or revising history, whether for purposes of propa-
Geomorphologists seek answers to a wide variety of ques- ganda, persuasion, celebration, or other reasons, in the same
tions about landforms and land-forming processes over a great way that standards in science decry misrepresentation of re-
range of spatial and temporal scales (Schumm and Lichty, search data. Like other investigators, historians labor to collect
1965; Schumm, 1991). Ultimately the goals of this work must the highest quality data and to analyze data sets with object-
relate to the people who live within Earth’s geomorphic sys- ivity. As in other fields, results of historical analyses continue
tem. Human actions can affect many aspects of this system, to be refined as more data are collected and new questions
whose many elements in turn impact people, sometimes asked, and scholars’ interpretations of historical research re-
catastrophically. sults can vary.
Until recently, with few exceptions (e.g., Gilbert, 1893), The discipline of geomorphology is what it is today in large
geomorphologists approached their field quite literally and part because of what it was and what it was not in the past
focused on Earth’s surface landforms and landscapes. How- (Herries Davies, 1989). History provides context, perspective,
ever, as imagery of other planets and moons within the solar and explanation for the current state of a discipline (Tuttle,
system has become increasingly available, and sample data 1970; Herries Davies and Orme, 1989; Richards, 1995;
have been collected directly from the surfaces of Earth’s moon Sack, 2002). Just as past geomorphic notions were products of
and Mars, geomorphology has expanded to encompass the their time, so are current geomorphic concepts products
study of landforms and processes on other celestial bodies of the combined intellectual, technological, sociological, and
 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology 3

historical context of the present (Sack, 2002). The goal of this construction (see Chapter 1.2). The work of engineers such as
first volume of the Treatise of Geomorphology is to provide an Chézy, du Buat, and Coulomb in eighteenth-century France,
understanding of the historical and conceptual foundations of and their contemporaries elsewhere in Europe, was to become
the discipline as it exists today, and a framework within which critical to the advance of process studies in geomorphology.
to evaluate the past, present, and future of geomorphology. Increasingly, the evidence from relatively fresh landforms
and unlithified sediment suggested to observers that major
environmental changes, such as the waxing and waning of
1.1.2 Establishment of the Discipline glaciers (e.g., Agassiz, 1840), had also occurred in more recent
Earth history (see Chapter 1.3). Darwin’s (1859) theory of
Landforms constitute a fundamental component of the natural selection virtually ended the constraints on time,
human habitat; therefore observations, hypotheses, and ex- hitherto imposed by Judeo-Christian beliefs, by highlighting
planations regarding landforms must have started in some that species naturally change over time and by providing an
basic way early in human history (Martin and James, 1993). indication of the amount of time it could take to effect the
Distinguishing individual terrain features is an important as- changes evident in fossils preserved in the rock record. As
pect of even local land navigation, and recognizing different notions of catastrophism and a strict biblical interpretation of
examples of a given type of landform, a river or lake, for ex- Earth’s age fell away, a majority of geologists set to work on
ample, would have been a key element in resource acquisition. interpreting the environmental history of the Earth from that
Records show that scholars from ancient Greece and, during rock record. And where that rock record was missing, they
the first millennium of the Common Era, from China and speculated about how the landforms developed on older rocks
southwest Asia, observed, described, and explained the be- had developed.
havior of various terrain features (Chorley et al., 1964; Martin Within geomorphology, the second half of the nineteenth
and James, 1993). Early mariners from around the world used century brought a flurry of field observations, and explan-
their understanding of tides, waves, and currents to navigate ations were formulated to explain the landforms and sedi-
successfully by sea. ments that seemingly reflect the more recent events of Earth
The intellectual origins of geomorphology are closely history. Mountain building, stream action, marine planation,
interwoven with those of geology, from which the study of weathering, and many other topics received considerable at-
landforms largely arose. ‘‘There is general agreement that tention, and theories were advanced to explain the impact of
during the eighteenth century geology ‘came of age’ and such controls on various landscapes (Chorley et al., 1964).
emerged in a form resembling the modern discipline by the The prominent role of climate change in recent Earth history
early decades of the nineteenth century’’ (Tinkler, 1989: 37). was also becoming appreciated from the vast evidence for
The earlier medieval and Renaissance periods in Europe, formerly extensive glaciers and the now dry lakes in areas of
however, were not devoid of geologic and geomorphic ideas, Asia, Africa, and North America (e.g., Gilbert, 1890).
including those of Leonardo da Vinci (Tinkler, 1985), and In the United States, especially after the American Civil War
Davies (1969) presents a wealth of information on British (1861–65), government-sponsored field explorations took
geomorphic notions from the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- teams of surveyors and naturalists, including geologists, from
turies (see Chapter 1.2). Then the Industrial Revolution, be- the humid eastern part of the country on expeditions to in-
ginning in eighteenth-century England, and the interest in the ventory the resources of the more arid West, where sparse
coal and iron to drive it forward, stimulated new observations vegetation enabled geologic structures, sediments, and land-
and hypotheses about rocks, stratigraphy, speciation, and the forms to be more readily observed. The eminent geomorph-
history of Earth. Ideas expressed in the intellectual, economic, ologist G.K. Gilbert (1843–1918) worked early in his career as
and social environment of the late eighteenth and early a geologist on surveys led by Wheeler and by Powell, and was
nineteenth centuries by geologists, like Hutton, Playfair, Hall, also stimulated by his understanding of advances in fluid
and Lyell, galvanized scholars with an interest in Earth history dynamics (see Chapter 1.4). The wealth of new geologic and
into a broad intellectual community. That community grap- geomorphic data encountered on these western field surveys
pled with interrelated questions concerning Earth’s age, the greatly stimulated American interest in and ideas on geology
relative roles of great cataclysms (catastrophism) versus pro- and geomorphology, and helped to encourage the establish-
cesses similar to those seen today (uniformitarianism) in ment of the US Geological Survey in 1879.
