Analysis and Conversion of a

Turbocharger into a Functional

Micro Jet Engine

Submitted to:
Dr. Ahmed Helmy

Names: ID:
Abdallah Ahmed Zaki 7858
Adham Salah 7398
Adham Ahmed Mohamed 7788
Ahmed Ehab Ali 7784
Ahmed Sherif Hany 7336
 Acknowledgment

First and foremost, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to

Prof. Dr. Ahmed Helmy for his exceptional guidance, support, and
mentorship throughout the course of this project. His insights, patience, and
valuable feedback were instrumental in helping us overcome challenges and
achieve our goals.

We also extend our sincere appreciation to the Faculty of

Engineering, University of Alexandria, and the Department of
Electromechanical Engineering for providing us with the academic
environment, resources, and support that made this work possible. The
knowledge and experience we have gained throughout our years at the
university have been essential to the successful development of this project.

1
 Abstract

This project focuses on the design and development of a turbojet

engine utilizing an automobile turbocharger to achieve efficient thrust
generation while maintaining structural integrity at high temperatures. The
primary objective is to design a functional turbojet engine while optimizing
the combustion chamber and ensuring proper thermal management. The
system was designed using Fusion 360 and analyzed through ANSYS
simulations to optimize heat transfer and airflow. A control unit was
integrated to manage ignition, fuel injection, and flame stability.

The design incorporates an air-bypass cooling mechanism with an

inner casing to regulate thermal exposure, ensuring combustion efficiency
while preventing excessive heat buildup. The turbocharger, selected based
on its high compression efficiency, enables controlled airflow, maximizing
thrust output while minimizing mechanical losses. Computational
simulations validated the expected thermal gradients, airflow distribution,
and component stress points.

Experimental tests evaluated fuel efficiency, thermal resistance, and

the effectiveness of the electronic control system. Simulated thrust values
aligned closely with theoretical calculations, confirming the feasibility of
integrating a turbocharger into a functional turbojet engine. Future
improvements may focus on alternative turbochargers, optimized fuel
injection, and enhanced cooling strategies.

2
Chapter 1 : Introduction ......................................................................................6
1.1 Project Background & Motivation ......................................................................... 6
1.2 Objectives & Scope ............................................................................................. 7
1.3 Justification for Using a Turbocharger .................................................................. 8
1.4 Report Structure.................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2 : Historical Development of Turbojet Engines ........................10
2.1 Historical Advancements in Turbo-Jet Engines .................................................. 10
2.2 Evolution of Materials & Cooling Methods .......................................................... 15
Chapter 3 : System Overview ..........................................................................17
3.1 Turbojet Cycle Description ................................................................................ 17
3.2 Components Breakdown and Layout ................................................................. 21
3.3 Expected Performance Metrics .......................................................................... 26
3.3.1 Expected Performance Parameters .................................................................................... 26
3.3.2 Design Considerations .......................................................................................................... 26
3.3.3 Final expected performance ...................................................................................................... 29
Chapter 4 : Component Design & Analysis (Drawings from
Fusion 360 included per component) ............................................................30
4.1 Overall System Design & Assembly (Report Content) ........................................ 30
4.1.1 Compressor (Turbocharger) ................................................................................................. 32
4.2 Turbine & Exhaust System ................................................................................ 34
4.3 Diesel vs Gasoline turbocharger selection ......................................................... 35
4.4 Combustion chamber ........................................................................................ 37
4.4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 37
4.4.2 Material selection for Inner & Outer Casing ....................................................................... 37
4.4.3 Dimensions .............................................................................................................................. 39
4.4.4 Combustion Chamber Temperature Analysis .................................................................... 40
4.4.5 Fuel Injection & Ignition System ........................................................................................... 40
4.4.6 Calculations ............................................................................................................................. 41
4.5 Nozzle Design ................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 5 : Control Unit & Electronics ..........................................................47

3
 5.1 Spark Plug Ignition System................................................................................ 47
5.1.1 Why Do We Need a Spark Plug for Combustion? ............................................................ 47
5.1.2 Ignition Coil & Transformer: How It Works ......................................................................... 48
5.1.3 Battery Selection for the Ignition System............................................................................ 48
5.2 Fuel Injection Control ........................................................................................ 49
5.2.1 Why Is Fuel Injection Control Important? ........................................................................... 49
5.2.2 Key Components of the Fuel Injection Control System .................................................... 50
5.3 Photoelectric Sensor for Flame Monitoring ........................................................ 51
5.4 Safety Mechanisms & Emergency Shutoff ......................................................... 53
Chapter 6 : Thermal & Fluid Analysis (ANSYS Simulation Results) .....54
6.1 Temperature Distribution & Material Validation .................................................. 54
6.1.1 Temperature Profile Across the Combustion Chamber.................................................... 54
6.1.2 Impact of Air-Bleed Cooling System.................................................................................... 54
6.1.3 Material Selection Validation ................................................................................................ 55
6.1.4 Comparison to Theoretical Expectations ............................................................................ 57
6.1.5 Thermal Stress & Structural Integrity Analysis .................................................................. 57
Chapter 7 : Construction & Assembly...........................................................58
7.1 Overview........................................................................................................... 58
7.2 Materials and Tools Used .................................................................................. 58
7.3 Tools Used ....................................................................................................... 59
7.4 Combustion Chamber construction .................................................................... 59
7.5 Turbocharger Integration ................................................................................... 61
7.6 Ignition System Installation ................................................................................ 62
7.7 Fuel System Design and Planned Installation .................................................... 63
Chapter 8 : Code and Electronics Integration .............................................64
8.1 Overview........................................................................................................... 64
8.2 Wiring and Hardware Setup............................................................................... 64
8.3 Control Logic Summary ..................................................................................... 66
8.4 Safety Mechanisms ........................................................................................... 67
8.5 Full Code Listing ............................................................................................... 68
Chapter 9 : Fuel Comparison and Selection ................................................71
4
 9.1 Overview........................................................................................................... 71
9.2 Fuel Comparison Table ........................................................................................ 71
9.3 Evaluation and Final Selection........................................................................... 72
9.4 Propane-Based Thermodynamic Performance Recalculation ............................. 72
Chapter 10 : Results & Performance Discussion .......................................74
10.1 Theoretical Performance Recap ...................................................................... 74
10.2 Propane Performance Comparison .................................................................. 75
10.3 Build Outcome ................................................................................................ 76
10.4 What Would Be Tested (If Run) ....................................................................... 76
Chapter 11 : Future Work and Recommendations ....................................78

Chapter 12 : Conclusion....................................................................................79

Chapter 13 : References .......................................................................................81

5
Chapter 1 : Introduction
1.1 Project Background & Motivation

This project is centered around the goal of developing a functional turbojet

engine from scratch. A turbojet engine consists of four critical components: the
compressor, turbine, combustion chamber, and nozzle. The primary challenge lies in
designing these components to generate sufficient thrust while maintaining structural
integrity, particularly under the high temperatures produced during combustion.

Initially, the approach was to fabricate as many parts as possible manually,

including the compressor blades, which play a crucial role in compressing incoming air
before combustion. However, after extensive analysis, it was determined that the
precision required for compressor blades was beyond the capabilities of manual
fabrication. Any inaccuracies in blade shape or alignment could lead to inefficient
airflow, excessive vibrations, or catastrophic engine failure.

To address this challenge, an automobile turbocharger was selected as an

alternative. Turbochargers feature an integrated centrifugal compressor and turbine,
both engineered to function at high rotational speeds and manage compressed air
efficiently—characteristics essential for a turbojet engine. By incorporating the
turbocharger’s compressor and turbine, this project minimizes fabrication risks while
ensuring a higher level of precision and reliability in the engine design.

6
 1.2 Objectives & Scope

1. Objectives:
The primary objective of this project is to design and develop a functional turbojet
engine using an automobile turbocharger. The project aims to achieve the following:

• Repurpose a Turbocharger for Jet Propulsion → Utilize an automotive

turbocharger as the compressor and turbine instead of manufacturing
these components from scratch.
• Optimize the Combustion Chamber → Implement an air-bypass cooling
system to regulate thermal exposure and improve efficiency.
• Perform Thermal and Fluid Simulations → Conduct ANSYS-based
simulations to analyze heat transfer, airflow distribution, and structural
integrity.
• Develop an Electronic Control System → Design a control unit to manage
ignition, fuel injection, and flame monitoring.
• Manufacture and Test the Prototype → Construct and evaluate the
performance of the assembled turbojet engine.
This project seeks to provide a cost-effective and scalable alternative to traditional
turbojet engines while maintaining fundamental engineering principles.

2. Scope:
• The project focuses on adapting and optimizing an automobile
turbocharger for jet propulsion while addressing key challenges such as:
• Component Selection and Integration → Ensuring proper compatibility of
the turbocharger, combustion chamber, and exhaust system.
• Thermal Management → Implementing cooling strategies to prevent
structural failure at high operating temperatures.
• Computational Analysis → Conducting fluid and thermal simulations to
validate design efficiency.
• Manufacturing Feasibility → Utilizing available resources to fabricate and
assemble the prototype.
• Experimental Testing → Measuring thrust, fuel efficiency, and thermal
performance under controlled conditions.
The project does not focus on full-scale aviation applications but aims to serve as
a proof-of-concept for small-scale experimental propulsion systems.

7
 1.3 Justification for Using a Turbocharger

Why Use a Turbocharger Instead of a Traditional Compressor?

A conventional turbojet engine typically relies on an axial or centrifugal
compressor, which requires precisely engineered blades to generate the
necessary pressure ratio. However, manufacturing these compressors from
scratch presents several challenges:
• High Precision Requirements → Compressor blades must be
aerodynamically precise, or they may cause inefficient airflow and
vibrations.
• Complex Manufacturing → Machining a multi-stage compressor requires
specialized tools and materials, increasing cost and complexity.
• Structural Integrity Risks → Any imperfections in blade geometry can
lead to catastrophic failure at high rotational speeds.

To overcome these limitations, an automobile turbocharger is used as a pre-

fabricated compressor and turbine. Turbochargers are designed to compress air
efficiently, operate at high rotational speeds (up to 200,000 RPM), and withstand
extreme thermal conditions.

Key Advantages of Using a Turbocharger

1. Integrated Compressor & Turbine → Eliminates the need to fabricate these
components manually.
2. High-Speed Performance → Turbochargers are engineered to function at high
RPM, similar to jet engines.
3. Cost-Effective Solution → Repurposing an automobile turbocharger is
significantly cheaper than developing a custom axial compressor.
4. Thermal Durability → Turbocharger materials are designed to withstand high
temperatures, reducing failure risks.
5. Simplified Airflow Management → The turbocharger's centrifugal compressor
naturally optimizes airflow into the combustion chamber.

By utilizing a turbocharger, this project ensures greater reliability, improved

efficiency, and reduced manufacturing risks, making it a practical and
scalable approach for a functional turbojet engine

8
1.4 Report Structure
1) Chapter 1: Introduction – Provides project background, objectives, and
justification.
2) Chapter 2: Historical Development of Turbojet Engines – Covers key
milestones and technological advancements.
3) Chapter 3: System Overview – Explains the turbojet cycle and main
components.
4) Chapter 4: Component Design & Analysis – Details the design of each
component with technical drawings.
5) Chapter 5: Control Unit & Electronics – Describes the fuel injection, ignition,
and monitoring systems.
6) Chapter 6: Thermal & Fluid Analysis (ANSYS Simulations) – Presents heat
transfer and airflow analysis.
7) Chapter 7: Manufacturing & Assembly – Discusses material selection,
fabrication, and assembly.
8) Chapter 8: Testing & Performance Evaluation – Covers experimental results
and performance analysis.
9) Chapter 9: Conclusion & Future Work – Summarizes findings and
improvements for future designs.
10) Chapter 10: References & Appendices – Lists all citations, technical
drawings, and additional data.

