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Practical Handbook of Marine Science
 Marine Science Series
The CRC Marine Science Series is dedicated to providing state-of-the-art coverage of important topics in marine biology,
marine chemistry, marine geology, and physical oceanography. The series includes volumes that focus on the synthesis of
recent advances in marine science.

CRC MARINE SCIENCE SERIES

Series Editors
Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D. and Judith S. Weis, Ph.D.

PUBLISHED TITLES
Ecology of Estuaries: Anthropogenic Effects, Michael J. Kennish

Physical Oceanographic Processes of the Great Barrier Reef, Eric Wolanski

Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, edited by Larry McEdward

Ocean Pollution: Effects on Living Resources and Humans, Carl J. Sindermann

Practical Handbook of Estuarine and Marine Pollution, Michael J. Kennish

Environmental Oceanography, Second Edition, Tom Beer

The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume I, edited by Peter L. Lutz and John A. Musick

Pollution Impacts on Marine Biotic Communities, Michael J. Kennish

Coastal Ecosystem Processes, Daniel M. Alongi

Intertidal Deposits: River Mouths, Tidal Flats, and Coastal Lagoons, Doeke Eisma

Estuary Restoration and Maintenance: The National Estuary Program, Michael J. Kennish

Handbook of Marine Mineral Deposits, David S. Cronan

Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, and Management, edited by Stephen A. Bortone

Artificial Reef Evaluation with Application to Natural Marine Habitats, edited by William Seaman, Jr.

Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands, edited by Joy B. Zedler

Eutrophication Processes in Coastal Systems: Origin and Succession of Plankton Blooms and Effects on Secondary
Production in Gulf Coast Estuaries, Robert J. Livingston

Ecology of Seashores, George A. Knox

Marine Chemical Ecology, edited by James B. McClintock and Bill J. Baker

Trophic Organization in Coastal Systems, edited by Robert J. Livingston

Estuarine Research, Monitoring, and Resource Protection, edited by Michael J. Kennish

Estuarine Indicators, edited by Stephen A. Bortone

Practical Handbook of Marine Science, Third Edition, Michael J. Kennish

Restoration of Aquatic Systems, Robert J. Livingston

Chemical Oceanography, Third Edition, Frank J. Millero

Coastal Pollution: Effects on Living Resources and Humans, Carl J. Sindermann

Acoustic Fish Reconnaissance, I.L. Kalikhman and K.I. Yudanov

Coastal Lagoons: Critical Habitats of Environmental Change, edited by Michael J. Kennish and Hans W. Paerl

Ecology of Marine Bivalves: An Ecosystem Approach, Second Edition, Richard F. Dame

Climate Change and Coastal Ecosystems: Long-Term Effects of Climate and Nutrient Loading on Trophic
Organization, Robert J. Livingston

Habitat, Population Dynamics, and Metal Levels in Colonial Waterbirds: A Food Chain Approach, Joanna Burger
and Michael Gochfeld

Living Shorelines: The Science and Management of Nature-Based Coastal Protection, edited by Donna Marie Bilkovic,
Molly M. Mitchell, Megan K. La Peyre, and Jason D. Toft

Fishes Out of Water: Biology and Ecology of Mudskippers, edited by Zeehan Jaafar and Edward O. Murdy

A Blue Carbon Primer: The State of Coastal Westland Carbon Science, Practice and Policy, edited by Lisa-Marie
Windham-Myers, Stephen Crooks, and Tiffany G. Troxler

Practical Handbook of Marine Science, Fourth Edition

Michael J. Kennish

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Practical Handbook of Marine Science
Fourth Edition

Michael J. Kennish
Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, New Jersey
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vi
 Contents
Preface...................................................................................................................................................................................xiii
Author .................................................................................................................................................................................. xvii

Chapter 1
Physiography ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1
I. Ocean Provinces ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
A. Ocean Dimensions .................................................................................................................................................. 1
B. Physiographic Provinces ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Continental Margin Province ............................................................................................................................ 2
2. Deep-Ocean Basin Province ............................................................................................................................. 2
3. Mid-Ocean Ridge Province ............................................................................................................................... 3
C. Benthic and Pelagic Provinces................................................................................................................................ 4
1. Benthic Province ............................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Pelagic Province ................................................................................................................................................ 4
II. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................................... 4
References ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1. General Features of the Earth ....................................................................................................................................... 5
References ................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
References ................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.2. General Characteristics of the Oceans .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.3. Appendices, Conversion Factors, Measures, and Units ...............................................................................................11

