Cellulose

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-024-06090-6

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Extraction and characterization of morphological, physical,

physiochemical, thermal, and chemical composition of five
bamboo malaysian species
Husain Siti Nor Hawanis · Rushdan Ahmad Ilyas · Rafidah Jalil ·
Rushdan Ibrahim · Rohah Abdul Majid · Nur Hafizah Ab Hamid

Received: 15 January 2024 / Accepted: 24 July 2024

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2024

Abstract Bamboo fibres, which are widely considering properties such as high cellulose content
regarded as a contemporary environmentally sustain- and long fibers. The objective of this study is to con-
able resource, have been utilised in various indus- duct a comprehensive analysis of the morphological,
tries including construction materials and packaging physiochemical, thermal, and chemical properties of
sectors. Malaysia possesses a diverse array of bam- five specific bamboo species that are often found in
boo species, rendering it a significant resource for Malaysia: Gigantochloa scortechinii (GS), Gigan-
exploration. Five out of the 69 bamboo species dis- tochloa wrayi (GW), Gigantochloa levis (GL), Schiz-
covered in Malaysia were selected for their suitabil- ostachyum grande (SG) and Dendrocalamus asper
ity and availability in the pulp and paper industry, (DA). Selected from a pool of 69 species based on
their availability, these various types of bamboo were
subjected to analysis using advanced scientific tech-
H. S. N. Hawanis · R. A. Ilyas (*) · R. A. Majid · niques such as Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM),
N. H. Ab Hamid Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR),
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), and X-ray Dif-
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor,
Malaysia fraction (XRD). Furthermore, a chemical composi-
e-mail: [email protected] tion study was performed to clarify the presence of
cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and ash in all five
R. A. Ilyas
species. By employing various analytical methodolo-
Centre for Advanced Composite Materials (CACM),
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, gies, this study investigates and records the properties
Johor, Malaysia offered by the bamboo species, providing a significant
contribution to the comprehension and knowledge of
R. A. Ilyas
their potential applications across diverse disciplines.
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products
(INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), This holds relevance as all five bamboo species are
43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia readily available but remain underutilized for further
applications in various fields especially in packaging
R. A. Ilyas
industries.
Centre of Excellence for Biomass Utilization, Universiti
Malaysia Perlis, 02600 Arau, Perlis, Malaysia
Keywords Bamboo species · Chemical
R. Jalil · R. Ibrahim composition · FTIR · TGA​· SEM · XRD
Biomass Technology Programme, Forest Products
Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM),
52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia

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Introduction industrial crop and a rapidly maturing woody plant,