9
Chapter 2 : Historical Development of Turbojet Engines
2.1 Historical Advancements in Turbo-Jet Engines
1921:
Maxime Guillaume patents the first
conceptual design for a turbojet engine.
His design uses a multistage axial-flow
compressor to compress air before
combustion, followed by a turbine to
extract energy. Although the technology of
the time wasn’t advanced enough to build
it, this patent laid the theoretical
groundwork for future developments in jet
propulsion.
Figure 1.4.1

1930:
Frank Whittle, a British Royal Air Force officer,
submits his first patent for a turbojet engine.
Whittle’s design includes a two-stage axial
compressor and a centrifugal compressor.
However, the British Air Ministry initially
dismisses his ideas as impractical, delaying
development.

Figure 1.4.2
1933:
Hans von Ohain, a German physicist, begins
working on his own turbojet design,
independently of Whittle. His engine uses an
axial-flow compressor, and by 1935, he secures
a patent for his engine.

Figure 1.4.3

10
1939:
Hans von Ohain's engine powers the first
successful flight of a turbojet-powered
aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, on August 27,
1939, marking the first time a turbojet
engine has flown in an aircraft. The
Heinkel He 178 was a mark in history, it
was not long after that World War II
Happened.

Figure 1.4.4
1941:
Frank Whittle's first turbojet-powered aircraft, the Gloster E.28/39, successfully
completes its maiden flight on May 15, 1941. This marks the first flight of a British jet
aircraft, powered by Whittle’s W.1 engine.

Figure 1.4.5
Figure 1.4.6
1944:
Messerschmitt Me 262, the world’s first operational military jet fighter, enters service
with the Luftwaffe during World War II. Powered by Junkers Jumo 004 engines, it
delivers unparalleled speed but is introduced too late to significantly affect the war’s
outcome.

Figure 1.4.7 Figure 1.4.8

11
1950s
During the 1950s, afterburners were introduced in
military aircraft, increasing thrust output by injecting
additional fuel into the exhaust stream. This
technology became essential for supersonic fighter
jets, including the F-100 Super Sabre.

Figure 1.4.9

1958:
Boeing 707, the first successful commercial jet airliner, enters service. With turbojet
engines and improved design, it solidifies jet engines as the future of commercial
aviation.

Development of high-bypass turbofan engines begins, signaling the next evolution in jet
engine technology. Turbofans are more fuel-efficient than turbojets and are used in
large commercial airliners.

Figure 1.4.9

12
1960:
Pratt & Whitney J58 engines are developed for the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, one of
the fastest aircraft in history. These engines are hybrid turbojets/turbofans that enable
the SR-71 to reach speeds over Mach 3.

Figure 1.4.10
1990s:
Boeing 777 enters service powered by the GE90 engine, which at the time was the
largest and most powerful turbofan engine ever built. The GE90 set records for thrust
and efficiency, continuing the trend of increasing performance in commercial aviation .

Figure 1.4.11

13
2001:
Rolls-Royce Trent 900, a high-bypass turbofan, powers the Airbus A380, the world’s
largest passenger airliner. The Trent 900 series offers improved fuel efficiency, lower
emissions, and quieter operation compared to earlier engines.

2016:
The Rolls-Royce Trent XWB, designed for the Airbus A350, enters service. It's one of
the most fuel-efficient jet engines ever built, with advanced materials and designs that
reduce fuel burn and CO₂ emissions

2019:
GE9X, the largest and most fuel-efficient jet engine, powers the new Boeing 777X. With
composite materials and advanced aerodynamics, it sets new standards in fuel
efficiency and thrust.

14
 2.2 Evolution of Materials & Cooling Methods

The development of turbojet engines has been closely linked to advancements in

high-temperature materials and cooling technologies. As jet engines evolved, the need
for stronger, heat-resistant materials became crucial to withstand extreme conditions
within the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine.
1940s – Early Jet Engines and Basic Cooling
• Material Used: Nickel-steel alloys with limited heat resistance.
• Cooling Method: Uncooled turbines, which severely limited operating
temperatures and efficiency.
• Challenges: Metal fatigue and warping due to high thermal stress.

1950s – Introduction of Nickel-Based Superalloys

• Material Used: Nickel-based superalloys (e.g., Inconel 713) for turbine
blades.
• Cooling Method: Basic internal cooling channels to allow airflow inside
turbine blades.
• Impact: Increased thermal resistance, allowing engines to operate at higher
temperatures and efficiency levels.

1960s – Development of Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs)

• Material Used: Ceramic coatings applied over metal turbine blades.
• Cooling Method: Film cooling, where cooler air is directed over blade surfaces.
• Impact: Dramatically reduced heat absorption, increasing turbine lifespan.

1970s – Hollow Blades with Internal Air Cooling

• Material Used: Single-crystal superalloys, stronger than polycrystalline
metals.
• Cooling Method: Hollow turbine blades with intricate internal cooling
pathways.
• Impact: Allowed higher turbine inlet temperatures, increasing engine power
and efficiency.

15
1980s – Advanced Coatings & Thermal Efficiency Improvements
• Material Used: Oxide-dispersion-strengthened (ODS) alloys for higher heat
resistance.
• Cooling Method: Advanced multi-stage film cooling and ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs).
• Impact: Enabled engines like the GE90 and Rolls-Royce Trent 900 to push
beyond 1,800K turbine inlet temperatures.

2000s-Present – Composite Materials & High-Bypass Efficiency

• Material Used: Carbon-fiber composites and titanium aluminides (TiAl) to
reduce weight while maintaining strength.
• Cooling Method: Regenerative cooling, where air or fuel absorbs heat before
combustion.
• Impact: Increased fuel efficiency, durability, and performance in engines like
the Pratt & Whitney PW1100G and GE9X.

Summary of Material & Cooling Advancements

1940s: Basic nickel-steel alloys, uncooled turbines.

1950s: Nickel-based superalloys, early cooling channels.

1960s: Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs), film cooling.

1970s: Hollow air-cooled blades, single-crystal alloys.

1980s: Oxide dispersion alloys, advanced cooling.

2000s-Present: Composite materials, regenerative cooling.

16
Chapter 3 : System Overview

3.1 Turbojet Cycle Description

A turbojet engine operates on the Brayton cycle, which consists of four main stages:
air intake, compression, combustion, and expansion/exhaust. The system continuously
draws in air, compresses it, mixes it with fuel, ignites the mixture, and expels high-
velocity gases to generate thrust. This process is governed by Newton’s Third Law of
Motion, where the reaction force from expelling exhaust gases results in forward
propulsion.

Figure 3.1.1

This project aims to build a functional turbojet engine using an automotive

turbocharger. The core difference between this system and a traditional turbojet is that
the compressor and turbine stages are integrated within a turbocharger, eliminating the
need to manufacture complex axial compressor blades.

17
1. Air Intake

• Process: Ambient air is

drawn into the engine at
high velocity.
• Component:
Turbocharger’s
compressor inlet.
• Function: Directs air
smoothly to prevent
turbulence and pressure
loss.
• Challenges: Proper intake
geometry is crucial to
avoid air stagnation or
uneven flow into the
compressor.
Figure 3.1.2

2. Compression

• Process: The air is

compressed to increase
pressure and temperature.
• Component: Centrifugal
compressor (from the
turbocharger).
• Function: The compressor
increases air density, making
combustion more efficient.
• Challenges: Since a
turbocharger is designed for
automotive applications, it
has a lower compression
ratio (≈2:1 to 4:1) than typical
turbojet compressors (10:1 to 20:1).
Figure 3.1.3

18
3. Combustion

• Process: The
compressed air is mixed
with fuel and ignited in
the combustion
chamber.
• Component: Custom-
designed combustion
chamber with air-bypass
cooling.
• Function: The burning
fuel-air mixture releases
thermal energy,
expanding the gases.
• Challenges: The
exhaust gases in a
turbojet engine can reach temperatures between Figure 3.1.4
1200°C and 1700°C, whereas turbochargers are
only rated for 700°C–1000°C. A cooling system and heat-resistant materials are
required.

Figure 3.1.1 4. Expansion &

Exhaust(Turbine
Stage)

• Process: The high-

temperature gases expand
through the turbine, driving
the compressor.
• Component:
Turbocharger’s turbine
(power extraction stage).
• Function: Extracts enough
energy to sustain
compressor operation while
allowing the remaining
energy to generate thrust.
• Challenges: Since the turbocharger turbine is Figure 3.1.5
not designed for extreme jet exhaust
temperatures, thermal barrier coatings (TBCs)
and cooling techniques must be implemented.

19
5. Thrust Generation (Nozzle Stage)

• Process: The remaining high-

velocity gases exit the nozzle,
generating thrust.
• Component: Custom-designed
converging nozzle.
• Function: The nozzle
accelerates exhaust gases to
produce forward motion.
• Challenges: Optimizing the
nozzle geometry to achieve the highest exhaust Figure 3.1.6
velocity and thrust efficiency.

Summary of the Turbojet Cycle

1. Air Intake → Draws ambient air into the system.

2. Compression → Turbocharger compresses the air for combustion.

3. Combustion → Fuel ignites, generating high-temperature gases.

4. Expansion & Exhaust → Turbine extracts energy and powers the compressor.

5. Thrust Generation → High-velocity exhaust produces forward motion.

20
 3.2 Components Breakdown and Layout

The turbojet system layout consists of four main components:

1. Compressor (Turbocharger’s Compressor Side)
2. Combustion Chamber (Custom Design with Air-Bleed Cooling)
3. Turbine (Turbocharger’s Turbine Side)
4. Nozzle (Custom Expansion Nozzle for Thrust Generation)
Additionally, supporting systems such as fuel injection, lubrication, flame
monitoring, and cooling are integrated to improve engine performance and durability.

1. Compressor (Turbocharger’s Compressor Side)

Function: The compressor increases the pressure of incoming air before it enters
the combustion chamber.
Type: Centrifugal compressor from an automobile turbocharger.
Working Principle:
• The compressor spins at high RPMs (up to 200,000 RPM), pulling in air
through its inlet.
• The air is forced into a spiral path, increasing its velocity and pressure before
being directed into the combustion chamber.
• Unlike axial compressors used in traditional jet engines, centrifugal
compressors achieve pressure ratios of about 2:1 to 4:1 in a single stage.
✔ Challenges & Considerations:
• Lower compression ratio compared
to multi-stage axial compressors
used in commercial jet engines.
• Optimized air intake geometry is
needed to ensure smooth airflow into
the compressor.
• Lubrication system must ensure
smooth operation of the
turbocharger’s bearings at high
speeds.

Figure 3.2.1

21
2. Combustion Chamber (Custom Air-Bleed Cooling Design)
Function: The combustion chamber burns the fuel-air mixture, releasing thermal
energy that expands the gases before they reach the turbine.
Design Features:
• Two-layer structure:
1. Inner casing: Houses the combustion process and is perforated to allow
cooling air circulation.
2. Outer casing: Directs excess compressed air around the inner casing for
cooling and stability.
• Swirl vanes: These help evenly distribute the air-fuel mixture for better
combustion.
• Primary, secondary, and dilution zones:
▪ Primary zone: Where fuel is first mixed with air and ignited.
▪ Secondary zone: Further air is added to enhance combustion.
▪ Dilution zone: Additional airflow is used to reduce gas
temperatures before entering the turbine.