landform development, the environmental and biological Reconstructing Earth’s geologic history from the consoli-
changes evident in the consolidated rock record, and the dated rock record was still a major focus within the academic
challenges of field evidence to traditional belief systems. discipline of geology in the second half of the nineteenth-
This interest in geology was not, however, the only foun- century. Landforms and unconsolidated surface sediment,
dation of geomorphology. As the Industrial Revolution pro- however, generally represent the more recent episodes of
gressed, so the need to transport goods by water (initially by geologic time, and thus were considered elements of the
river, later by canal, and then by railway), and to bring modern, physical geographic, or more simply the physio-
potable water to growing towns, led to rapid advances in graphic (Huxley, 1877), environment, as opposed to the much
hydraulic and civil engineering, and with it a broader concern older, lithified elements of the geological environment. Yet
for hydrology and slope stability problems. These needs with geography just starting to emerge as a separate academic
in turn led to major advances in the understanding of fluid discipline in European universities, and departments of
dynamics and soil and hillslope mechanics among practicing geography nonexistent in USA before 1899 (Martin and James,
engineers, especially with respect to canal and railway 1993), the study of landforms tended to remain associated
4 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology

with geology. In Britain, the study of landforms was referred to of his day, the biological theory of evolution (Judson, 1960).
as geological physiography (the geological elements of phys- For this and other reasons (Higgins, 1974; Sack, 1991), Davis’s
ical geography) in the 1860s (Davies, 1969), and in USA, theory became immensely popular and remained so until
Dana (1863) used the term physiographic geology (the about the middle of the twentieth century.
physical geographic elements of geology) in essentially the Although Davis was a member of Harvard’s geology de-
same way to denote the study of landforms (Stoddart, 1975). partment, his theory popularized landform studies, which was
However, in his influential book on the subject, Huxley considered equivalent to physical geography and/or physi-
(1877) clearly saw physiography encompassing many more ography. Davis became widely known as a geographer and a
aspects of the natural environment than just landforms. Be- physiographer or geomorphologist. He championed the es-
cause the landform component was the principal element of tablishment of independent academic departments of geog-
physiography with which geologists were likely to work, it is raphy, organizations of professional geographers, and
perhaps understandable that the study of landforms came to standards of geographic education in American schools (e.g.,
be known simply as physiography, instead of geological Davis, 1893, 1895; Chorley et al., 1973). Initially linked pri-
physiography or physiographical geology. marily with landform studies, academic geography came to
The term geomorphology did not come into general use embrace all aspects of physical geography, and then to expand
until about 1890 (McGee, 1888; Tinkler, 1985), although it into the realm of human geography. Based in part on Davis’
may have first appeared in German in the 1850s (Roglic, role in the establishment of geography departments in USA,
1972). By the end of the nineteenth century, however, geo- geomorphology continues to form a fundamental component
morphology was being used synonymously with the terms of American geography. American geologists, however, did not
physiography and physical geography to describe the study of abandon landform studies (Bryan, 1950), which continued
landforms (Gilbert, 1902). Geomorphology and physical to be associated with that discipline. However, repeated at-
geography ceased to function as acceptable synonyms after tempts to distinguish between geological geomorphology
academic departments of geography became more numerous and geographical geomorphology (Bryan, 1941; Russell, 1949,
in the first decades of the twentieth century and the academic 1958; Wooldridge, 1956; Zakrzewska, 1967) had little lasting
content of physical geography became more clearly estab- impact.
lished as encompassing meteorology, climatology, bio-
geography, and soil science, as well as the study of landforms.
The term physiography, however, persisted to some extent as a 1.1.3 Cycle and Process: Early and Middle
synonym for geomorphology, especially in the United States Twentieth-Century Trends
(Stoddart, 1975), but confusion long continued as to whether
the term represented all of physical geography, or the (geo- Davis’s theory of the geographical cycle, also known as the
graphical) study of landforms, or regionalized associations of cycle of erosion, dominated geomorphology, especially in
multiple physical geographic elements including landforms USA, well into the twentieth century (see Chapter 1.5). It also
(Fenneman, 1931, 1938; Hunt, 1974). From this confusion, had strong advocates in other, particularly anglophone,
geomorphology gradually emerged as the dominant term for countries, during this time (e.g., Cotton, 1941; Wooldridge,
the study of landforms. 1955), but every country’s perspective on geomorphology is
One reason for the interchangeability of the terms geo- uniquely colored by its own terrain, history, and personalities
morphology, physiography, and physical geography at the (Jennings, 1973). Other theories regarding landform and
beginning of the twentieth century was the profound influence landscape change were to be suggested, notably by German
of the American scholar William Morris Davis (1850–1934). geologist Penck (1924) and by geomorphologist King (1950,
Davis was a Harvard-educated geologist with a master’s degree 1953) in South Africa, yet Davis’s theory remained the most
in mining engineering. He was hired by Harvard’s geology widely embraced. Nevertheless, Davis’s qualitative, descriptive,
department in 1878 to teach physical geography courses in historical (i.e., evolutionary) approach to landform studies
landforms and meteorology (Chorley et al., 1973). In 1883, experienced some contemporary criticism even within USA
with his career foundering, Davis returned from summer field (e.g., Tarr, 1898; Shaler, 1899; Smith, 1899; Marks, 1913;
observations in the western USA inspired and armed with a Crickmay, 1933), and a minority, including some engineers,
new perspective on landforms and landscape change over worked on geomorphic processes from outside the Davisian
time. He called his theory the geographical cycle – the ad- perspective (e.g., Andersson, 1906; Fenneman, 1908; Gilbert,
jective ‘geographical’ would have been an appropriate label at 1914; Lawson, 1915; Leighly, 1934; Hjulström, 1935; Rubey
the time. Davis (1889, 1899) theorized that the geomorphic 1938; Bagnold, 1941; Matthes, 1941; Horton, 1945). Most
appearance of a landscape is controlled by its geologic struc- notably, Davis’s respected contemporary, geologist G.K. Gil-
ture, the processes at work, and a time element or stage of bert used a quantitative mechanics-based approach to geo-
development. Assuming tectonic stability, he assumed that an morphic inquiry Gilbert (1877, 1904). His approach was
initial geologic structure, being acted on by processes in- more inductive and he sought observations from several ex-
volving gravity and water, would change in predictable and amples of a feature before venturing specific explanations for
discernible ways over long periods of time through the prin- generic types of landform. In contrast, Davisian geomorph-
cipal stages of youth, maturity, and old age. By incorporating ologists, more deductively, began from the generic premise of
terminology from the life cycle of an organism into his theory the geographical cycle, commonly using it to describe how a
of landscape development, Davis connected his geomorphic given location was thought to represent that model (e.g.,
ideas to the most prominent and influential scientific theory Davis, 1899).