emerges as a compelling alternative due to its shorter
The escalating awareness of the environmental threat maturation period of three to five years compared to
posed by plastic waste, with approximately 8 mil- conventional hardwoods requiring 20 to 120 years.
lion tons entering the ocean annually, has become a Furthermore, bamboo is acknowledged as an eco-
global concern (Groh et al. 2019; Hawanis and Ilyas friendly and remarkably renewable material capable
2022; Kibria et al. 2023). This issue has been exac- of substituting traditional wood sources (Khalil et al.
erbated by the growth of global plastic output, which 2012; Suhaily et al. 2013; Liu and Yen 2021; Hassan
has surged by 9% yearly since 1950, reaching a stag- et al. 2023; Hawanis et al. 2024). The advantageous
gering 1,722 billion Euros in sales by 2015 (Jasmani mechanical properties of bamboo fiber, primarily
et al. 2021). Factors such as industrial production, attributed to its unidirectional fiber arrangement and
food trading, e-commerce, and the demand for flex- cellulose composition, make it a promising candidate.
ible packaging have significantly contributed to the In Malaysia, bamboo cultivation yields a total of
increasing need for packaging materials (Escursell 33 million tonnes, encompassing 69 native bam-
et al. 2021; Arora et al. 2023). boo species, of which 13 are commercially uti-
As the demand for packaging materials continues lized (Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia (Malay-
to rise, there is a pressing necessity for sustainable, sia), 2022). Thirteen species of Malaysian bamboo
eco-friendly, and cost-effective alternatives. Paper- include Gigantochloa thoii, Gigantochloa scorte-
based options are emerging as promising replace- chinii, Gigantochloa ligulata, Gigantochloa wrayi,
ments for oil-based materials like EPS and PET, Gigantochloa brang, Schizostachyum brachycladum,
offering renewable, sustainable, compostable, and Schizostachyum grande, Schizostachyum zollingeri,
biodegradable alternatives (Rodríguez et al. 2008; Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa
Didone and Tosello 2019). The expansion of sustain- heterostachya, Bambusa vulgaris cv Vittata, and
able packaging is contingent on both government pol- Dendrocalamus asper (Ainun et al. 2023). However,
icies and consumer demand. However, the reliance on the bamboo industry in Malaysia remains relatively
wood as the primary raw material in pulp and paper modest, generating low-value products. According to
production poses challenges, with approximately the Malaysian Timber Industry Board (MTIB) data
90–92% of global manufacturing using wood, pre- from 2018, the country’s bamboo product exports
dominantly in affluent nations like Canada and the US amounted to RM9.9 million (USD2.4 million), while
(Verkerk et al. 2021). imports reached RM96.1 million (USD23.3 million)
The growing environmental concerns and the (Rani 2019). Hence, the emphasis of this study will
depletion of wood resources are driving a quest for be on the five predominant Malaysian bamboo spe-
alternative raw materials, focusing particularly on cies in Malaysia, identified in Fig. 1, namely Gigan-
natural fibers. Natural fibers, known for their renew- tochloa scortechinii (Semantan), Gigantochloa wrayi
ability, recyclability, and biodegradability, present (Beti), Gigantochloa levis (Beting), Schizostachyum
advantages such as cost-effectiveness, lightweight grande (Semeliang), and Dendrocalamus asper
properties, low density, and high specific stiffness and (Betong). The selection of these bamboo species is
mechanical properties. This shift towards natural fib- determined by the extent of their plantation areas in
ers provides a promising avenue for sustainable and Malaysia (FDPM 2016). However, it is noteworthy
environmentally friendly solutions in response to the that despite their availability, these bamboo species
critical issues of deforestation and resource scarcity remain underutilized.
(Hawanis and Ilyas 2022; Ilyas et al. 2023). In the tropical rainforest climate of Malaysia,
These natural fibers, including cotton, jute, hemp, the accessibility and abundant availability of eco-
flax, sisal, and bamboo, serve as diverse sources of nomical bamboo fibers address sustainable technol-
cellulose with applications spanning civilian con- ogy needs, particularly in the packaging industry.
struction, paper and pulp manufacturing, furniture However, limited information exists regarding the
production, packaging and storage, and the auto- types of bamboo suitable for utilization in Malay-
motive industry (Alptekin and Çallioğlu 2023; sia. Hence, the primary objective of this research is
Saravanan et al. 2023). Bamboo, recognized as an to provide essential insights into the integration of

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packaging solutions, thereby contributing to the

development of eco-friendly alternatives in the
packaging industry.

Materials and methods

Materials

Five commercial bamboo species native to Malaysia,

namely Gigantochloa scortechinii (GS), Gigantoch-
loa wrayi (GW), Gigantochloa levis (GL), Schizos-
tachyum grande (SG), and Dendrocalamus asper
(DA), was harvested from a bamboo farm at the For-
est Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) in Kepong,
Selangor, and Jeli, Kelantan.
Fig. 1  Bamboo species distribution in Peninsular Malaysia
Preparation of bamboo fiber
non-wood resources, with a specific focus on five
bamboo species, into Malaysia’s paper manufac- The initial step involves thoroughly cleaning the bam-
turing sector. The aim is to contribute to the sus- boo to ensure it is free from soils or any particles.
tainable management of natural resources while Subsequently, the bamboo was cut into 2-m billets,
addressing the challenges associated with synthetic which then be manually transformed into slabs meas-
fibers in the packaging industry. Additionally, the uring 100 cm by 15 cm at the sawmill. As depicted
integration of advanced analytical techniques such in Fig. 2, these slabs were further manually cut into
as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier- chips with a thickness ranging between 2 to 4 mm
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermo- for subsequent fiber extraction using a chemical
gravimetric analysis (TGA), and X-ray diffraction extraction method. The cleaned bamboo chips were
(XRD) is essential to comprehensively understand oven-dried overnight at 60 °C, and the weight of the
the physical and chemical properties of bamboo fib- obtained dry bamboo fibers was recorded.
ers. Each of these analytical methods offers unique
insights into different aspects of the material, thus Chemical composition analysis
providing a holistic understanding that is crucial for
evaluating its suitability for various applications, The chemical compositions were determined for all
particularly in the context of sustainable packaging types of bamboos. The percentage of holocellulose
solutions. By employing these advanced techniques, was determined according to the method described
the study aims to enhance understanding and high- by Wise et al. (1946). Determination of lignin
light the potential of bamboo fibers for sustainable (acid insoluble) and α-cellulose and contents were