Challenges & Considerations:

• Temperatures inside the chamber can reach 1200°C – 1700°C, requiring heat-
resistant materials.
• Inconel or stainless steel is used for the inner casing to withstand high

temperatures. Figure 3.2.2

• Proper fuel-air mixing is critical for stable combustion and efficiency.

22
 3. Turbine (Turbocharger’s Turbine Side)

Function: The turbine extracts energy from the hot gases, converting thermal energy into
rotational energy that drives the compressor.
Working Principle:
• High-temperature gases expand through the turbine blades, causing them to spin.
• The turbine is mechanically linked to the compressor, meaning the energy extracted
keeps the compressor running without external power.
• The design is optimized to extract only enough energy to sustain compressor
operation, allowing excess energy to be used for thrust.
✔ Challenges & Considerations:

• The turbine must withstand extreme heat and high rotational speeds (100,000 –
200,000 RPM).
• Turbochargers are typically rated for exhaust gases up to 1000°C, but in a turbojet
engine, temperatures can exceed 1200°C.
• Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs) or advanced materials may be required to prevent
overheating and failure.
• The turbine must have precise lubrication and cooling systems to prevent bearing
wear and heat-induced failure.

Figure 3.2.3

23
 4. Nozzle (Custom Expansion Nozzle for Thrust
Generation)
Function: The nozzle accelerates exhaust gases to produce forward thrust.

Working Principle:
• After expanding through the turbine, the remaining hot gases exit through the nozzle
at high velocity.
• The shape of the nozzle controls exhaust flow, optimizing thrust output.
• A converging nozzle is used to increase the velocity of the exhaust gases as they exit
the system.
Challenges & Considerations:
• Nozzle design directly affects thrust efficiency and performance.
• Materials must withstand high temperatures and pressure differentials.
• Optimizing the nozzle diameter ensures maximum pressure recovery and velocity
conversion.

Components Function Challenges

Compressor Increases air pressure Requires optimized airflow
before combustion. and lubrication for high-
speed operation.
Combustion chamber Burns fuel-air mixture and Requires heat-resistant
generates high-energy materials and cooling to
gases. prevent overheating.
Turbine Extracts energy from hot Must withstand extreme
gases to drive the heat and rotational speeds.
compressor.
Nozzle Expels high-speed gases Nozzle shape affects
to produce thrust. efficiency and
performance.

Figure 3.2.4 24
Additional components:

1. Lubrication System:
o Purpose: Lubricates turbocharger
components to prevent friction and wear
at high speeds.

Figure 3.2.5

2. Fuel Injectors and Spark Plugs:

o Purpose: Injects fuel and ignites the air-
fuel mixture for combustion.

Figure 3.2.6
3. Photodetector/Optical Sensor:
o Purpose: Monitors the combustion flame to
ensure continuous combustion and avoid
shutdown.

Figure 3.2.7
4. Cooling System:
o Purpose: Manages the high exhaust
temperatures to protect the turbine, using
bleed air or thermal barrier coatings.

Figure 3.2.8 25
 3.3 Expected Performance Metrics

The performance of a turbojet engine is determined by multiple factors, including

compression ratio, combustion efficiency, turbine energy extraction, and nozzle
expansion dynamics. Since this project modifies an automotive turbocharger, specific
design considerations are necessary to optimize performance while mitigating risks
such as heat stress, material limitations, and airflow inefficiencies.

3.3.1 Expected Performance Parameters

Parameter Expected Value Consideration

Compressor Pressure 3.0 - 4.0 Lower than traditional

Ratio turbojets (10:1+),
requiring efficient
combustion.
Turbine Inlet 900°C - 1200°C Close to turbocharger
Temperature (TIT) limits (may require
TBCs).
Nozzle Exit Velocity 800-1300 m/s Dependent on exhaust
gas expansion
efficiency.
Overall Thrust 210-272 N Based on available
airflow and mass flow
rate.

3.3.2 Design Considerations

1. Compression Ratio & Airflow

• Turbocharger Limitations: Unlike axial compressors in traditional jet engines
(which can reach compression ratios of 10:1 to 20:1), automotive turbochargers
are limited to ~3:1 to 4:1.
• Mitigation Strategy: Optimize air intake geometry and ensure minimal
pressure losses in the ducting.

Inlet Air Pressure (P₁) = 1 atm

Outlet Pressure (P₂) = P₁ × Compressor Ratio
If Compressor Ratio = 3.5
𝑃2 = 1 × 3.5 = 3.5

26
2. Combustion Chamber Efficiency
• Target Efficiency: 85-90% combustion efficiency is needed for good fuel
conversion.
• Cooling System: Uses air-bypass cooling with an inner perforated casing to
prevent overheating.
• Mitigation Strategy: Ensure correct air-fuel ratio (~15:1 to 18:1) for complete
combustion.

Calculation Example:
• Total Airflow = 0.2 kg/s
• Fuel Flow Required (Assuming 15:1 AFR for rich) Or (18:1 AFR for lean
flow)= Airflow / AFR
.2
𝑅𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = = .013𝑘𝑔/𝑠
15
.2
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = = .011𝑘𝑔/𝑠
18

• Cooling Consideration: The inner casing design includes perforated holes

that allow bypass air to circulate and prevent thermal damage.
• Mitigation Strategy: Fuel injectors must maintain proper atomization for an
optimal air-fuel mixture.

27
 3. Turbine Heat Management
• Heat Load Consideration: The turbine must withstand exhaust temperatures of
900°C - 1200°C, which exceed standard turbocharger ratings.
• Cooling Efficiency Calculation:
o If the cooling efficiency is 85%, the effective temp of the material is:

𝑇𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 × (1 − (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦))

o For TIT =900

Teffective = 765℃

o For TIT =1200 Teffective = 1020

• Mitigation Strategy:
o Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs) on turbine blades to prevent
overheating.
o Regenerative cooling using air-bleed bypass to absorb excess heat.
Final Effective Turbine Temperature: 765°C - 1020°C
4. Nozzle Optimization for Thrust
• Nozzle Exit Velocity Calculation (Using Isentropic Flow Equation):
o The velocity at the nozzle exit is given by:

𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = √2 × 𝐶𝑝 × 𝑇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡

o Using Cₚ = 1.15 kJ/kg·K and T_exit = 700K:

𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = √2 × 1150 × 700 = 1278𝑚/𝑠

28
 • Thrust Calculation:
o Using Newton's Second Law (Thrust = Mass Flow × Velocity):

̇
𝐹 = 𝑚 × 𝑉𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 272𝑁

• Mitigation Strategy: Adjusting nozzle geometry to ensure optimal pressure

recovery for maximum velocity.
Final Nozzle Exit Velocity: 1278m/s
Expected Thrust Output: 272 N

3.3.3 Final expected performance

Parameters Updated Calculated Value
Fuel Flow Min (kg/s) 0.0111 (AFR = 18)
Fuel Flow Max (kg/s) 0.0133 (AFR = 15)
Compressor Outlet Pressure Min 3.0 atm
Compressor Outlet Pressure Max 4.0 atm
Effective Turbine Temp Min (°C) 765°C after cooling
Effective Turbine Temp Max (°C) 1020°C after cooling
Nozzle Exit Velocity (m/s) 1278 m/s
Expected Thrust (N) 272

29
 Chapter 4 : Component Design & Analysis (Drawings from
Fusion 360 included per component)
4.1 Overall System Design & Assembly (Report Content)
Turbojet Engine Full Assembly Overview
This project focuses on the design and fabrication of a turbojet engine utilizing a
modified automobile turbocharger. The system consists of several key components that
work together to compress, ignite, and expand airflow to generate thrust. The
integration of these components ensures efficiency and structural reliability while
maintaining a compact design.
System Overview
The turbojet engine is composed of the following essential components:
• Compressor: Draws in and compresses atmospheric air before combustion.
• Combustion Chamber: Mixes compressed air with fuel, ignites the mixture, and
generates high-temperature gases.
• Turbine: Extracts energy from high-speed gases, driving the compressor.
• Nozzle: Expands and accelerates gases to generate thrust.
Additionally, secondary components such as the lubrication system, cooling system,
fuel injection system, and electronic control unit enhance system stability and efficiency.
Design Considerations
• Turbocharger Integration: Using a pre-built turbocharger ensures precision in
compression and turbine efficiency.
• Optimized Airflow Path: The intake, combustion, and exhaust pathways are
aligned to minimize pressure loss and maximize performance.
• Material Selection & Cooling Strategy: High-temperature resistant materials
and an air-bypass cooling system are incorporated to prevent thermal damage.
• Fuel Injection & Ignition System: A controlled fuel injection system ensures
proper atomization and stable combustion.

30
Figure 4.1.1: (side view of the turbo jet engine)

Figure 4.1.2 : (top view of the turbojet engine)

31
 4.1.1 Compressor (Turbocharger)
The compressor is a critical component of the turbojet engine, responsible for
increasing the pressure of incoming air before it enters the combustion chamber. For
this project, a centrifugal compressor from an automotive turbocharger was
selected due to its high rotational speed, efficiency, and compact size.
Component Selection & Justification
• The turbocharger-based compressor eliminates the need for custom-
machined compressor blades, ensuring greater precision and reliability.
• Centrifugal compressors are ideal for small-scale turbojet engines as they can
achieve high-pressure ratios in a single stage.
• The housing design (as shown in the figure) allows for efficient airflow
direction, minimizing energy losses.
Material & Construction
• Impeller Material: Forged aluminum alloy → Offers a balance between
lightweight properties and high-speed durability.
• Housing Material: Cast aluminum or iron → Ensures heat resistance while
keeping weight manageable.
• Bearings & Shaft: Lubricated via a separate oil supply system, reducing
friction and wear.
Performance Considerations
• Compression Ratio: ~3:1, meaning the compressor increases the air pressure
threefold before it enters the combustion chamber.
• Efficiency Factors: The curved diffuser vanes help reduce turbulence and
improve airflow direction.
• Rotational Speed: Typically operates above 100,000 RPM, ensuring sufficient
compression.

32
Figure 4.1.3: (Top view of the turbo) Figure 4.1.4:(side view of the turbo)

Figure 4.1.5 : (cross section of the turbo) Figure 4.1.6:(compression

blade and shaft)

(Compressor blade)

33
 4.2 Turbine & Exhaust System

The turbine and exhaust system play a crucial role in extracting energy from the high-
temperature exhaust gases and driving the compressor. The turbine wheel is connected
to the compressor shaft, allowing it to rotate as the exhaust gases expand and pass
through it.
Turbine Selection & Justification
For this project, we are using the turbine from a diesel turbocharger, selected due to:
• Higher efficiency at lower RPMs compared to gasoline turbochargers.
• Better handling of high-pressure ratios (typical for turbojets).
• Stronger turbine materials, designed to withstand continuous high
temperatures.
Exhaust System Design
The exhaust system is responsible for expelling gases after they pass through the
turbine. To optimize thrust and minimize backpressure, we designed the exhaust
system with the following considerations:
• Smooth exhaust flow to prevent unwanted pressure losses.
• Nozzle integration for directed thrust production.
• Material selection resistant to high temperatures (stainless steel).

Figure 4.2.1:(turbine blade with shaft)

(Turbine blade)

34
 4.3 Diesel vs Gasoline turbocharger selection

What Turbocharger Should We Use?