 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology 5

Beginning in the 1930s, growing discontent with Davisian applied to data collection and processing, fresh data and
geomorphology led to an increase in the number of process- models to be incorporated into tectonics and climate change,
oriented geomorphic studies (see Chapter 1.6; also Hack, and evolving geochronologies based on new methods inte-
1960; Chorley, 1965; Flemal, 1971; Tinkler, 1985). World War grated with geomorphic scenarios. New ideas, data, methods,
II may have interrupted the trajectory of this trend but it also models, and interpretations are of course a continuing feature
demonstrated the need for a more practical understanding of of any vibrant science.
the nature and measurement of the processes affecting land- The above advances were often defined at the time by the
forms. Davisian geomorphology, for example, could con- rubric ‘quantitative revolution.’ In reality, the move toward
tribute little toward a useful understanding of coastal quantification embraced everything that was happening. The
dynamics on the beaches of Normandy and Pacific islands. demand for numeracy and mathematical competence, for ac-
After the war, this impatience with the Davisian approach to curacy and precision in measurement, and for statistical test-
geomorphology was articulated most notably by Strahler ing embraced all aspects. Process geomorphology lent itself
(1950a, b, 1952), who also argued that it be replaced by a readily to the concepts and terminology of systems analysis
science-based, quantitative-dynamic approach to geomorph- (Leopold and Langbein, 1962), including the notion of in-
ology. Strahler (1950a, 1952) recognized that the process- ternal and external thresholds (Schumm, 1979). Predomin-
oriented approach he was advocating had already been used antly exogenic processes – fluvial, hillslope, coastal, aeolian,
successfully by a relatively small group of engineers and glacial, and periglacial – were enthusiastically observed,
geomorphologists, including geologist Gilbert and geog- measured, recreated, assessed quantitatively, and analyzed
rapher Leighly, whose work was highly respected. statistically, with particular attention paid to fluvial geo-
Strahler (1952) also used terminology from thermodynamic morphology (e.g., Leopold et al., 1964). The introduction of
systems in describing his vision of the new geomorphology, radiocarbon dating and other radiometric techniques to Earth
and referenced von Bertalanffy’s (1950a, b) more expan- science in the 1950s occurred around the time that better
sive concept of general systems theory (Sack, 1992). Sub- support for climate change, including oxygen-isotope data,
sequent contributions by Hack (1960) and Chorley (1962) began emerging from deep-sea cores, ice cores, lake sediments,
helped to establish G.K. Gilbert as the archetypal process and loess (e.g., Arrhenius, 1952; Dansgaard, 1954; Emiliani,
geomorphologist, and to integrate into the reconfigured 1955; Horberg, 1955; Libby, 1955; Cox et al., 1963). In es-
discipline the notion of systems and systems terminology sence, the midcentury revolutions led geomorphologists to
(Sack, 1992). bifurcate into those who vigorously resurrected process stud-
A convenient date for this major change in the approach to ies, and those who pursued the honorable timebound tradi-
geomorphology is 1950, but the truth is that it began slowly tion of understanding landscape change, but now armed with
long before that year and occurred gradually over several better dating methods.
decades (see Chapter 1.6; also Ritter, 1988; Antony Orme,
2007). Davisian-style qualitative geomorphology could still be
found in some colleges and universities into the 1970s, and 1.1.4 Climate and Humans: Late Twentieth and
persisted even longer in many introductory physical geog- Early Twenty-First-Century Trends
raphy textbooks. Most geomorphologists who received ad-
vanced degrees in the 1960s and 1970s, however, were By the late 1970s, with the Davisian hegemony now a fading
enthusiastic proponents of process geomorphology and crit- memory, studies of geomorphic processes were becoming
ical of the outmoded, historically oriented Davisian approach. more sophisticated (see Chapter 1.7), whereas the promise of
Although the study of long-term landscape change and short- improved geochronologic control encouraged increasing
term geomorphic processes are really end members in the numbers of scholars to visit or revisit issues of landform de-
spectrum of geomorphology (Chorley, 1962; Schumm and velopment during Holocene and Pleistocene time, and indeed
Lichty, 1965), in seeking to break from the Davisian approach, to penetrate more widely into paleoenvironmental re-
process geomorphology became the more fashionable constructions and farther back into Cenozoic time (e.g., Lan-
endeavor. caster, 1979; Street and Grove, 1979; Currey, 1980). The
The movement toward process geomorphology was but relevancy of landform and sediment evidence to paleoclimate
one component in the revolution that swept through geo- reconstructions had long been appreciated, especially with
morphology during the mid-twentieth century. These revo- respect to glacial and lake archives (e.g., Agassiz, 1840; Russell,
lutions embraced quantification and statistics, process studies, 1885; Gilbert, 1890; Blackwelder, 1931; Antevs, 1948; see also
theoretical constructs, plate tectonics, climate change, and Chapter 1.13), but this type of work took on a new intensity in
geochronology (see Chapter 1.6). The revolution began with the 1980s when improvements in computing power enabled
the acceptance of Horton’s important concepts regarding more sophisticated modeling. The Climate: Long Range In-
drainage-basin organization and processes in 1945, pro- vestigation, Mapping, and Prediction (CLIMAP) project gen-
gressed through the advocacy of Strahler (1950a, b, 1952) for erated much excitement about the prospect of modeling past
a more quantitative, dynamic, and systems-oriented geo- and future climates (CLIMAP, 1976, 1981). Such studies
morphology, and could be said to have culminated with the showcased the key role of late Cenozoic landform and sedi-
publication of a seminal work on fluvial processes by Leopold, ment evidence in paleoclimate reconstructions, and that work
Wolman, and Miller in 1964. As with most revolutions, has benefited further from the development of cosmogenic
however, there were doubters who lingered into the 1970s, and optically stimulated dating techniques. As atmospheric
refinements that needed to be made, technical advances to be scientists continue to decipher the nature of relatively
6 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology

short-term (e.g., decadal) climatic oscillations, geomorph- 1.1.5.1 The History of Geomorphology
ologists are investigating the direct or indirect effects of those
1.1.5.1.1 The scientific roots of geomorphology before
and other climatic variables on glaciers, permafrost, rivers,
1830
hillslopes, and coasts. More research has been undertaken, for
Antony Orme outlines the field from the distant historic past
example, to document historic changes in glaciers and to
to early modern time, and then focuses on the twin foun-
compare those changes with elements of the climate record,
dations of the discipline between 1600 and 1830. One foun-
notable for the past millennium whose changes may serve as a
dation was the historical or geological approach to Earth
useful predictor for future change (Grove, 1988). Much of this
science that came to be linked with the conflicting hypotheses
effort has been instigated by the specter of global environ-
of catastrophism and uniformitarianism. The other foun-
mental change, and it is fitting that this has been a time of
dation lay in the espousal of classical mechanics by applied
increasing international collaboration in research, publi-
scientists and engineers who established the principles of fluid
cation, and professional intercourse within geomorphology,
dynamics and soil mechanics, but whose entry into main-
reflecting the trend in science as a whole.