Fig. 2  Materials prepara-

tion

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determined according to TAPPI standard methods Crystallinity analysis X‑ray

T 222 (acid-insoluble lignin in wood and pulp) and
T 203 (alpha-, beta- and gamma-cellulose in pulp), X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a very powerful technique
respectively. It should be noted that the procedure which is widely used for characterizing crystalline
used for this standard has been modified by the Insti- materials. In this study, XRD patterns were recorded
tute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Univer- using a SIEMENS D5000 X-ray powder diffractom-
siti Putra Malaysia (INTROP-UPM). eter with Ni-filtered Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5418 Å)
over an angular range of 5–40°, with a step size of
0.01°. The percentage of crystallinity index (CrI) was
Morphological analysis via scanning electron calculated using Eq. (1) from Segal et al. (1959):
microscopy (FESEM)
(1)
( )
Crl (%) = I200 − Iam ∕I200 × 100
The bamboo morphology and fiber arrangement were
determined by using a scanning electron microscope where ­Iam represents the minimum intensity measured
(SEM) (Model S-3400N, Hitachi, Japan). Prior to the at 2θ = 18.5°, between the 110 and 200 peaks, and
scanning, the samples were sputtering-coated with I200 is the height of the 200 peak (2θ = 22°).
10 nm platinum under vacuum. The SEM images of
the samples were taken at different magnifications to
attain clearer images.
Results and discussion

Fourier transform infrared (FT‑IR) analysis Chemical composition analysis

FTIR was carried out to understand chemical changes Understanding the essential makeup of natural fib-
in the fiber. The identification of functional groups in ers, where cellulose serves as the foundational com-
the bamboo fiber samples was conducted using a Fou- ponent and both hemicellulose and lignin contribute
rier transform infrared spectrophotometer (IRTracer to strength and structural stability, is imperative for
100, Shimadzu, Japan). The samples underwent 32 assessing mechanical durability (Moshi et al. 2020;
scans using the Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR) Syduzzaman et al. 2020; Hawanis et al. 2024). The
mode. FT-IR spectra of the samples were collected in chemical composition analysis of fiber is presented in
the range of 4000–500 c­ m−1. Ground samples were Table 1, which outlines a comparison with the chemi-
mixed with KBr, after which the mixture was pressed cal composition of bamboo fibers from five different
into thin transparent films that were analysed. species as well as their comparison to previous stud-
ies. The table data indicates that among the bamboo
species studied, GS exhibits the highest cellulose
Thermal analysis
content at 54.42%, followed by SG (54.01%), GW
(47.98%), DA (44.71%), and GL (41.43%). Notably,
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was employed
all bamboo species demonstrate relatively high cellu-
to examine the thermal characteristics, including
lose content, aligning with the ideal range of 34–65%
decomposition temperature and weight reduction,
recommended for their utilization as natural resources
observed during the process of deterioration. A speci-
in pulp and paper production, as highlighted by Baj-
men weighing approximately 9–13 mg was intro-
pai (2021) and, Iroegbu and Ray (2021). Additionally,
duced into the balance system and subjected to heat-
each bamboo variant shows a significant yet accept-
ing from 30 to 850 ˚C at a rate of 10 ˚C per minute
able level of lignin content, not surpassing 32%, and
under a nitrogen environment. The determination of
minimal ash content, staying below 3.2%.
the first degradation temperature was conducted by
Optimal lignin and ash content are crucial con-
analysing the weight loss curves created using TGA
siderations in pulp and paper production. Lignin,
software. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
when within the recommended range, contributes to
was conducted using a Thermogravimetric Analyzer,
paper strength and quality (Bajpai 2021). Excessive
TGA 4000, Perkin Elmer, USA.
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Table 1  Chemical Composition of Different Bamboo Species

Species Holocellulose (wt%) Lignin (wt%) Ash (wt%) References
Cellulose (wt%) Hemicellulose (wt%)