When designing a turbojet engine from a turbocharger, one of the first decisions
that must be made is whether to use a diesel or gasoline turbocharger. While both
types serve the same fundamental purpose—compressing air before combustion and
extracting energy from exhaust gases—their designs and operating characteristics differ
significantly. Choosing the wrong type could lead to inefficiencies, overheating, or
mechanical failure under sustained operation at high speeds and temperatures.
A turbocharger’s compressor and turbine efficiency, material selection, and
pressure ratios all play a crucial role in determining whether it is suitable for use in a
turbojet engine. Gasoline turbochargers are designed for quick throttle response and
lower pressure ratios, while diesel turbochargers are built for continuous high-load
operation, making them more comparable to the demands of an actual turbojet cycle.
Why We Chose a Diesel Turbocharger
Turbojet engines operate at sustained high pressures and temperatures, similar to
diesel engines rather than gasoline engines, which are optimized for intermittent power
bursts. Diesel turbochargers typically have:

✔ Higher Pressure Ratios → Essential for efficient compression and greater thrust
output.
✔ Stronger Materials → Designed to withstand higher exhaust temperatures without
degradation.
✔ Larger Turbine & Compressor Wheels → Optimized for continuous airflow, not
rapid spool-up like gasoline turbos.
By selecting a diesel turbocharger, we ensure that our engine has a more robust and
thermally stable design, capable of handling the high-speed continuous operation
required in a turbojet engine.

35
Feature Diesel Turbo Gasoline Turbo
Pressure Ratio High (3.0-4.5) → More Moderate (1.5-2.5) →
compression for better Designed for quick boost
thrust but lower compression
Operating Temperature Higher (~850-1000°C) → Lower (~700-850°C) →
Can handle sustained Less thermal resistance
heat
Material Strength Heavy-duty alloys → Lighter materials →
Built for durability at high Prioritizes weight over
temps extreme durability
Compressor Wheel Size Larger → Moves more air Smaller → Designed for
per revolution, better for quick response, not
sustained operation continuous airflow
Turbine Design Optimized for high-load Designed for rapid
operation → Matches spool-up → Not ideal for
turbojet needs jet engines
Boost Characteristics Gradual & Sustained → Instantaneous & Peaky
Matches turbojet’s → Good for acceleration,
continuous operation bad for steady-state jet
engines
Suitability for Jet Excellent → Mimics Poor → Not designed for
Engine turbojet behavior with high continuous operation
airflow and efficiency
Pros ✔ Higher efficiency for ✔ Faster spool-up for quick
sustained airflow power
✔ Stronger materials for ✔ Lighter weight
extreme heat ✔ Common in performance
✔ Larger compressor for vehicles
better pressure ratios
Cons ✖ Heavier construction ✖ Can overheat under
✖ Slower initial response continuous use
✖ More difficult to source ✖ Lower pressure ratios
compared to gasoline ✖ Not designed for
turbos sustained high-speed
operation
Final Verdict for Best Choice → Not Ideal → Inefficient
Turbojet Use Matches turbojet operation for continuous thrust
requirements genera

36
 4.4 Combustion chamber
4.4.1 Introduction
The combustion chamber is the heart of the turbojet engine, where compressed air
from the turbocharger is mixed with fuel, ignited, and expanded to produce high-
temperature exhaust gases. The design must ensure:
• Complete and efficient combustion to maximize energy output.
• Controlled temperature distribution to avoid structural failure.
• Stable flame retention while preventing flame blowout.
• Proper cooling mechanisms to extend component lifespan.
A dual-layered casing system was selected, incorporating an inner perforated
casing for cooling airflow and an outer protective casing for heat containment and
structural stability.

4.4.2 Material selection for Inner & Outer Casing

• The combustion chamber is exposed to extreme temperatures ( 1327°C), rapid
thermal cycling, and combustion gases. To ensure structural integrity, heat
resistance, and oxidation resistance, we selected two different materials for
the inner and outer casings.
Key Properties Required for Combustion Chamber Materials
The materials must:

Withstand high temperatures (without deformation or failure).

Resist oxidation and thermal fatigue from combustion gases.
Have high thermal conductivity to manage heat distribution.
Be strong enough to handle internal pressure fluctuations.
Be available and cost-effective (for fabrication in Egypt).
Final Material using for inner and outer casing
Component Material Selected Why This Material?
Inner Casing (Perforated) Inconel 625 High-temperature &
oxidation resistance,
excellent durability
under combustion
conditions.
Outer Casing Stainless Steel 304 Structural support,
lightweight, and cost-
effective.

37
Why We Chose Inconel 625 for the Inner Casing?
Inconel 625 is a nickel-based superalloy with excellent oxidation resistance,
mechanical strength, and thermal stability, making it ideal for components exposed
to combustion temperatures.
Property Inconel 625 Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel
310 304
Max Temperature 1200-1300°C 1100-1150°C 870-925°C
(°C)
Thermal 9.8 W/m·K 24.5 W/m·K
16.2 W/m·K
Conductivity
(W/m·K)
Oxidation Excellent Good Moderate
Resistance
Strength at High Very High High Moderate
Temps
Corrosion Superior Good Average
Resistance
Availability in Limited Rare Easily Available
Egypt

• Final Choice → Inner Casing: Inconel 625

• Why Not Use Stainless Steel? Stainless steel weakens significantly above
1000°C and has lower oxidation resistance.
• Why Not Use Inconel for Both Casings? Inconel is expensive and difficult to
source in Egypt, so we used it only for the inner casing where it’s most needed.
Why We Chose Stainless Steel 304 for the Outer Casing?
SS304 provides good structural support and heat dissipation without adding excessive
weight.
• It won’t be directly exposed to the combustion flame, so SS304’s 870-925°C limit
is sufficient.
• It is much easier to weld and manufacture than Inconel, making fabrication
simpler.
Final Choice → Outer Casing: Stainless Steel 304
Why Not Use SS310? While SS310 has better heat resistance, it is not widely available
in Egypt and doesn’t justify the cost for this section.

38
 4.4.3 Dimensions

Outer Casing Diameter & Thickness

• The outer casing encloses the combustion chamber and directs cooling air
around the inner casing.
• Dimensions selected:
o Outer casing diameter: 160 mm
o Thickness: 2.5 mm

Perforated Hole Calculations for Airflow Cooling

The perforations in the inner casing allow bypass air to cool the structure while
promoting secondary combustion.
• Primary airflow (direct to combustion): 30% of total air
• Secondary airflow (cooling and combustion stabilization): 70% of total air
• Total Airflow (from compressor): 0.2 kg/s
Airflow Split:
• Primary Airflow = 30% × 0.2 kg/s = 0.06 kg/s (goes directly into combustion)
• Secondary Airflow = 70% × 0.2 kg/s = 0.14 kg/s (passes through cooling holes)
Perforation Hole Size Estimation:
• Based on air distribution, we use (18) primary holes and (24) secondary holes.
• Primary hole diameter: 20 mm
• Secondary hole diameter: 15 mm
• Hole distribution: Evenly spaced to prevent hot spots.
Why These Hole Sizes?
o Ensures uniform cooling of the inner casing.
o Maintains combustion stability without disrupting airflow.
o Balances heat dissipation vs. structural integrity.

39
 4.4.4 Combustion Chamber Temperature Analysis

The combustion chamber experiences extreme temperature variations, which require

careful thermal analysis to ensure safe operation.
Max Combustion Temperature (Tmax): 1600 K (~1327°C)
Estimated Wall Temperature (After Cooling): ~1000 K (~727°C)
• Thermal Gradient Consideration: Heat transfer from the combustion gases to
the outer casing occurs via:
o Convection inside the chamber (hot gases transferring heat).
o Conduction through the inner casing.
o Convection outside the casing (cooling airflow absorbing heat).

4.4.5 Fuel Injection & Ignition System

To ensure complete combustion, we use:

• Fuel Injector Type: Pressure atomizing nozzle.
• Injection Pressure: 3-5 bar (for fine atomization).
• Spark Plug: High-energy ignition system placed 150 mm from the air inlet
(based on Fusion 360 design).
Placement Justification:
•
Ensures fuel-air mixing before ignition.
•
Prevents flame blowout by keeping the flame stable.
•
Allows smooth expansion of gases into the turbine section.

40
 4.4.6 Calculations

Fuel Injection & Combustion Process (Energy Balance Calculation)

We need to confirm how much fuel is required per second for proper combustion and
verify combustion efficiency.
Step 1: Calculate the Required Fuel Mass Flow Rate (ṁ_fuel)
Using Jet-A (Kerosene) fuel, we assume:
Lower Heating Value (LHV) of Jet-A: 43 MJ/kg
Air-to-Fuel Ratio (AFR) for Jet Engines: Typically 50:1
Airflow Rate: 0.2 kg/s

𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 =
15
𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = .0133𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Combustion Energy Release (Heat Transfer Analysis)

The amount of heat released (q̇) by the combustion process:

𝑞 =̇ 𝑚̇𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 × 𝐿𝐻𝑉

Total Energy Released per Second = .617 MW

Turbulence & Swirl Velocity for Air Mixing

We need to estimate:
• Swirl velocity (Vswirl) inside the chamber.
• How well the fuel and air mix before combustion.
We approximate swirl number (S):
𝑉∅×𝐷
𝑆= = 250𝑚/𝑠
𝑉𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙×𝐿
We will estimate swirl velocity based on our hole diameters.
41
Turbine Inlet Temperature (T₄) After combustion, the temperature of gases before
entering the turbine must be verified:
𝑞̇
𝑇4 = 𝑇3 + = 1412
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟×𝐶𝑝
Fuel Velocity, Exhaust Velocity & Thrust Estimation

We need to calculate the velocity of the fuel, airflow, and exhaust gases at different
stages to ensure:
• Proper fuel injection dynamics
• Correct velocity profiles for the combustion process
• Exhaust velocity for thrust calculation
Fuel Injection Velocity Calculation
We assume pressure atomization for Jet-A fuel injection. The velocity of fuel exiting
the injector is given by:

2×𝑃𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = √ = 35.2𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Where:
• Pfuel = 5 bar = 500,000 Pa (injection pressure)
• ρfuel= 810 kg/m³ (density of Jet-A fuel)
Air Velocity from the Compressor to the Combustion Chamber
Air exits the compressor and enters the combustion chamber with a certain velocity.
Using continuity equation:
𝑚̇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 14.1𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟×𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

Where:
• m˙air= 0.2 kg/s (air mass flow rate)
• ρair= 1.225 kg/m³ (air density at atmospheric pressure)
• Ainlet= π (D/2)² = π (0.12/2)² = 872.66 m²

42
Exhaust Velocity from the Combustion Chamber
Once combustion occurs, the gases expand and accelerate. The velocity at the turbine
inlet (exhaust velocity from combustion chamber) is calculated using Bernoulli's
principle:

2 × 𝛾 × 𝑅 × 𝑇4
𝑉𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 = √ = 1362𝑚/𝑠
𝛾−1
Where:
• γ=1.4\gamma (specific heat ratio for air)
• R=287 (gas constant for air)
• T4=1412K (from earlier equation)
Final Nozzle Exit Velocity & Thrust Calculation
Once gases pass through the turbine, they exit through the nozzle, which accelerates
the flow to maximize thrust. The velocity at nozzle exit is given by:

(𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = √2 = 986.3𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡
And thrust is given by:

̇
𝐹 = 𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 × 𝑚𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡 = 272𝑁
Where:
• Pcombustion=500,000Pa (assumed combustion pressure)
• Pambient=101,325Pa(atmospheric pressure)
• ρexhaust = 0.9 kg/m³ (estimated exhaust gas density)

43
 Figure 4.4.1: (combustion chamber)

Figure 4.4.2: (inner casing)

Figure 4.4.3: ( section of combustion chamber)

44
 4.5 Nozzle Design

The nozzle is the final component of the turbojet engine, responsible for accelerating
the exhaust gases to generate thrust. The design must ensure:
• Efficient gas expansion for maximum velocity.
• Minimized energy losses due to turbulence or shock waves.
• Structural integrity under high temperatures and pressures.
Nozzle Design Considerations
A convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle is typically used in jet engines to achieve
supersonic exhaust speeds, but since our design operates at a lower compression ratio,
we will use a simple convergent nozzle instead.
Design Choices:
Convergent Nozzle → Best suited for turbochargers operating at lower pressure
ratios.
Material: Stainless Steel 304 → Handles exhaust heat while being easy to
manufacture.
Diverging Option (Expansion Section) → May be added for future improvements.