stream geomorphology was long delayed.
In recent decades, considerable attention has been directed
toward those aspects of geomorphology that are relevant to
people. This theme is a two-way process, involving both the 1.1.5.1.2 Major themes in British and European
direct and indirect effects of people on the geomorphic en- geomorphology in the nineteenth century
vironment and effect of the geomorphic environment on Andrew Goudie evaluates the flood of geomorphic obser-
people (see Chapter 1.19). Concern about human actions vations and ideas emerging from Europe and European
changing Earth’s climate through greenhouse gas emissions scholars overseas between 1830, which saw Lyell’s Principles
has been accompanied by concern about the impact of human published, and 1900. He organizes coherent themes, based on
activities on other elements of the Earth system. A major effort the acceptance of Glacial Theory and the seeds of climatic
in geomorphology has focused on the impact of people on geomorphology sewn by studies of loess, deserts, coral reefs,
stream systems (e.g., Graf et al., 2002). Studies have con- and tropical weathering. He compares marine and fluvial
sidered the effects of dams, dam removal, artificial channeli- processes, and the latter’s acceptance as the primary cause of
zation, urbanization, agriculture, logging, mining, road landscape denudation, and discusses rock decay and karst, and
construction, and other human actions on streams (e.g., aspects of mountain building.
Steiger et al., 1998; Surian and Rinaldi, 2003). Attempts have
been made to return some streams or stream segments to a 1.1.5.1.3 Geomorphology and nineteenth-century
condition similar to natural streams. explorations of the American West
Technological developments over recent decades have Dorothy Sack discusses the exploration, mapping, and re-
changed several aspects of field and experimental geomorph- source inventories conducted in the West, primarily by ex-
ology (see Chapter 1.7). Refinement and increased availability peditions funded by the US government. Expeditions
of global positioning systems (GPS), geographic information discussed include those of Lewis and Clark (1804–06), army
systems (GIS), digital maps and imagery, and other tools have topographic engineers (1840–60), and those of Hayden,
reconfigured the means by which geomorphologists acquire, Wheeler, and Powell between 1867 and 1879. The author
display, and analyze data. Geomorphologists, however, also traces the principal geomorphic notions associated with these
continue to ponder the methodological and theoretical expeditions and their meaning for American geomorphology,
framework by which they approach geomorphic problems. focusing mainly on the northeast Great Basin and the early
Ongoing themes include notions of system complexity and work of Gilbert.
questions about whether simplification of circumstances and
isolation of variables provide any truly meaningful results. 1.1.5.1.4 Geomorphology in the first half of the twentieth
century
David Oldroyd evaluates the scientific and philosophical
1.1.5 Historical and Conceptual Foundations context of the Davisian cycle of erosion, geomorphology’s
dominant paradigm from 1890 to 1940. The work of Powell,
Following this introduction, the volume on The Foundations Dutton, and Gilbert in the American West gave Davis many
of Geomorphology addresses three principal themes: (1) six ideas, which he shaped into a compelling model of landscape
chapters on the history of the discipline; (2) eight chapters evolution from youth through maturity to old age. The model
on changing concepts and paradigms, or theoretical issues, was applied to many landscapes, and generated alternative
within geomorphology; and (3) four chapters on certain in- schemes, but increasing dissatisfaction with it encouraged
vestigative traditions, past, present, and future. The historical others to revive Gilbert’s approach to studies of process and
themes in the first segment select themselves sequentially, with pave the way for the coming quantitative revolution.
individuals defining a focus based on their leanings and ex-
perience. The second and third segments are more selective, 1.1.5.1.5 The mid-twentieth revolution in geomorphology
addressing themes with recurring significance across the dis- Amalie Jo Orme defines six components for the revolution
cipline but not seeking to cover all bases. In any case, the that swept through geomorphology between 1945 and 1970: a
Treatise of Geomorphology contains other volumes that detail quantitative and statistical element; a renewed focus on geo-
specific processes and methods, such as karst, information morphic process; a reappraisal of theoretical constructs; espousal
systems, and modeling, which are but lightly discussed here. of plate tectonics; a deeper exploration of climate-change issues;
 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology 7

and fresh approaches to geochronology. The first three com- earlier tradition and adopted Strahler’s dynamic geomorph-
ponents are discussed in some detail; the last three less so be- ology linked with physics and mechanics. This systems ap-
cause they are discussed in other chapters. This successful proach in turn gave way to a more expansive concern for
revolution had been building for many years before 1945 and nonlinear behavior (e.g., thresholds, complex response, and
by the 1970s most old ideas had withered away. chaos), and inclusion of both endogenic and exogenic pro-