Gigantochloa
G. Scortechinii (GS) 54.42 13.66 19.45 1.87 Current study
G. Wrayi (GW) 47.98 13.96 24.75 1.1 Current study
G. Levis (GL) 41.43 14.11 30.49 3.12 Current study
Schizostachyum
S. Grande (SG) 54.01 13.88 20.28 1.4 Current study
Dendrocalamus
D. Asper (DA) 44.71 14.83 25.05 1.14 Current study
Gigantochloa
G. Scortechinii 47.7 68.3 26 2 (Moradbak et al. 2016)
G. Scortechinii 46.87 – 32.55 2.84 (Wahab et al. 2013)
G. Wrayi 37.66 – 30.04 0.88 (Wahab et al. 2013)
G. Levis 33.8 – 26.5 1.3 (Wahab et al. 2013)
G. Brang 51.58 – 24.83 1.25 (Wahab et al. 2013)
Bambusa
B. Tuldoides 67.2 ± 4.9 25.5 ± 7.8 3.7 ± 1.1 (Correira 2011)
B. Vulgaris 50–55 – 25.5 2.2 (Shamsuri and Main 2021)
B. Vulgaris 67.8–69.6 22.7–23.9 5.7–5.9 (Liese and Tang 2015)
B. Vulgaris 73.67 25.79 2.14 (Macedo et al. 2014)
B. Vulgaris 39.05 – 17.31 2.06 (Junior et al. 2014)
B. Blumeana 40.3–45.1 – 20.5–22.7 – (Liese and Tang 2015)
Dendrocalamus
D. Hamiltonii 45.1 73.8 23.9 2.6 (Sharma et al. 2011)
D. Asper 78.4–80.5 26.9–28.2 – (Liese and Tang 2015)
D. Giganteus 47.5 ± 0.4 15.35 ± 0.42 26.25 ± 0.07 2.86 ± 0.45 (Hernandez-Mena et al. 2014)
D. Giganteus – – 22.66–24.11 0.64–1.1 (Marinho et al. 2012)
D. Latiflorus 65.52 ± 2.37 26.19 ± 1.49 2.96 ± 0.83 (Lin et al. 2016)
Phyllostachys
P. Bambusoides 56.12 21.26 1.61 (Kerschbaumer 2014)
P. Makinoi 68.22 ± 2.63 28.78 ± 1.71 1.75 ± 0.52 (Lin et al. 2016)
P. Nigra 52.18 23.83 0.81 (Kerschbaumer 2014)
P. Pubescens 64.96 ± 2.43 28.80 ± 1.93 1.73 ± 0.41 (Lin et al. 2016)
P. Pubescens 44.96 23.53 1.32 (Kerschbaumer 2014)

lignin, however, may require more extensive process- can adversely impact the bonding between fibers and
ing (Jardim et al. 2022). Similarly, maintaining low matrices, disrupt the curing process of the matrices,
ash content is essential, as excessive ash can inter- and lead to bursts in the final product during pressing
fere with the papermaking process and reduce paper stages, particularly if moulding technique is employed
quality. Hence, the detected lignin and ash concen- (Rusch et al. 2023).
trations in the examined bamboo species conform to
the preferred standards for efficient pulp and paper Morphological of five malaysian bamboo
manufacturing. Elevated levels of extractives, ash,
and lignin, however, can diminish the mechanical The morphological analysis of the five indigenous
attributes of the composites (Junior et al. 2014). They Malaysian bamboo species was conducted using

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Fig. 3  SEM images of a GS; b GW; c GL; d SG and e DA at 100 μm

scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In Fig. 3,

SEM images captured at 100 µm showcase the fiber
morphology for each bamboo species. From the
SEM image shown in Fig. 3, it is seen that most of
the bamboo fibers had multilamellate cell walls with
various layers same as images by Yueping’s study
(2010). Notably, GW, SG, and DA exhibit the largest
fiber diameter, while GS and GL fall into the medium
diameter category. This variation is likely attributed
to distinct genetic characteristics and anatomical
structures inherent in each bamboo species (Bakshi
and Rasool 2015). Genetic factors, which exert influ-
ence over fiber morphology and structure, are pivotal
in determining the dimensions and shapes of bam-
boo fibers, including their diameter. Moreover, the Fig. 4  FTIR spectra of GS, GW, GL, SG and DA bamboo
anatomical composition of bamboo, encompassing fiber samples
the arrangement of fibers, vessels, and other cellular
components, can differ among species, thereby con-
tributing to discrepancies in fiber diameter (Rowson of various functional groups. Figure 4 depicts the
Ali et al. 2021; Yang et al. 2021; Feng 2022). distinctive functional group patterns present in the
untreated forms of five distinct Malaysian bamboo
Physiochemical properties fibers, and Table 2 offers a concise summary of the
identified FTIR bands. It is worth noting that the
Examining the structural and physicochemical char- FTIR spectra of these bamboo fibers display compa-
acteristics of polysaccharides involves the effective rable absorbance peaks, suggesting a uniform chemi-
use of FTIR analysis. FTIR spectra were documented cal composition across all samples. The absorption
for all five bamboo samples to assess the presence peak around 1602 ­cm−1 was linked to adsorbed water