Parameter Value
Nozzle Inlet Diameter 116mm

Nozzle Outlet Diameter 89mm

Nozzle Length 250

Nozzle Exit Velocity 986.3m/s

Thrust Output 210.2N

Nozzle Heat Resistance & Cooling Considerations

The nozzle experiences high thermal stress, particularly at the throat (narrowest
point). To prevent structural failure:
• Material: Stainless Steel 304 (handles up to 900°C).
• Possible Cooling Mechanism: External airflow cooling to prevent overheating.
Future Consideration: If higher temperatures are reached, thermal coatings or
alternative materials (Inconel) may be needed.

45
Figure 4.5.1: (nozzle side view)

Figure 4.5.2: (nozzle top view)

Figure 4.5.3: (nozzle side view)

46
Chapter 5 : Control Unit & Electronics
5.1 Spark Plug Ignition System

The spark plug ignition system plays a crucial role in initiating combustion in the
turbojet engine. Unlike continuous combustion seen in larger jet engines, a turbojet
startup requires a high-voltage spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture inside the
combustion chamber.

5.1.1 Why Do We Need a Spark Plug for Combustion?

In a turbojet engine, the fuel-air mixture does not self-ignite like in diesel engines.
Instead, an ignition system is required to:
• Ensure proper flame initiation during startup.
• Prevent misfires and ensure consistent combustion.
• Enable a stable and controlled ignition source.
Once the flame is established, the spark plug is no longer needed during steady
operation.

Key components
Component Function
Spark Plug Generates a high-voltage spark to ignite
the fuel-air mixture.
Ignition Coil (Transformer) Converts low voltage from the battery to
high voltage for the spark plug.
Primary Winding Receives low-voltage input and builds up
magnetic energy.

Secondary Winding Steps up voltage to the necessary high

voltage (≈10,000–40,000V).

Battery Supplies the required power for ignition

(typically 12V or 24V in jet igniters).

Figure 5.1.1: (spark

system)

47
 5.1.2 Ignition Coil & Transformer: How It Works
The ignition coil operates using electromagnetic induction, converting low-voltage DC
power from the battery into a high-voltage pulse to fire the spark plug.
Step-by-step process:
1. Battery supplies voltage to the primary winding of the ignition coil.
2. Current flows through the primary winding, creating a magnetic field around
the coil.
3. When the circuit is suddenly interrupted, the collapsing magnetic field
induces high voltage in the secondary winding.
4. This high voltage is sent to the spark plug, causing a high-energy spark to
jump across the plug gap.
5. The spark ignites the compressed fuel-air mixture, starting combustion.

5.1.3 Battery Selection for the Ignition System

A 12V or 24V battery is required to provide sufficient current to the ignition coil.
12V Battery: More common in automotive systems, but may not provide sufficient spark
energy for larger igniters.
24V Battery: Often used in aviation and jet engine igniters due to its higher power
output.
Final Choice: A 24V system is preferred for reliability and stronger ignition
performance.

Figure 5.1.2: (spark components)

48
 5.2 Fuel Injection Control

The fuel injection control system is responsible for delivering the precise amount
of fuel into the combustion chamber, ensuring efficient combustion, proper air-fuel
mixing, and optimal engine performance.

Figure 5.2.1: (fuel injector )

5.2.1 Why Is Fuel Injection Control Important?

A precisely controlled fuel injection system is essential to:
• Ensure stable combustion across all operating conditions.
• Optimize fuel efficiency and prevent excessive fuel consumption.
• Maintain a proper air-to-fuel ratio for complete combustion and minimum
unburned fuel.
• Prevent combustion instability, misfires, or excessive flame temperatures.
Unlike carburetors, which mix fuel and air before entry, a direct fuel injection system
delivers fuel precisely into the combustion chamber, ensuring better atomization and
control.

Figure 5.2.2: (fuel line system )

49
 5.2.2 Key Components of the Fuel Injection Control System
1. Fuel Pump
The fuel pump is responsible for delivering fuel from the storage tank to the injectors at
the required pressure. It ensures a consistent and stable fuel supply to the combustion
chamber. A high-pressure pump is used to achieve proper atomization of the fuel.
2. High-Pressure Fuel Line
This pipeline carries fuel at high pressure from the pump to the injectors. It must
withstand high temperatures and pressure variations without leakage. The material
used is typically stainless steel to ensure durability and heat resistance.
3. Fuel Injectors
Fuel injectors precisely spray atomized fuel into the combustion chamber for efficient
mixing with the incoming compressed air. The injector must operate at high pressure to
create a fine mist that enhances combustion efficiency.
4. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
The ECU controls the amount and timing of fuel injection based on input from sensors.
It ensures that the correct air-fuel ratio is maintained under different engine conditions.
The ECU adjusts fuel delivery based on combustion chamber temperature, airflow, and
operational requirements.
5. Fuel Pressure Regulator
The fuel pressure regulator maintains a stable pressure in the fuel system, preventing
fluctuations that could affect injection performance. It ensures that fuel injectors receive
consistent pressure for efficient atomization.
6. Photoelectric Sensor
A photoelectric sensor monitors the combustion flame inside the chamber. If the flame
goes out unexpectedly, the sensor sends a signal to the ECU to cut off the fuel
supply, preventing unburned fuel from flooding the chamber and causing potential
hazards.

50
 5.3 Photoelectric Sensor for Flame Monitoring

The photoelectric sensor is a crucial safety component in the fuel injection system,
ensuring continuous combustion and preventing dangerous fuel accumulation. It detects
the presence of a flame inside the combustion chamber and sends feedback to the
control unit to regulate fuel flow.
Why is a Photoelectric Sensor Needed?
• Ensures Continuous Ignition – Prevents unburned fuel from accumulating if
the flame extinguishes.
• Prevents Fuel Wastage – Automatically stops fuel injection when no flame is
detected.
• Enhances Safety – Reduces the risk of explosions caused by unburned fuel
buildup.
• Improves Efficiency – Ensures optimal combustion by verifying flame
presence.
Without this sensor, an unexpected flameout could result in unburned fuel
accumulating in the chamber, leading to dangerous combustion instability.

How Does the Photoelectric Sensor Work?

1. The sensor is placed inside the combustion chamber at a position where it
can detect flame presence.
2. A beam of light or infrared signal is used to detect the flame. If the flame is
present, the signal remains steady.
3. If the flame is lost, the sensor immediately sends a signal to the ECU, which
shuts off the fuel injectors to prevent raw fuel from being injected into the
chamber.
4. The ignition system can then be restarted automatically or manually to reignite
the combustion process.
The sensor works in real-time, ensuring constant monitoring and quick response
in case of a flameout.

Figure 5.3.1: (photoelectric

sensor)

51
Integration with the Control Unit
The photoelectric sensor, along with the spark plug ignition system and fuel
injectors, must be controlled by a central unit that manages all electrical
components.
1. Electronic Control Unit (ECU) or Microcontroller → Processes sensor
feedback and controls spark ignition & fuel injection.
2. Wiring & Power Supply (24V System) → Ensures proper power distribution for
all components.
3. Emergency Shutdown Circuit → Cuts fuel flow immediately if the sensor
detects a flameout.
This system ensures automated and safe operation, reducing manual intervention
while maintaining high efficiency.

Importance of the Photoelectric Sensor

• Flame Verification: Confirms that the fuel introduced into the combustion
chamber is being properly burned, preventing unburned fuel accumulation.
• Safety Assurance: Acts as the first line of defense in combustion safety,
ensuring that any interruption in the flame is promptly detected and addressed.

How the Photoelectric Sensor Operates

1. Flame Detection: The sensor monitors the combustion chamber for specific light
wavelengths emitted by a flame, typically in the ultraviolet (UV) or infrared (IR)
spectrum.
2. Signal Transmission: Upon detecting the flame, the sensor sends a continuous
signal to the Electronic Control Unit (ECU), indicating normal combustion
conditions.
3. Flame Loss Response: If the flame is extinguished, the sensor immediately
detects the absence of the specific light wavelengths and signals the ECU to halt
fuel injection, preventing unburned fuel from accumulating.

52
 5.4 Safety Mechanisms & Emergency Shutoff

The safety mechanisms and emergency shutoff system ensure the turbojet engine
operates under controlled and safe conditions by preventing fuel accumulation,
overheating, or uncontrolled combustion. These features are critical in protecting both
the engine components and the surrounding environment from failures or hazardous
events.
Why Are Safety Mechanisms Needed?

1. Prevents Fuel Flooding: If the combustion process fails, unburned fuel can
accumulate, leading to an explosion risk.
2. Protects Components from Overheating: Ensures that high temperatures do
not damage the combustion chamber or turbine.
3. Immediate Engine Shutdown in Emergencies: Stops fuel flow and combustion
instantly if a dangerous condition is detected.
4. Monitors System Integrity: Continuously checks for system failures, leaks, or
sensor malfunctions.
Without these safety systems, the engine could suffer from excessive wear,
uncontrolled combustion, or catastrophic failure.

Key Safety Mechanisms in the Turbojet Engine

1) Photoelectric Flame Sensor Shutdown → Detects flame loss and
immediately stops fuel flow to prevent unburned fuel accumulation.
2) Fuel Pressure Regulator & Relief Valve → Prevents excessive fuel
pressure that could lead to injector damage or leaks.
3) Overheat Protection System (Temperature Sensor) → Monitors
combustion chamber temperature and shuts down fuel injection if it
exceeds safe limits.
4) Emergency Stop Circuit (Kill Switch & Solenoid Valve) → Allows for
immediate manual shutdown in case of a malfunction.
5) Automatic Restart System → If the flame goes out momentarily, the
ECU can attempt to reignite the fuel within a safe time frame before
shutting down the system entirely.

53
 Chapter 6 : Thermal & Fluid Analysis (ANSYS Simulation
Results)

6.1 Temperature Distribution & Material Validation

In this section, we present the temperature distribution analysis conducted on the
combustion chamber using ANSYS. The results validate our material selection and
cooling strategy, ensuring the structural integrity of the chamber under extreme thermal
loads.

6.1.1 Temperature Profile Across the Combustion Chamber

A steady-state thermal simulation was conducted in ANSYS to determine the
temperature distribution across the combustion chamber. The key observations include:
• The highest temperature recorded at the primary combustion zone reached
903°C, aligning with theoretical expectations.
• A gradual temperature drop is observed from the combustion region toward the
outlet, where the gas cools to around 554°C.
• The inner casing experiences the highest thermal stress due to direct exposure
to combustion, while theouter casing benefits from convective cooling.