cesses into models of landform evolution. Process, rather than
1.1.5.1.6 Geomorphology in the late twentieth century mechanics, has now achieved ontological primacy.
Patricia McDowell shows how, during the last decades of the
twentieth century, advances in field and laboratory techniques,
1.1.5.2.5 Denudation, planation, and cyclicity: myths,
computers, remote sensing, GIS, digital elevation models, and
models, and reality
GPS enhanced studies of fluvial, aeolian, and coastal erosion,
Antony Orme shows how the recurring themes of subaerial
sediment entrainment and transport, drainage-basin model-
denudation, planation, and cyclicity have been confounded by
ing, tectonic and planetary geomorphology, Established the-
myths and models, and often found wanting in reality. De-
ories and models were resurrected and tested using these new
nudation was known by 1800, but landscape planation has
techniques, and new theories addressed complex responses,
since been variously ascribed to the work of rivers, mass
nonlinear dynamic systems, fractal concepts, and chaos.
wasting, wind, glaciers, and the sea. Following the cycle mania
of the nineteenth century, cyclic planation was once widely
1.1.5.2 Changing Concepts and Paradigms accepted on faith but its assumptions were unrealistic. Today,
land-forming concepts must accommodate variable crustal
1.1.5.2.1 Philosophy and theory in geomorphology mobility, isostasy, climate change, and process lags.
Michael Urban examines the ways in which metaphysics,
philosophical parameters, and theoretical constructs underpin
and shape geomorphology. Tensions between process studies, 1.1.5.2.6 Sediments and sediment transport
historical approaches, systems concepts, and classification Douglas Sherman, Lisa Davis, and Steven Namikas view
issues are viewed as reflections of theoretical incongruities and sediment and sediment transport as a major foundation for
diversity of thought rather than of disciplinary fragmentation geomorphology. They define some key concepts in fluid
of the field. mechanics from the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth century,
specifically from Froude, Reynolds, Prandtl, von Kármán,
1.1.5.2.2 Spatial and temporal scales in geomorphology Nikuradse, and Rouse. They then discuss the properties and
Susan Millar illuminates geomorphology in the context of measurement of sediment, and the initiation of sediment
absolute space and time, relative space–time, and relational motion exemplified by the work of Hjulstrom, Shields, and
space–time. Long temporal scales dominated early geo- Bagnold. They recognize the major contributions of Gilbert,
morphology but the quantitative revolution of the mid- Bagnold, and Inman, to sediment transport by rivers, wind,
twentieth century caused a move toward time-independent and waves and currents, respectively.
and process-oriented studies based on recent time and small
space. Geomorphology now seeks to combine improved geo-
chronologies for longer time with enhanced understanding of 1.1.5.2.7 Systems and complexity in geomorphology
surface processes. Different variables assume varying import- David Favis-Mortlock presents a thought-provoking chapter
ance depending on the extent of the temporal and spatial that questions some basic assumptions regarding causes of
scales involved. landscape complexity. In recent decades, studies of self-or-
ganizing complex systems suggest that observable landscape
complexity need not imply an underlying complexity because
1.1.5.2.3 Tectonism, climate, and geomorphology
it may simply emerge from many local interactions. Concepts,
Antony Orme addresses the basic geomorphic premise that
such as cellular automata models, suggest that landscapes may
landforms and land-forming processes reflect interactions
behave as self-organizing complex systems but still have a
between Earth’s changing tectonic framework and its restless
generative simplicity.
atmospheric canopy. Five themes are developed: tectonism
and tectonic change; climate forcing and climate change, the
spatial implications of continental location and organization; 1.1.5.2.8 Geomorphology and late Cenozoic climate
temporal impacts of combined tectonic and climate change change
over the past 300 million years (My), since the assembly and Antony Orme evaluates interactions between geomorphology
break up of Pangea; and feedbacks to surface forms from de- and climate over the past 25 My. Primers on climatic geo-
nudation, sedimentation, isostasy, biogeochemical cycling, morphology, climate, climate change, and paleoclimatology,
and sea-level change. preface discussion of the evidence for climate change derived
from marine sediment, ice cores, lake records, loess, and sand.
1.1.5.2.4 Process in geomorphology The role of cyclic change, predicted by Croll and Milankovitch,
Bruce Rhoads details the origins, nature, and growth of the is explored for landforms and their formative processes. Lags
process approach to geomorphology, its shortcomings, and its between climate forcing and landform response, internal and
current role. With the quantitative revolution of the mid- external feedbacks, and the survival of palimpsest landscapes
twentieth century, geomorphology realigned with Gilbert’s cloud these relationships.
8 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology

1.1.5.3 Investigative Traditions and Changing Bagnold, R.A., 1941. The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Methuen,
Technologies London, 265 pp.
Baker, V.R. (Ed.), 2001. Special issue, extraterrestrial geomorphology.
1.1.5.3.1 The field, the first and latest court of appeal: Geomorphology 37, 354 pp.
an Australian cratonic landscape and its wider Baker, V.R., Milton, D.J., 1974. Erosion by catastrophic floods on Mars and Earth.
Icarus 23, 27–41.
relevance Blackwelder, E., 1931. Pleistocene glaciation in the Sierra Nevada and Basin
Rowl Twidale views fieldwork as a changing interplay between Ranges. Geological Society of America Bulletin 42, 865–922.
the eyes (observation) and the mind (received wisdom), and Bourke, M.C., Edgett, K.S., Cantor, B.A., 2008. Recent aeolian dune change on
the anomalies they present. Multiple working hypotheses and Mars. Geomorphology 94, 247–255.
repeat observations offer the most reliable and rewarding re- Bourke, M.C., Fenton, L.K., Lancaster, N. (Eds.), 2010. Special issue, planetary
dune systems. Geomorphology 121(1–2), 132 pp.
sults. The author addresses these issues from certain Australian Bryan, K., 1941. Physiography. Geology, 1888–1938, Fiftieth Anniversary Volume.
landscapes containing bornhardts, sheet fractures, and flared Geological Society of America, New York, 1–15.
slopes, and pursues their implications worldwide with respect Bryan, K., 1950. The place of geomorphology in the geographic sciences. Annals of
to tectonic instability, deep weathering, etching, unequal the Association of American Geographers 40, 196–208.