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Table 2  Summary of the IR bands observed for the bamboo fibers

Band assignment Wave- Structural polymer References
number
­(cm−1)

Cellulose 897 C–H rocking vibrations (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)

Cellulose 1160 C–O–C asymmetric valence vibration (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
Cellulose 1323 C-H2 rocking vibration (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
Cellulose 1371 C-H2 deformation vibration (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
Cellulose 1423 – (He et al. 2019)
Cellulose and hemicellulose 1035 C–O, C–C stretching and C–OH bending (Rodríguez et al. 2008; Afrin et al. 2012)
Lignin and lignocellulose 1457 aromatic skeletal vibration (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
Lignin 1241 C–C plus C-O plus C = O stretch; G con- (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
densed > G etherified
Lignin 1602 aromatic skeletal vibration plus (C = O), stretch- (Afrin et al. 2012; Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
ing; S > G; G condensed > G etherified
Tannin 1634 C = C cis stretching of unsaturated acids or sterols (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
– 2908 C–H stretching in methyl and methylene group (Afrin et al. 2012; Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
– 3334 O–H (Yueping et al. 2010; Afrin et al. 2012;
Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)

(Alemdar and Sain 2008a; Ilyas et al. 2017a, b). 1035 cell wall thickness among all bamboo species. The
­cm−1 band represents the typical cellulose finger print relationship between fiber diameter, cell wall thick-
where it is assigned to the complex vibration associ- ness, and light absorption was noted, with thicker
ated with C–O, C–C stretching and C–OH bending fibers being inclined to absorb more radiation, con-
in polysaccharides (Rodríguez et al. 2008; Ilyas et al. sequently resulting in a lower transmittance value.
2017a, b), O–H stretching is evident at 3334 ­cm−1 These findings align with Li’s (2019) research, which
and C–H stretching in methyl and methylene group is similarly concluded that increased wood fiber thick-
seen around 2908 c­ m−1 (Yueping et al. 2010; Afrin ness led to a further decrease in transmittance.
et al. 2012; Rasheed et al. 2020).
Lignin is visible in the range from 1200 to 1550 Thermal properties
where 1602 ­cm−1 and 1634 ­cm−1 band are noncon-
jugated carbonyl stretching, and conjugated carbonyl Determining the thermal stability of lignocellulosic
stretching, respectively (Afrin et al. 2012). 1600, fibers is essential, especially when considering their
1505 and 1425 c­m−1 bands are aromatic skeletal application in pulp and paper production, where spe-
vibrations. The broad bands within the 3750 − 3000 cific properties are achieved by subjecting the fibers
­cm−1 region corresponded to − OH stretching vibra- to temperatures. Figure 5 presents thermal analysis
tion absorption, and bands at 2890 ­cm−1 were attrib- data results for five distinct bamboo fibers. In the fig-
uted to C–H stretching vibrations, characteristic ure, the raw TG curve is illustrated as a function of
bands of cellulose (An et al. 2016, 2020; Salari et al. temperature. The thermal analysis for bamboo fibers
2019; Rasheed et al. 2020; Ilyas et al. 2023). Further- typically occurs in two stages (Rasheed et al. 2020).
more, distinctive bands at 898 ­ cm−1 (β-glycosidic Figure 5 indicates the initial stage (40–100 °C),
−1
bonds bending) and 1026 c­m (C − OH stretching) involving the evaporation of moisture content, and the
constituted unique fingerprint regions for all bamboo second stage (350–580 °C), involving the decompo-
samples (Rasheed et al. 2020) which quite close to all sition of volatile compounds such as hemicellulose,
the peak for this studies. The SG samples exhibited cellulose, and lignin. Studies by Ilyas (2018) and
the lowest transmittance compared to all other sam- Megashah (2018) further delineate the decomposition
ples. This observation was substantiated by the fact phases: moisture evaporation, hemicelluloses decom-
that SG demonstrated the thickest fiber diameter and position (220–315 °C), cellulose decomposition