6.1.2 Impact of Air-Bleed Cooling System

To improve thermal performance, secondary air holes were introduced to

allow cooler air to circulate around the inner casing, reducing thermal loads. The
simulation results show:

• The bypass cooling system effectively lowers the inner casing temperature by
dispersing heat more uniformly.
• This prevents local overheating and extends the lifespan of the chamber
materials.

54
 6.1.3 Material Selection Validation
The material choices were validated by comparing heat dissipation effectiveness:
Material Inner Casing (Inconel
Outer Casing
625)
(Stainless Steel
304)

Thermal Conductivity 9.8 16.2

(W/m·K)
Max Temp Reached (°C) 903 554
Heat Transfer Efficiency High (low conductivity Moderate (aids cooling)
maintains combustion
temperature)
Structural Integrity at Maintained Maintained
Max Temp

This confirms that Inconel 625 is effective in sustaining extreme heat, while
Stainless Steel 304 efficiently dissipates residual thermal energy, preventing
overheating.

Figure 6.1.1 :(temp distribution)

55
Figure 6.1.2:(inner casing temp distribution)

Figure 6.1.3 :(outer casing temp distribution)

56
 6.1.4 Comparison to Theoretical Expectations
The simulated temperature values are in close agreement with expected
combustion chamber performance:

• Theoretical combustion temperature for Jet-A fuel combustion falls between

850-950°C, aligning with the simulated max temperature of 903°C.
• Outlet temperature predictions were between 550-600°C, matching the
simulation result of 554°C.

6.1.5 Thermal Stress & Structural Integrity Analysis

The extreme temperature variations inside the combustion chamber result in

significant thermal stresses, which can lead to material fatigue or structural
deformation over time. To ensure the combustion chamber maintains its integrity under
prolonged operation, a thermal stress analysis was conducted in ANSYS.
Key Observations:
1. Highest Stress Zones:
o The maximum thermal stress is concentrated near the primary
combustion zone where temperatures exceed 900°C.
o The secondary air holes and sharp edges exhibit localized stress
concentrations due to uneven heat distribution.
2. Material Response:
o Inconel 625 (Inner Casing) withstands the highest stress levels due to its
high-temperature strength and low thermal expansion coefficient.
o Stainless Steel 304 (Outer Casing) experiences lower stress levels as it
benefits from convective cooling, but minor expansion is expected.
3. Fatigue & Thermal Cycling Effects:
o The differential expansion between the inner and outer casing must be
managed to prevent warping or cracking over repeated heating cycles.
o The use of flexible expansion joints or thermal coatings can further
enhance durability.
Conclusion:
The thermal stress analysis confirms that the selected materials can withstand the
expected temperature gradients without structural failure. However, incorporating
thermal expansion allowances and cooling improvements can further enhance the
system’s reliability.

57
Chapter 7 : Construction & Assembly

7.1 Overview
This chapter documents the construction and physical assembly of the turbojet
engine carried out during the first phase of implementation. Building upon the theoretical
foundation and simulation work established earlier, the objective at this stage was to
fabricate, assemble, and integrate the primary components of the engine using
available materials, fabrication techniques, and established safety procedures. Although
the team was unable to conduct live testing due to licensing lussues, the engine was
fully constructed and prepared for operational readiness.

7.2 Materials and Tools Used

The following table lists the primary materials and engineered components used in the
construction of the engine, including the combustion chamber casings, end caps,
turbocharger, intake piping, and support flanges:
Component Material / Type Quantity Source / Remarks
Notes
Turbocharger Fiat Bravo 1.4L 1 Used unit, Chosen for
(Gasoline) sourced locally high durability
Combustion Stainless Steel 1 Custom 14 cm
Chamber 304 welded diameter, 2.5
(Outer) mm thick
Combustion Stainless Steel 1 Drilled and 10 cm
Chamber 304 perforated diameter, 2
(Inner) mm thick
End Caps Stainless Steel 2 Plasma cut Seals
(Front and 304 and welded combustion
Rear) chamber
Flange Stainless Steel 1 Custom cut Connects
Connector 304 chamber to
turbo outlet
Air Intake Rubber/Flexible 1 From turbo to Flexible air
Pipe Pipe combustion ducting
chamber intake
Spark Plug Bosch 1 Readily Mounted near
Automotive available fuel inlet
Plug
Ignition Coil 12V Coil Pack 1 Used with Produces
Arduino spark at
ignition timing
Fuel Line and Propane-rated 1 set From local gas Connected to
Regulator hose & valve supplier pressurized
propane tank

58
 7.3 Tools Used

The following tools and fabrication equipment were used for the cutting, drilling, and
welding processes required to construct the engine components:

Tool Type Purpose Remarks

Plasma Cutter Manual Plasma Cutting end caps Used for custom
Cutting Tool from steel sheets circular shapes
High-Speed Metal Cutting Cutting stainless Handheld high-
Rotary Cutter Wheel steel casings to RPM tool
length
Welding Argon TIG Welder Joining stainless Used for end
Equipment steel components caps and casing
welding
Drilling Tools Drill Press + Bits Creating Precision hole
perforation holes array layout
in the inner liner
Grinder / Cutter Angle Grinder Smoothing and Used for edge
shaping cut finishing
edges
Measuring Tools Calipers, Ruler, Precision For fitment and
Tape measurements alignment
Hand Tools Wrenches, Assembly and General
Clamps, Pliers tightening mechanical tasks

7.4 Combustion Chamber construction

The fabrication of the combustion chamber involved several stages, beginning with
the preparation of the inner and outer casings. Both casings were received as standard
stainless steel 304 pipes and were manually cut to the required lengths using a high-
speed rotary cutting tool. The outer casing served as the structural boundary, while the
inner casing was designed to contain the combustion process and direct airflow.

Steps:
1. Both the inner and outer casings were received as standard stainless steel 304
pipes.
2. Each pipe was cut to the required length using a high-speed rotary cutter.
3. A series of perforation holes were drilled into the inner casing using a drill press.

59
 4. Due to instability during the manual drilling process, a laser cutter was later used
to complete the remaining holes with improved accuracy.
5. End caps were plasma-cut from stainless steel sheets to match the casing
diameter.
6. The end caps were welded to both ends of the outer casing using argon arc
welding.
7. The combustion chamber was visually inspected to ensure structural alignment
and cleanliness of drilled holes.
8. The final assembled chamber was then prepared for integration with the
turbocharger and nozzle section.

Figure 7.1.1

60
 7.5 Turbocharger Integration
The following steps outline the process of integrating the turbocharger with the
combustion chamber assembly:
1. The turbocharger, sourced from a 1.4L Fiat Bravo gasoline engine, was
obtained from a crashed car. It was cleaned and visually inspected to ensure it
was in usable condition before installation.
2. A stainless steel flange was designed to match the outlet of the combustion
chamber and the inlet of the turbocharger turbine.
3. This flange was welded to the rear end of the combustion chamber to serve as a
connection point for the turbocharger.
4. The turbocharger was then bolted onto the flange using standard fasteners,
ensuring a tight connection.
5. A silicon base flange was added between the turbo and the combustion chamber
to insure no clearance and no friction between metal parts.
6. A rubber intake pipe was installed between the turbocharger’s compressor inlet
and the intake opening of the combustion chamber.
7. Hose clamps were used to firmly secure the pipe connections at both ends to
prevent any air leakage under pressure.
8. The entire assembly was checked for alignment to ensure an unobstructed and
stable airflow path through the system.

Figure 7.3.1

61
 7.6 Ignition System Installation

The ignition system was assembled as part of the final build process to enable spark-
based combustion initiation. While the theoretical operation and control logic of the
system were discussed in Chapter 5, this section focuses on the physical wiring and
installation steps completed during construction:
1. A 12V automotive battery was connected directly to the ignition coil, supplying
the required power for high-voltage spark generation.
2. The ignition coil was wired to a standard spark plug using an insulated ignition
wire.
3. The spark plug was intentionally not mounted permanently to the combustion
chamber. This decision was made to allow future teams the flexibility to
experiment with spark position and optimize ignition characteristics.
4. The system was tested by manually powering the coil, resulting in a successful
spark observed across the spark plug terminals.
5. A future integration with an Arduino controller was considered but not
implemented in this phase.

Figure 7.6.1

62
 7.7 Fuel System Design and Planned Installation

The fuel system was designed to deliver propane gas safely and reliably into the
combustion chamber under controlled pressure and flow. Although the full system could
not be physically assembled due to licensing restrictions, the layout and components
were planned as follows:
1. A pressurized propane tank serves as the fuel source. The tank would be
secured safely and fitted with a standard propane outlet.
2. A pressure gauge would be connected directly after the tank to monitor fuel
pressure in real time.
3. Downstream of the gauge, two key safety components were included:
o A one-way check valve to ensure fuel only flows toward the combustion
chamber.
o A flame arrestor to prevent any risk of flashback into the tank in the event
of combustion instability.
4. After these safety elements, the propane line would connect to a small fuel
pump. The pump’s role is to maintain sufficient pressure and flow rate to atomize
the fuel.
5. The outlet of the pump would be directed into a high-temperature rated fuel
nozzle placed near the air inlet of the combustion chamber.
This design represents a simple yet functional propane delivery system suitable for a
small-scale turbojet setup. The system prioritizes safety through pressure monitoring
and flame containment, while maintaining flexibility in future control integration. Due to
licensing constraints, the full fuel system could not be constructed or tested during this
project phase.

63
Chapter 8 : Code and Electronics Integration
8.1 Overview

This chapter explains the electronic systems and control logic used for the turbojet
engine. The main purpose of the control system is to monitor important engine values,
manage the ignition and fuel flow, and ensure safety during operation.

An Arduino microcontroller was used as the brain of the system because it is flexible,
easy to program, and works well with many sensors. While not all components were
fully installed during the construction phase, the code was written, tested separately,
and prepared for future use.

The system reads real-time data such as exhaust gas temperature (EGT),
combustion pressure and temperature, inlet conditions, oil pressure, and RPM. Based
on these readings, the code controls the spark ignition, fuel valve, starter motor, and
cooling system. It also includes safety checks to shut down the engine if temperatures
or speeds go beyond safe limits.

8.2 Wiring and Hardware Setup

The wiring setup for the turbojet control system was designed conceptually to support
the code logic. While the actual hardware connections were not implemented during this
project phase, the pin assignments and control structure were fully planned in the
Arduino code to demonstrate how the system would function once connected.

Each sensor and actuator was assigned a specific analog or digital pin on the Arduino.
These mappings were chosen based on standard input/output requirements and the
availability of Arduino pins.

Sensor Inputs (Planned Assignments)

• EGT Sensor → A0
• Fuel Pressure Sensor → A1
• Combustion Chamber Pressure → A2
• Combustion Chamber Temperature → A3
• Inlet Temperature → A4
• Inlet Pressure → A5
• Oil Pressure → A6
• Mass Airflow (MAF) Sensor → A7
• RPM Sensor (Hall Effect) → Digital Pin 2

64
 Output Devices (Planned Control)

• Fuel Control Valve → Digital Pin 3

• Ignition Coil (Igniter) → Digital Pin 4
• Starter Motor → Digital Pin 5
• Oil Pump → Digital Pin 6
• Oil Cooler → Digital Pin 7

Safety Inputs

• Manual Kill Switch → Digital Pin 8

• Over-Temperature Cutoff → Digital Pin 9
• Over-Speed Protection → Digital Pin 10

The system was designed to run on a 12V power source, with appropriate current
protection measures (such as fuses or relays) assumed in the full hardware version.
Although this physical wiring was not completed, the pin structure and logic in the code
serve as a ready-to-build framework for future implementation.