Chorley, R.J., 1962. Geomorphology and general systems theory. U.S. Geological
erosion, and reinforcement.
Survey Professional Paper 500-B, Washington, DC, 10 pp.
Chorley, R.J., 1965. A re-evaluation of the geomorphic system of W.M. Davis.
1.1.5.3.2 Laboratory and experimental geomorphology: In: Chorley, R.J., Haggett, P. (Eds.), Frontiers in Geographical Teaching.
examples from fluvial and aeolian systems Methuen, London, pp. 21–38.
Cheryl McKenna-Neuman, Peter Ashmore, and Sean Bennett Chorley, R.J., Beckinsale, R.P., Dunn, A.J., 1973. The History of the Study of
Landforms Volume 2: The Life and Work of William Morris Davis. Methuen,
discuss the history and crucial role of laboratory work and
London, 874 pp.
experimentation in geomorphology, notably the use of flumes Chorley, R.J., Dunn, A.J., Beckinsale, R.P., 1964. The History of the Study of
and wind tunnels. A wide range of laboratory equipment is Landforms Volume 1: Geomorphology before Davis. Methuen, London,
now available to quantify fluid flows, sediment transport, and 678 pp.
morphodynamics, leading to major improvements in under- CLIMAP Project Members, 1976. The surface of the ice-age Earth. Science 191,
1131–1137.
standing Earth surface processes and calibrating predictive
CLIMAP Project Members, 1981. CLIMAP Seasonal Reconstruction of the Earth’s
models for fluvial and aeolian erosion. Surface at the Last Glacial Maximum. Geological Society of America Map and
Chart Series MC-36, Boulder, CO.
1.1.5.3.3 Present research frontiers in geomorphology Cotton, C.A., 1941. Landscape as Developed by the Processes of Normal Erosion.
Andrew Plater, Melinda McDaniels, and Takashi Oguchi offer Cambridge University Press, UK, 301 pp.
Cox, A., Doell, R.R., Dalrymple, G.B., 1963. Geomagnetic polarity epochs and
landscape modeling, planetary geomorphology, and biogeo-
Pleistocene geochronometry. Nature 198, 1049–1051.
morphology as examples of the integrative, scale-transgressive Crickmay, C.H., 1933. The later stages of the cycle of erosion. Geological Magazine
nature of geomorphology. Themes at the research frontier are 70, 337–347.
aided by rapid advances in the acquisition, handling, and Currey, D.R., 1980. Coastal geomorphology of Great Salt Lake and vicinity. Utah
visualization of geomorphic data. Models of varying com- Geological and Mineral Survey Bulletin 116, 69–82.
Dana, J.D., 1863. Manual of Geology. T. Bliss, Philadelphia, 798 pp.
plexity aid hypothesis testing over a range of temporal and Dansgaard, W., 1954. The O18 abundance in freshwater. Geochemica et
spatial scales. Recent trends in geomorphology and associated Cosmochemica Acta 6, 241.
methods offer society a base from which to understand the Darwin, C., 1859. On the Origin of Species. John Murray, London, 502 pp.
implications of climate change and human impacts. Davies, G.L., 1969. The Earth in Decay. American Elsevier, New York, 390 pp.
Davies [Herries Davies], G.L., 1989. On the nature of geo-history, with reflections
on the historiography of geomorphology. In: Tinkler, K.J. (Ed.), History of
1.1.5.3.4 Geomorphology for future societies
Geomorphology: From Hutton to Hack. Unwin Hyman, London, pp. 1–10.
Antony Orme concludes Volume 1 with a perspective on the Davies (Herries Davies), G.L., Orme, A.R., 1989. Two Centuries of Earth Science,
role that geomorphology can and should play in meeting fu- 1650–1850. Clark Memorial Library. University of California, Los Angeles,
ture societal needs. Following a brief review of past and pre- 92 pp.
sent practices, future challenges to society are defined in terms Davis, W.M., 1889. The rivers and valleys of Pennsylvania. National Geographic
Magazine 1, 11–16.
of population projections, climate and sea-level change, seis- Davis, W.M., 1893. The improvement of geographical teaching. National Geographic
micity and volcanism, water resources, and land-cover and Magazine 5, 68–75.
land-use change. Future research in pure geomorphology is Davis, W.M., 1895. The need of geography in the university. Educational Review 10,
directed toward a selection of these changes. The future of 22–41.
Davis, W.M., 1899. The geographical cycle. Geographical Journal 14, 481–504.
applied geomorphology is directed toward education, engin-
Emiliani, C., 1955. Pleistocene temperatures. Journal of Geology 63, 538–578.
eering, planning, and management, all focused on environ- Fenneman, N.M., 1908. Some features of erosion by unconcentrated wash. Journal
mental problems and solutions. of Geology 16, 746–754.
Fenneman, N.M., 1931. Physiography of Western United States. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 534 pp.
References Fenneman, N.M., 1938. Physiography of Eastern United States. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 714 pp.
Flemal, R.C., 1971. The attack on the Davisian system of geomorphology: a
Agassiz, L.J., 1840. Etudes sur les Glaciers. Jent et Gassmann, Neuchâtel, 346 pp. synopsis. Journal of Geological Education 19, 3–13.
Andersson, J.G., 1906. Solifluction, a component of subaerial denudation. Journal Gilbert, G.K., 1877. Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains. US
of Geology 14, 91–112. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region,
Antevs, E., 1948. Climatic changes and pre-white man. Bulletin of the University of Washington, DC, 170 pp.
Utah 38, 168–191. Gilbert, G.K., 1890. Lake Bonneville. US Geological Survey Monograph 1, 438 pp.
Arrhenius, G., 1952. Sediment cores from the east Pacific. In: Pettersson, H. (Ed.), Gilbert, G.K., 1893. The moon’s face: a study of the origin of its features.
Swedish Deep-Sea Expedition, 1947–1948. Report 5. Elander, Göteborg, 207 pp. Philosophical Society of Washington Bulletin 12, 241–292.