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Fig. 5  TG curves for GS, GW, GL, SG and DA bamboo Fig. 6  X-ray diffraction patterns of GS, GW, GL, SG and DA

Crystallinity analysis
(315–400 °C), lignin decomposition (165–900 °C),
and ash formation (1723 °C). The thermal and mechanical properties of the pro-
Specifically, cellulose decomposition temperatures duced paper can be significantly influenced by the
were recorded as 245 °C (GL), 252 °C (GW and GL), crystallinity of individual fibers. Hence, an XRD
255 °C (GS), and 280 °C (DA). Notably, DA fibers study was undertaken to explore the crystallinity of
exhibited a higher degree of molecular arrangement, five raw Malaysian bamboo samples. Each of the five
initiating degradation at a higher temperature, requir- bamboo fibers exhibits characteristic crystalline peaks
ing more heat energy for degradation (Merci et al. of natural cellulose, with two diffraction peaks around
2015; Rasheed et al. 2020). The final temperature 18° and 22°, and the most prominent peak observed
recorded for all bamboo fiber types was 580 °C. The at 22°. Based on the XRD graph (Fig. 6), the peaks
degradation of cellulosic components occurs between at 2θ values around 18° and 22° in all diffractograms
245 °C and 375 °C, involving processes such as decar- belong to the typical cellulose I form, distinct from
boxylation, depolymerization, and decomposition of the cellulose II structure characteristic of viscose
cellulose and hemicellulose fragments. Beyond 385 (French 2014, 2020). The CrI for each sample was
°C, biomass undergoes aromatization, decomposition, calculated and is presented in Table 3. In the current
combustion, lignin pyrolysis, and char residue forma- study, the CrI for the raw bamboo fibers was highest
tion (Jonoobi et al. 2011; Kan et al. 2020). The graph in GS (77.18%), SG (74.23%), and GW (72.56%),
(Fig. 5) also reveals the maximum weight loss tem- while lowest in GL (72.14%) and DA (69.83%). The
peratures for GL, SG, GS, GW, and DA as 350 °C, crystallinity for raw DA fibers, which is the lowest
360 °C, 375 °C, and 385 °C, respectively. In terms of in this study, was still higher compared to fibers like
thermal stability, SG and GL exhibit the least stabil- sugar palm fiber (SPF) (55.8%) (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b),
ity, while GS, GW, and DA demonstrate nearly simi- and chemically treated bamboo (53%) (Yueping et al.
lar thermal stability. 2010) and flax (67%) (Yueping et al. 2010).
A greater presence of hemicellulose typically The elevation in CrI observed in chemically
results in lower thermal stability, clarifying the rea- treated fibers stems from the removal of amorphous
son behind the diminished thermal stability observed substances, including lignin and hemicellulose, dur-
in SG and GL. Additionally, another critical factor ing delignification and mercerization treatments, a
impacting thermal stability is crystallinity. Elevated phenomenon supported by various studies (Alem-
crystalline regions in cellulose have the potential dar and Sain 2008b; Chen and Wang 2010; Yueping
to enhance its thermal stability, as highlighted by et al. 2010). Our findings demonstrate a direct cor-
D’Acierno (2020) and Marinho (2013). relation between Crystallinity Index (CrI) and cellu-
lose content. SPF fibers, with a cellulose composition
of 43.88%, exhibited the lowest CrI, attributable to

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Table 3  Summary of the Materials Main characteristic Reference

crystallinity index observed
for the bamboo and other 2θ am (º) 2θ 200 (º) Xc (%)
fibers
Bamboo—GS 18.70 22.44 77.18 Current study
Bamboo—GW 18.80 22.29 72.56 Current study
Bamboo—GL 19.00 22.40 72.14 Current study
Bamboo—SG 18.50 22.30 74.23 Current study
Bamboo—DA 18.80 22.23 69.83 Current study
SPF 17.30 21.80 55.80 (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b)
Flax – – 67.00 (Yueping et al. 2010)
Bamboo – – 53.00 (Yueping et al. 2010)
Oil Palm – – 51.00–55.00 (Yasim-anuar et al. 2017)