Figure 8.2.1

65
 8.3 Control Logic Summary
The control system logic was designed to automate fuel delivery, ignition, and safety
shutoff using sensor readings from the engine. The core functionality is divided into
several key blocks:

Sensor Monitoring
• Continuously reads analog signals from temperature, pressure, airflow, and RPM
sensors.
• Converts raw sensor data into meaningful units (e.g., °C, bar, RPM, g/s).

Fuel Control
• The code controls a fuel valve.
• If the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) rises above 900°C, the system reduces
fuel flow to prevent overheating.
• Otherwise, fuel continues to flow to maintain engine operation.

Ignition
• The igniteFuel() function activates the spark plug for one second at engine
startup, then turns it off.

Engine Start/Stop
• startEngine() powers the starter motor for two seconds and marks the engine as
running.
• stopEngine() shuts off fuel and marks the engine as stopped.

Safety Protections
• If any of the following are detected:
o Manual kill switch is pressed
o EGT exceeds 1000°C
o RPM exceeds 120,000
• Then the system automatically cuts fuel and shuts down the engine.

Data Logging
• Every loop cycle, the system writes all sensor readings to an SD card (if
connected).
• This provides real-time monitoring and records for later analysis.

66
 8.4 Safety Mechanisms
Safety was a key consideration in the design of the control system. Several features
were programmed into the Arduino code to protect both the engine and the operator
from potentially dangerous conditions during startup and operation. The logic ensures
that the engine shuts down immediately if critical thresholds are exceeded.
The following safety mechanisms were included in the system:

Manual Kill Switch

• Connected to a digital input pin.
• Allows the operator to immediately shut off the engine at any time.
• If activated, fuel flow is cut and the system is marked as not running.

Over-Temperature Protection
• Continuously monitors exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
• If EGT exceeds 1000°C, the system:
o Flags an over-temperature condition.
o Immediately cuts fuel flow.
o Stops the engine.

Over-Speed Protection
• RPM is monitored using a Hall-effect sensor.
• If RPM exceeds 120,000, the system:
o Flags an overspeed condition.
o Shuts off fuel and stops the engine.
These safety checks run in every iteration of the control loop, ensuring immediate
response if any condition is triggered. While the physical sensors and actuators for
these mechanisms were not installed, their logic was fully implemented and tested
within the code.

67
 8.5 Full Code Listing

#include <SPI.h>
#include <Wire.h>
#include <SD.h> // For data logging
#include <MAX31855.h> // Thermocouple interface

#define EGT_SENSOR_PIN A0 // Exhaust Gas Temperature

#define RPM_SENSOR_PIN 2 // RPM Sensor (Hall effect)
#define FUEL_PRESSURE_PIN A1 // Fuel Pressure Sensor
#define COMBUSTION_PRESSURE_PIN A2 // Combustion Chamber Pressure Sensor
#define COMBUSTION_TEMP_PIN A3 // Combustion Chamber Temperature Sensor
#define INLET_TEMP_PIN A4 // Compressor Inlet Temperature
#define INLET_PRESSURE_PIN A5 // Compressor Inlet Pressure
#define OIL_PRESSURE_PIN A6 // Oil Pressure Sensor
#define MAF_SENSOR_PIN A7 // Mass Airflow Sensor

#define FUEL_CONTROL_VALVE_PIN 3 // Fuel Control Valve

#define IGNITER_PIN 4 // Igniter (Spark Plug)
#define STARTER_PIN 5 // Starter Motor
#define OIL_PUMP_PIN 6 // Oil Pump
#define OIL_COOLER_PIN 7 // Oil Cooler

#define MANUAL_KILL_SWITCH_PIN 8 // Manual Kill Switch

#define OVER_TEMP_CUTOFF_PIN 9 // Over-Temp Cutout
#define OVER_SPEED_PROTECTION_PIN 10 // Over-Speed Protection

float egt;
float rpm;
float fuelPressure;
float combustionPressure;
float combustionTemp;
float inletTemp;
float inletPressure;
float oilPressure;
float massAirflow;
bool engineRunning = false;
bool overTempCutoff = false;
bool overSpeedProtection = false;

void readSensors();
void controlFuelFlow();
void igniteFuel();
void startEngine();

68
void stopEngine();
void checkSafety();
void logData();

void setup() {
Serial.begin(115200);
pinMode(IGNITER_PIN, OUTPUT);
pinMode(STARTER_PIN, OUTPUT);
pinMode(OIL_PUMP_PIN, OUTPUT);
pinMode(FUEL_CONTROL_VALVE_PIN, OUTPUT);
pinMode(MANUAL_KILL_SWITCH_PIN, INPUT_PULLUP);
pinMode(OVER_TEMP_CUTOFF_PIN, INPUT);
pinMode(OVER_SPEED_PROTECTION_PIN, INPUT);

if (!SD.begin(10)) {
Serial.println("SD card initialization failed!");
}
}
void loop() {
readSensors();
checkSafety();
controlFuelFlow();
logData();
delay(100);
}
void readSensors() {
egt = analogRead(EGT_SENSOR_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 1000; // °C
rpm = pulseIn(RPM_SENSOR_PIN, HIGH) * 60; // RPM
fuelPressure = analogRead(FUEL_PRESSURE_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 15; // bar
combustionPressure = analogRead(COMBUSTION_PRESSURE_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 5; // bar
combustionTemp = analogRead(COMBUSTION_TEMP_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 1800; // °C
inletTemp = analogRead(INLET_TEMP_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 50; // °C
inletPressure = analogRead(INLET_PRESSURE_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 1.2; // bar
oilPressure = analogRead(OIL_PRESSURE_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 5; // bar
massAirflow = analogRead(MAF_SENSOR_PIN) * (5.0 / 1023.0) * 500; // g/s
}
void controlFuelFlow() {
if (egt > 900) {
digitalWrite(FUEL_CONTROL_VALVE_PIN, LOW); // Reduce fuel flow
} else {
digitalWrite(FUEL_CONTROL_VALVE_PIN, HIGH); // Allow fuel flow
}
}
void igniteFuel() {
digitalWrite(IGNITER_PIN, HIGH);

69
 delay(1000);
digitalWrite(IGNITER_PIN, LOW);
}
void startEngine() {
digitalWrite(STARTER_PIN, HIGH);
delay(2000);
digitalWrite(STARTER_PIN, LOW);
engineRunning = true;
}
void stopEngine() {
digitalWrite(FUEL_CONTROL_VALVE_PIN, LOW);
engineRunning = false;
}
void checkSafety() {
if (digitalRead(MANUAL_KILL_SWITCH_PIN) == LOW) {
stopEngine();
}
if (egt > 1000) {
overTempCutoff = true;
stopEngine();
}
if (rpm > 120000) {
overSpeedProtection = true;
stopEngine();
}
}
void logData() {
File dataFile = SD.open("log.txt", FILE_WRITE);
if (dataFile) {
dataFile.print("EGT: "); dataFile.print(egt);
dataFile.print(" RPM: "); dataFile.print(rpm);
dataFile.print(" Fuel Pressure: "); dataFile.print(fuelPressure);
dataFile.print(" Combustion Pressure: "); dataFile.print(combustionPressure);
dataFile.print(" Combustion Temp: "); dataFile.print(combustionTemp);
dataFile.print(" Inlet Temp: "); dataFile.print(inletTemp);
dataFile.print(" Inlet Pressure: "); dataFile.print(inletPressure);
dataFile.print(" Oil Pressure: "); dataFile.print(oilPressure);
dataFile.print(" Mass Airflow: "); dataFile.println(massAirflow);
dataFile.close();
} else {
Serial.println("Error opening log.txt");
}
}

70
 Chapter 9 : Fuel Comparison and Selection
9.1 Overview

Choosing the right fuel is one of the most important parts of designing a combustion-
based engine. The fuel affects the engine’s performance, temperature, safety, and how
complex the system needs to be.

In the first phase of this project (Project 1), all the calculations and theoretical design
were based on Jet-A fuel (a type of kerosene used in aviation) because it is widely used
in real jet engines and has well-known properties. However, when it came time to build
the engine (Project 2), propane was chosen instead. This was mainly because it was
safer, easier to store and handle, and did not require complex injection systems.

This chapter compares different fuel types that could be used in a small-scale
turbojet engine, including Jet-A, kerosene, gasoline, propane, and others. The
comparison is based on energy content, handling, safety, and practicality. It also
explains why propane was the best choice for our specific design.

9.2 Fuel Comparison Table

Fuel Type LHV Energy Combustion State Flash Ease of Ignition Common
(MJ/kg) Density Temp (°C) at RT Point Storage Ease Use
(MJ/L) (°C)

Jet A 43.1 34.5 980 Liquid 38 Moderate Moderate Aviation

(turbine)

Kerosene 43.0 34.2 980 Liquid 38 Moderate Moderate Heating,

Jet
Engines

Gasoline 44.0 32.0 1020 Liquid -43 Easy High Cars,

Small
Engines

Propane 46.4 25.0 1980 Gas -104 Requires Moderate BBQs,

Tank Labs,
Testing

Methane 50.0 22.2 1950 Gas -188 Cryogenic Low Natural

Gas Grid

Diesel 42.5 35.8 1000 Liquid 52 Moderate Low Trucks,

Heavy
Machinery

71
 9.3 Evaluation and Final Selection

After comparing multiple fuel types based on both technical properties and practical
considerations, propane was selected as the fuel for the physical build of the turbojet
engine. While Jet-A and kerosene are the most realistic choices for aviation-grade
combustion, their handling complexity, storage requirements, and limited availability
made them less suitable for a small-scale experimental project.

Gasoline, while highly energy-dense and easy to ignite, presents significant safety
concerns in open-air combustion environments due to its volatility and low flash point.
Diesel, although powerful and energy-rich, requires high-pressure fuel injection and
atomization, making it technically difficult to implement in a compact test setup.

Propane offered the best balance for this project. It has a high lower heating value
(LHV) of 46.4 MJ/kg, burns cleanly, and is available in pressurized tanks that simplify
fuel delivery. It is also gaseous at room temperature, which eliminates the need for high-
pressure pumps or complex atomizers. Furthermore, propane systems are easier to
control and safer to shut off in case of emergencies, especially when working in an
academic or test environment.

The final selection of propane was made not just for performance but also for
accessibility, safety, and ease of use in a university workshop setting. This choice
allowed the team to focus on other core areas of the project — such as combustion
chamber design, ignition systems, and control logic — without being constrained by fuel
handling challenges.