 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology 9

Gilbert, G.K., 1902. John Wesley Powell. Smithsonian Institution Annual Report for Ritter, D.F., 1988. Landscape analysis and the search for geomorphic unity.
1902, 633–640. Geological Society of America Bulletin 100, 160–171.
Gilbert, G.K., 1904. Domes and dome structures of the High Sierra. Geological Roglic, J., 1972. Historical review of morphologic concepts. In: Herak, M.,
Society of America Bulletin 15, 29–36. Springfield, V.T. (Eds.), Karst: Important Karst Regions of the Northern
Gilbert, G.K., 1914. The Transportation of Debris by Running Water. US Geological Hemisphere. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1–18.
Survey Professional Paper 86, 263 pp. Rubey, W.W., 1938. The force required to move particles on a stream bed. US
Graf, W.L., Stromberg, J., Valentine, B., 2002. Rivers, dams, and willow flycatchers: Geological Survey Professional Paper 189, 121–141.
a summary of their science and policy connections. Geomorphology 47, Russell, I.C., 1885. Geologic History of Lake Lahontan. US Geological Survey
169–188. Monograph 11, 288.
Grove, J.M., 1988. The Little Ice Age. Methuen, London, 498 pp. Russell, R.J., 1949. Geographical geomorphology. Annals of the Association of
Hack, J.T., 1960. Interpretation of erosional topography in humid temperate regions. American Geographers 39, 1–11.
American Journal of Science 258A, 80–97. Russell, R.J., 1958. Geological geomorphology. Geological Society of America
Higgins, C.G., 1974. Theories of landscape development: a perspective. Bulletin 60, 1–20.
In: Melhorn, W.N., Flemal, R.C. (Eds.), Theories of Landform Development. State Sack, D., 1991. The trouble with antitheses: the case of G.K. Gilbert, geographer
University of New York, Binghamton, pp. 1–28. and educator. Professional Geographer 43, 28–37.
Hjulström, F., 1935. Studies of the morphological activity of rivers as illustrated by Sack, D., 1992. New wine in old bottles: the historiography of a paradigm change.
the River Fyris. Geological Institute of Uppsala Bulletin 25, 221–527. Geomorphology 5, 251–263.
Horberg, C.L., 1955. Radiocarbon dates and Pleistocene chronological problems in Sack, D., 2002. The educational value of the history of geomorphology.
the Mississippi Valley region. Journal of Geology 63, 278–286. Geomorphology 47, 313–323.
Horton, R.E., 1945. Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins; Schumm, S.A., 1979. Geomorphic thresholds: the concept and its applications.
hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology. Geological Society of Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 4, 485–515.
America Bulletin 56, 275–370. Schumm, S.A., 1991. To Interpret the Earth: Ten Ways to Be Wrong. Cambridge
Hunt, C.B., 1974. Natural Regions of the United States and Canada. Freeman, San University Press, Cambridge, UK, 131 pp.
Francisco, 725 pp. Schumm, S.A., Lichty, R.W., 1965. Time, space, and causality in geomorphology.
Huxley, T.H., 1877. Physiography: An Introduction to the Study of Nature. American Journal of Science 263, 110–119.
Macmillan, London, 384 pp. Shaler, N.S., 1899. Spacing of rivers with reference to hypothesis of baseleveling.
Inbar, M., Risso, C., 2001. Holocene yardangs in volcanic terrains in the southern Geological Society of America Bulletin 10, 263–276.
Andes, Argentina. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 26, 657–666. Smith, W.S.T., 1899. Some aspects of erosion in relation to the theory of the
Jennings, J.N., 1973. ‘Any millenniums today, lady?’ The geomorphic bandwaggon
peneplain. University of California Department of Geology Bulletin 1, 155–178.
parade. Australian Geographical Studies 11, 115–133.
Steiger, J., James, M., Gazelle, F., 1998. Channelization and consequences on
Judson, S., 1960. William Morris Davis – an appraisal. Zeitschrift für
floodplain system functioning on the Garonne River, SW France. Regulated
Geomorphologie 4, 193–201.
Rivers: Research and Management 14, 13–23.
King, L.C., 1950. The study of the world’s plainlands: a new approach in
Stoddart, D., 1975. ‘That Victorian science’: Huxley’s ‘Physiography’ and its impact
geomorphology. Journal of the Geological Society of London 106, 101–131.
on geography. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 66, 17–40.
King, L.C., 1953. Canons of landscape evolution. Geological Society of America
Strahler, A.N., 1950a. Davis’ concepts of slope development viewed in the light of
Bulletin 64, 721–752.
recent quantitative investigations. Annals of the Association of American
Lancaster, N., 1979. Evidence for a widespread late Pleistocene humid period in
southern Africa. Nature 279, 145–146. Geographers 40, 209–213.
Lawson, A.C., 1915. Epigene profiles of the desert. University of California Strahler, A.N., 1950b. Equilibrium theory of erosional slopes approached by
Department of Geology Bulletin 9, 23–48. frequency distribution analysis. American Journal of Science 248, 673–696.
Leighly, J., 1934. Turbulence and transportation of rock debris by streams. Strahler, A.N., 1952. Dynamic basis of geomorphology. Geological Society of
Geographical Review 24, 453–464. America Bulletin 63, 923–938.
Leopold, L.B., Langbein, W.B., 1962. The concept of entropy in landscape Street, F.A., Grove, A.T., 1979. Global maps of lake-level fluctuations since 30,000
evolution. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 500-A, 20 pp. yr B.P. Quaternary Research 12, 83–118.
Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., Miller, J.P., 1964. Fluvial Processes in Surian, N., Rinaldi, M., 2003. Morphological response to river engineering and
Geomorphology. Freeman, San Francisco, 522 pp. management in alluvial channels in Italy. Geomorphology 50, 307–326.
Libby, W.F., 1955. Radiocarbon Dating, 2nd edition University of Chicago Press, Szynkiewicz, A., Ewing, R.C., Moore, C.H., Glamoclija, M., Bustos, D., Pratt, L.,
124 pp. 2010. Origin of terrestrial gypsum dunes – implications for Martian gypsum-
Marks, E.O., 1913. Notes on portion of the Burdekin Valley. Proceedings of the rich dunes of Olympia Undae. Geomorphology 121, 69–83.