their lower cellulose content. Following alkali treat- cellulose I form in all bamboo species, with a nota-
ment, there was a substantial increase in CrI (Ilyas ble increase in crystallinity after chemical treatments.
et al. 2017a, b). This contrasts with findings from This enhancement underscores the substantial impact
Yueping’s study (2010), where chemically treated of removing amorphous substances on the overall
bamboo fibers still yielded lower CrI values com- fiber structure. Collectively, these findings contribute
pared to our results. It is suggested that non-cellulose to a deeper understanding of the diverse attributes of
substances may influence XRD outcomes. Prolonged bamboo species, providing valuable knowledge for
alkali treatment or delignification treatment time is optimizing their utilization in the paper industry.
reported to facilitate the removal of most lignin con-
tent from fibers, concurrently increasing the crystal- Acknowledgments The authors would like to express grati-
tude for the financial support received from the Universiti
linity index (Ilyas et al. 2017a, b). Additionally, it is Teknologi Malaysia for the project “The impact of Malay-
noted that the diffraction peak at 22° becomes sharper sian bamboos’ chemical and fiber characteristics on their
after chemical treatment, indicative of enhanced crys- pulp and paper properties”, grant number PY/2022/02318—
talline domains. The disparity in crystallinity index Q.J130000.3851.21H99. The research has been carried out
under the programme, Research Excellence Consortium (JPT
between the current study (raw bamboo fibers) and (BPKI) 1000/016/018/25 (57)), provided by the Ministry of
Yueping’s study (2010) (chemically treated bamboo Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE).
fibers) underscores a clear distinction in crystallinity
index based on treatment methods. Author contributions Conceptualization, H.S.N.H. and
R.A.I.; validation, H.S.N.H. and R.A.I.; investigation, H.S.N.H.
and R.A.I.; writing—original draft preparation, H.S.N.H and
R.A.I; writing—review and editing, H.S.N.H., R.A.I., R.J.,
Conclusions R.I., R.A.M., and N.H.A.H.; visualization, H.S.N.H., R.A.I.,
R.J., R.I., R.A.M., and N.H.A.H.; supervision, and R.A.I.; pro-
ject administration, H.S.N.H. and R.A.I.; funding acquisition,
In conclusion, the comprehensive analysis of vari-
R.A.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published ver-
ous bamboo species has provided valuable insights sion of the manuscript.
into their suitability for pulp and paper production.
The chemical composition assessment demonstrated Funding The authors would like to express gratitude for
that all studied bamboo species fall within the opti- the financial support received from the Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia for the project “The impact of Malaysian bam-
mal cellulose content range of 34–65%, affirming boos’ chemical and fiber characteristics on their pulp
their viability for paper manufacturing. Additionally, and paper properties”, grant number PY/2022/02318—
the FTIR spectra revealed shared chemical features Q.J130000.3851.21H99. The research has been carried out
among the bamboo specimens, emphasizing lignin under the programme, Research Excellence Consortium (JPT
(BPKI) 1000/016/018/25 (57)), provided by the Ministry of
and cellulose-related bands, while variations in cel- Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE).
lulose decomposition temperatures highlighted the
thermal stability differences, notably observed in DA. Data availability No datasets were generated or analysed
Furthermore, XRD analysis unveiled the presence of during the current study.

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 Cellulose

Declarations Correira V (2011) Produção e caracterização de polpa orga-

nossolve de bambu para reforço de matrizes cimentícias.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing inter- Dissertation, Universidade De São Paulo
ests. D’Acierno F et al (2020) Thermal degradation of cellulose
filaments and nanocrystals. Biomacrom 21(8):3374–
Ethical approval Not applicable. 3386. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1021/​acs.​biomac.​0c008​05
Didone M, Tosello G (2019) Moulded pulp products man-
Human or animal participants This article does not contain ufacturing with thermoforming. Pack Technol Sci
any studies with human participants or animals performed by 32(1):7–22
any of the authors. Escursell S, Llorach-massana P, Roncero MB (2021) Sus-
tainability in e-commerce packaging: a review. J Clean
Consent for publication All the authors consent for the pub- Prod 280:124314. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2020.​
lication of this article. 124314
FDPM (2016) Rattan and bamboo. Forestry department penin-
sular malaysia (FDPM). https://​www.​fores​try.​gov.​my/​en/​
tumbu​han-​ubatan/​item/​kacip-​fatim​ah
Feng D (2022) Visualizing inorganics in wood and wood com-
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