9.4 Propane-Based Thermodynamic Performance Recalculation

To reflect the switch from Jet-A fuel to propane in the physical build, a full
thermodynamic recalculation was performed using propane’s properties. This analysis
includes energy balance, enthalpy and entropy tracking, estimated thrust output, and
thermal efficiency.
• Combustion Equation
C₃H₈ + 5O₂ + 18.8N₂ → 3CO₂ + 4H₂O + 18.8N₂
• Assumptions
Air-to-fuel ratio (AFR): 15:1
Air mass flow rate: 0.1995 kg/s
Fuel mass flow rate: 0.0133 kg/s
Combustion temperature: 1200 K
Lower Heating Value (LHV) of Propane: 46,300 kJ/kg

72
 • Recalculation Results
Reversible Work Output (W_rev): 1,291,226 kJ/kmol
Actual Work Output (W_actual): 6945 kJ/kg
Maximum Thermal Efficiency: 63.38%
Assumed Actual Efficiency: 15%
Second-Law Efficiency: 23.67%
Exit Velocity: 1231.5 m/s
Estimated Thrust: 262 N

Reactants Table:
Component n hf Δh n(hf+Δh) S° R ln n·S* (J/K)
(mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (J/mol·K)
C₃H₈ 1 -103900 0 -103900 269.917 0 269.917
O₂ 10 0 0 0 205.15 7.38 2125.3
N₂ 37.6 0 0 0 191.61 -3.25 7080.32
Hr = - Sr =
103900 9476.049

Products Table:
Component n hf Δh n(hf+Δh) S° R ln n·S* (J/K)
(mol) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol) (J/mol·K)
CO₂ 3 -393522 44473 -1047147 279.39 17.56 890.85
H₂O 4 -241826 34506 -829280 240.485 15.169 1022.616
O₂ 5 0 29761 1448805 250.011 13.314 1316.625
N₂ 37.6 0 28109 1056898.4 234.227 - 8676.843
3.4599
Hp = - Sp =
670723.6 11906.93

73
 Explanation
The recalculation uses the first law of thermodynamics and ideal gas
assumptions to determine heat input, work output, and kinetic energy from the exhaust
gases. These results were derived using the energy equation:
q – w = Δh + ΔKE + ΔPE
ΔPE was neglected. Solving for kinetic energy, the resulting exit velocity was
approximately 1231.5 m/s, and when multiplied by total mass flow rate (air + fuel), gave
a thrust estimate of 262 N.

Entropy and Enthalpy Tables

The full breakdown of reactant and product enthalpies, standard entropy values,
and total system entropy was calculated and provided in a separate section (see
Appendix B or partner's analysis table). The results confirmed that performance with
propane is comparable to that of kerosene and Jet-A, validating its selection from both
practical and theoretical standpoints.

Chapter 10 : Results & Performance Discussion

10.1 Theoretical Performance Recap

During the design phase of the turbojet engine, all performance calculations were
initially based on Jet-A (kerosene-type) aviation fuel. These theoretical values were
used to estimate engine behavior, size components, and evaluate the expected
performance of the system under optimal operating conditions.
The analysis was built around an assumed air mass flow rate of 0.2 kg/s and a
combustion chamber outlet temperature of approximately 1200 K. Using standard
thermodynamic equations and isentropic flow relations, the following results were
calculated:
• Compressor Pressure Ratio: 3.0–4.0
• Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT): 900°C to 1200°C
• Nozzle Exit Velocity: ~1278 m/s
• Estimated Thrust Output: ~272 N
• Effective Turbine Temperature After Cooling: 765°C – 1020°C
• Fuel Flow Rate (AFR 15:1 to 18:1): 0.0111–0.0133 kg/s

74
Thermal simulations (Chapter 6) confirmed that the inner casing of the combustion
chamber could withstand these conditions when built from Inconel 625, and ANSYS
models showed that heat distribution and structural integrity would be within safe limits
during operation.
These results served as the theoretical baseline for later comparisons and for assessing
the suitability of switching to propane fuel in the physical build.

10.2 Propane Performance Comparison

After switching from Jet-A to propane for the physical build, a full thermodynamic
recalculation was performed to evaluate how the fuel change would impact
performance. Using the same air mass flow rate and similar combustion conditions,
propane was shown to deliver performance values very close to the original theoretical
model.
Key propane-based results (Chapter 9.4) include:
• Exit Velocity: 1231.5 m/s
• Estimated Thrust: 262 N
• Thermal Efficiency (Max): 63.38%
• Actual Work Output: 6945 kJ/kg
• Second-Law Efficiency: 23.67%
When compared to the original Jet-A results:
• Jet-A exit velocity: ~1278 m/s
• Jet-A thrust: ~272 N
• Similar temperature assumptions and flow rates
This comparison shows that propane is a viable substitute for kerosene-based fuels in
small-scale engines. The difference in performance is minimal, and propane's simpler
handling and safety advantages made it the better option for the build.
The performance drop of only ~10 N in thrust and ~3.6% in exit velocity is acceptable
given the experimental nature of the engine and its educational purpose.

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 10.3 Build Outcome
The construction phase of the project focused on physically assembling the main
components of the turbojet engine based on the original design. Despite facing
limitations due to safety regulations and licensing restrictions, the team was able to
fabricate and construct most of the key mechanical systems.
The following components were successfully built and assembled:
• Combustion Chamber: Inner and outer stainless steel 304 casings were cut,
drilled, and welded together with two end caps.
• Ignition System: A spark plug and 12V ignition coil were connected to a power
source and successfully tested outside the chamber.
• Turbocharger Integration: A Fiat 1.4L turbocharger was mounted, with a
flexible rubber pipe connecting it to the combustion chamber intake.
• Basic Fuel System Design: A propane-based fuel line system was designed,
including safety mechanisms and a nozzle, though not physically installed due to
licensing constraints.
• Theoretical Control System: Arduino code was developed to monitor sensor
data and control ignition, fuel flow, and safety features. The electronics were not
hardwired during this phase.
Although live testing was not permitted, the complete engine was physically assembled
and prepared for future operation. The build provided valuable hands-on experience in
cutting, welding, integrating mechanical systems, and planning electronic controls.

10.4 What Would Be Tested (If Run)

If live testing had been permitted, several key performance and safety metrics would
have been monitored to validate the design and assess engine behavior under real
conditions. The testing plan focused on collecting sensor data, measuring thrust output,
and verifying system response.
The following parameters were planned for monitoring during engine operation:
• Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) — to ensure combustion was stable and
within safe thermal limits.
• Combustion Chamber Pressure and Temperature — to assess efficiency and
combustion behavior.
• Inlet Pressure and Temperature — to evaluate compressor performance.

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 • RPM (via Hall-effect Sensor) — to monitor turbocharger speed and avoid
overspeed conditions.
• Oil Pressure — to confirm safe lubrication of the turbocharger.
• Mass Airflow — to determine air-fuel mixture accuracy.
• Fuel Pressure — to ensure consistent delivery from the propane tank.
Additionally, the following outcomes would have been tested:
• Thrust Measurement: Using a simple thrust stand or force sensor to record net
engine thrust (expected ~260–270 N).
• Ignition Reliability: Confirming that the spark system ignites the fuel-air mixture
consistently during startup.
• Fuel Cutoff and Emergency Shutdown: Ensuring the Arduino logic safely shuts
off the system if dangerous conditions are detected (over-temp, over-speed,
manual kill switch).
Data from all sensors would have been logged to an SD card for post-test analysis,
enabling a complete performance review and validation of the theoretical model.

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Chapter 11 : Future Work and Recommendations
While this project successfully demonstrated the design, construction, and
theoretical control of a small-scale turbojet engine, there are several areas that future
teams can explore to push the system further and turn it not a fully functional Engine.

The most immediate recommendation is to secure the necessary licenses and safety
approvals to conduct live fuel and ignition tests. The current build is structurally and
electronically ready for testing but was not permitted to run under government
regulations. Allowing live operation would allow for direct validation of the code, sensor
readings, and thrust output.

Another important improvement is the completion and physical implementation of the

control system. Although the Arduino code was fully written and the sensor logic
planned, none of the sensors were physically connected. Future work should include
wiring all sensors and actuators, integrating relays or MOSFETs for high-power
components, and using data logging to analyze engine behavior in real time.

Additionally, a properly designed thrust stand should be developed to measure net

output accurately. This would give more meaningful performance metrics and allow
direct comparison with the theoretical predictions made in this report.

Finally, the nozzle remains unbuilt. Since the nozzle is critical for producing high-
velocity exhaust flow and maximizing thrust, future work should focus on selecting or
fabricating a converging or converging-diverging nozzle, depending on the desired
exhaust conditions and Mach number.

This project lays a solid foundation. With testing and a few key additions, future teams
can take it from a theoretical and structural build to a fully functioning, data-driven
propulsion system.

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Chapter 12 : Conclusion

The construction of a functional turbojet engine using a car turbocharger was a

challenging but successful engineering project. Starting from early design and analysis
to hands-on assembly, the work required knowledge from various areas such as
thermodynamics, materials, control systems, and mechanical construction.
Design Process and Key Components
Initial calculations were based on Jet A fuel, with performance goals set for thrust,
compression, and combustion efficiency. CAD tools like Fusion 360 and simulation
software such as ANSYS were used to model and analyze the components. A major
challenge was designing a combustion chamber that could handle extreme heat safely.
The final design used an inner liner with cooling holes to reduce thermal stress, with
Inconel 625 selected for the liner and Stainless Steel 304 for the outer casing. These
materials were confirmed to be suitable through thermal and structural simulations.
The turbocharger selected was from a Fiat Bravo 1.4L diesel engine. Diesel
turbochargers were found to offer better durability and efficiency at lower rotational
speeds, making them more suitable for this type of engine. Several modifications were
made to adapt the turbocharger to jet engine use.
Construction and Adaptations
During construction, several practical issues arose. The fuel system originally designed
for kerosene or Jet A was replaced with a propane-based system, due to propane's
easier handling, lower cost, and cleaner combustion. This required the addition of a
regulator, a propane-compatible nozzle, and flame stabilization features.
Thermodynamic performance was recalculated for propane, and a detailed comparison
between fuel types was included in the report.
The combustion chamber and support structure were assembled using welding, drilling,
and manual machining techniques. Tolerance and alignment issues required rework to
ensure reliable fitting. The ignition system was built using an Arduino microcontroller,
high-voltage ignition coil, MOSFET circuit, and a protective flyback diode. Additional
safety components included a photoelectric flame sensor and an emergency shutdown
switch.
Results and Observations
Due to regulatory limitations, engine testing could not be completed. However, the
engine was fully constructed, all subsystems were integrated, and functionality was
verified through simulations and dry runs. Flow analysis and thermal modeling provided
insight into pressure behavior, combustion temperature, and predicted thrust using
propane.

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Lessons and Future Development
The project offered valuable lessons in real-world problem solving, system integration,
and material behavior under extreme conditions. Budget limitations and technical
constraints required ongoing adjustments to design and construction plans. Component
compatibility, heat resistance, and fuel properties proved to be crucial factors
influencing the final build.
Potential improvements for future versions include adding a variable-area nozzle to
improve thrust control, enhancing the control unit with real-time feedback, and
performing a complete hot-run test under supervised conditions.
This project demonstrates that small-scale turbojet engines can be built using
repurposed automotive components and simple tools. It provides a practical example of
how core aerospace principles can be applied in an educational setting, and lays the
foundation for future work in small-scale jet propulsion systems.

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Chapter 13 : References

1. https://youtu.be/33tQaFnb8mQ?si=Pvq5oCmnun-Tw72E
2. https://youtu.be/Gh34A0b8MrE?si=rk5s0iX2JkwXbn1j
3. https://turbojets.weebly.com/
4. https://files.siemon.com/transfer/ysea/YSEA-
YUAA%20Turbojet%20Engine%20Project%20Report%202016-
2017.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
5. https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/final-year-project-report-jet-
engine/62706214?utm_source=chatgpt.com
6. https://www.academia.edu/83473125/Investigation_of_Turbocharger_Conversion_to_Turb
ojet_Engine?utm_source=chatgpt.com
7. https://www.depts.ttu.edu/me/CapstoneDesign_Projects/20-Small-scale-jet-engine-
poster.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
8. https://www.pmu.edu.sa/academics/senior_projects_me_dept_coe_udp?utm_source=ch
atgpt.com

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