Royal Society of Queensland 24, 93–102. Tarr, R.S., 1898. The peneplain. American Geologist 21, 351–370.
Martin, G.J., James, P.E., 1993. All Possible Worlds: a History of Geographical Tinkler, K.J., 1985. A Short History of Geomorphology. Croom Helm, London, 317 pp.
Ideas, third edition Wiley, New York, 585 pp. Tinkler, K.J., 1989. Worlds apart: eighteenth century writing on rivers, lakes, and
Matthes, G.H., 1941. Basic aspects of stream-meanders. American Geophysical the terraqueous globe. In: Tinkler, K.J. (Ed.), The History of Geomorphology.
Union Transactions 30, 421–426. Unwin-Hyman, London, pp. 37–71.
McGee, W.J., 1888. The classification of geographic form by genesis. National Tuttle, S.S., 1970. Landforms and Landscapes. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, IA,
Geographic Magazine 1, 27–36. 136 pp.
Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Rowland, S.K., 2001. The geomorphology of planetary von Bertalanffy, L., 1950a. An outline of general system theory. British Journal for
calderas. Geomorphology 37, 201–223. the Philosophy of Science 1, 134–165.
Orme, A.R., 2007. The rise and fall of the Davisian cycle of erosion: prelude, fugue, von Bertalanffy, L., 1950b. The theory of open systems in physics and biology.
coda and sequel. Physical Geography 28, 474–506. Science 111, 23–29.
Parker, T.J., Currey, D.R., 2001. Extraterrestrial coastal geomorphology. Wooldridge, S.W., 1955. ‘Geographical Essays’ by W.M. Davis. Geographical Journal
Geomorphology 37, 303–328. 121, 89–90.
Penck, W., 1924. Die morphologische Analyse: Ein Kapitel der physikalischen Wooldridge, S.W., 1956. The Geographer as Scientist. Thomas Nelson and Sons,
Geologie J. Engelhorn, Stuttgart, 283 pp. London, 299 pp.
Richards, J.L., 1995. The history of mathematics and l’esprit humain: a critical Zakrzewska, B., 1967. Trends and methods in land form geography. Annals of the
reappraisal. Osiris 10, 122–135. Association of American Geographers 57, 128–165.
10 Introduction to the Foundations of Geomorphology

Biographical Sketch

Dorothy Sack, professor of Geography at Ohio University in Athens, OH, is a physical geographer who specialized
in arid lands geomorphology, Quaternary paleolake studies, and the history of geomorphology. Her arid lands
work emphasizes desert-basin paleolakes, particularly late Pleistocene Lake Bonneville, but includes projects on
sand dunes, alluvial fans, Quaternary geologic mapping, geoarchaeology, and the geomorphic impacts of off-road
vehicles. Her main historical interests concern nineteenth- and twentieth-century American geomorphology,
especially G.K. Gilbert, the history of paleolake studies, the mid-twentieth-century shift from Davisian to process
geomorphology, and women in geomorphology.

Antony R Orme (PhD, University of Birmingham, UK, 1961) is Emeritus professor of geography in the University
of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Raised in Devon, UK, his career began at University College, Dublin
(1960–68), before joining UCLA in 1968. His research interests have embraced many aspects of geomorphology
(coasts, rivers, deserts, and mass movement) and Cenozoic studies (sea-level change, pluvial lakes, neotectonism,
and isostasy), as well as the history and paradigms of the Earth sciences, and issues of coastal and watershed
planning and management. He has worked extensively in western North America, the Caribbean, Africa, the
Middle East, Britain, and Ireland. His research has been supported by the US Navy Office of Naval Research, US
Army Corps of Engineers (Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, and Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory), US Air Force, US Department of Energy, US Department of State (Agency
for International Development), US Department of the Interior (National Park Service), the National Science
Foundation, various regional, state and city agencies, and several national governments. His teaching interests
involve all the above fields, and he has also been active in university administration. He has served as editor or
editorial board member of numerous journals, including Physical Geography, which he founded and served as
Editor-in-Chief from 1980 to 2010. Recent awards include the Founders’ Medal of the British Society for Geo-
morphology (BGRS, 2000), and the Mel Marcus Distinguished Career Award of the Association of American
Geographers (2002). He has authored or edited several books and monographs, including Ireland (1970), Coasts
under Stress (1982), Lake Thompson: A Desiccating Late Quaternary Lake System (2004). With Andrew Goudie
(Oxford), he developed and edited advanced texts in the Oxford Regional Environments series, and contributed
chapters to the physical geographies of Africa (1996), North America (2002), and South America (2007). His
recent research papers address river-mouth and beach morphodynamnics, multidecadal coastal changes, Pleis-
tocene and Holocene pluvial lakes, coastal dunes, sea-level fluctuations, geomorphic responses to interactive
tectonic and climate forcing, climate change issues, Clarence Dutton and questions of isostasy, and shifting
paradigms in geomorphology.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Ethics - Lecture Notes
Winter 2024 - Institute

Prepared by: Lecturer Smith

Date: July 28, 2025

Quiz 1: Comparative analysis and synthesis

Learning Objective 1: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 5: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 2: Ethical considerations and implications
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 12: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 3: Historical development and evolution
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 22: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 23: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 26: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 4: Ethical considerations and implications
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 5: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 6: Best practices and recommendations
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 56: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Topic 7: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 62: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 66: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 68: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Abstract 8: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Results 9: Critical analysis and evaluation
Practice Problem 80: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 81: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 84: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 86: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 10: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 92: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 97: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 11: Current trends and future directions
Example 100: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 102: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 102: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 106: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 110: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Summary 12: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Example 110: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 111: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 113: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 114: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 114: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 116: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 117: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 119: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 13: Current trends and future directions
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 121: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 121: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 124: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 124: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 125: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 125: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 127: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 129: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 14: Critical analysis and evaluation
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 134: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 135: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 137: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com