Chapter 2
Marine Chemistry .................................................................................................................................................................. 15
I. Seawater Composition ................................................................................................................................................. 15
A. Major Constituents .................................................................................................................................................16
B. Minor and Trace Elements.....................................................................................................................................16
C. Nutrient Elements ..................................................................................................................................................17
1. Nitrogen ............................................................................................................................................................17
2. Phosphorus .......................................................................................................................................................18
3. Silicon ...............................................................................................................................................................18
D. Gases ......................................................................................................................................................................18
E. Organic Compounds ..............................................................................................................................................19
F. Dissolved Constituent Behavior.............................................................................................................................19
G. Vertical Profiles .....................................................................................................................................................19
1. Conservative Profile .........................................................................................................................................19
2. Nutrient-Type Profile ........................................................................................................................................19
3. Surface Enrichment and Depletion at Depth ................................................................................................... 20
4. Mid-Depth Minima ......................................................................................................................................... 20
5. Mid-Depth Maxima ......................................................................................................................................... 20
6. Mid-Depth Maxima or Minima in the Suboxic Layer (~1 km) ....................................................................... 20
7. Maxima and Minima in Anoxic Waters .......................................................................................................... 20
H. Salinity.................................................................................................................................................................. 20
II. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................21
References ...............................................................................................................................................................................21
2.1. Periodic Table.............................................................................................................................................................. 23
References .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
2.2. Composition of Seawater ............................................................................................................................................ 28
References .............................................................................................................................................................................. 33
2.3. Properties of Seawater ................................................................................................................................................ 35
References .............................................................................................................................................................................. 38

vii
viii Contents

2.4. Atmospheric and Fluvial Fluxes ..................................................................................................................................41

2.5. Trace Elements ............................................................................................................................................................ 48
2.6. Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Chemistry ................................................................................................................... 57
2.7. Organic Matter ............................................................................................................................................................ 63
2.8. Decomposition of Organic Matter .............................................................................................................................. 70
2.9. Oxygen ........................................................................................................................................................................71
2.10. Nutrients ...................................................................................................................................................................... 76
2.11. Carbon Dioxide ........................................................................................................................................................... 85
2.12. Calcium Carbonate...................................................................................................................................................... 90

Chapter 3
Physical Oceanography .......................................................................................................................................................... 97
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................. 97
II. Seawater Properties ..................................................................................................................................................... 97
A. Temperature .......................................................................................................................................................... 97
B. Salinity.................................................................................................................................................................. 98
C. Density .................................................................................................................................................................. 98
III. Open Ocean Circulation.............................................................................................................................................. 98
A. Wind-Driven Circulation ...................................................................................................................................... 99
1. Ocean Gyres .................................................................................................................................................... 99
2. Meanders, Eddies, and Rings .......................................................................................................................... 99
3. Equatorial Currents ......................................................................................................................................... 99
4. Antarctic Circumpolar Current ..................................................................................................................... 100
5. Convergences and Divergences ......................................................................................................................101
6. Ekman Transport, Upwelling, and Downwelling ...........................................................................................101
7. Langmuir Circulation .....................................................................................................................................101
B. Surface Water Circulation ...................................................................................................................................101
1. Atlantic Ocean ................................................................................................................................................101
2. Pacific Ocean ..................................................................................................................................................102
3. Indian Ocean ..................................................................................................................................................102
4. Southern Ocean ..............................................................................................................................................102
5. Arctic Ocean...................................................................................................................................................102
C. Thermohaline Circulation ...................................................................................................................................103
1. Atlantic Ocean ................................................................................................................................................103
2. Pacific Ocean ................................................................................................................................................. 104
3. Indian Ocean ................................................................................................................................................. 104
4. Arctic Ocean.................................................................................................................................................. 104
IV. Estuarine and Coastal Ocean Circulation ................................................................................................................. 104
A. Estuaries ............................................................................................................................................................. 104
B. Coastal Ocean ..................................................................................................................................................... 106
1. Currents ......................................................................................................................................................... 106
2. Fronts ............................................................................................................................................................. 106
3. Waves ............................................................................................................................................................. 106
V. Physical Oceanography Instrumentation .................................................................................................................. 109
VI. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................... 109
References .............................................................................................................................................................................110
3.1. Light ...........................................................................................................................................................................112
3.2. Temperature ...............................................................................................................................................................114
3.3. Salinity .......................................................................................................................................................................119
3.4. Density ...................................................................................................................................................................... 122
3.5. Tides .......................................................................................................................................................................... 126
3.6. Wind .......................................................................................................................................................................... 129
3.7. Waves and Their Properties .......................................................................................................................................132
3.8. Coastal Waves and Currents ......................................................................................................................................136
Contents ix

3.9. Estuarine Circulation .................................................................................................................................................143

3.10. Ocean Circulation ......................................................................................................................................................157
3.11. Direct and Remote Sensing Oceanographic Applications .........................................................................................163
3.12. Sampling Platforms ....................................................................................................................................................166

Chapter 4
Marine Geology ....................................................................................................................................................................171
I. Plate Tectonics and the Ocean Basins........................................................................................................................171
II. Seafloor Topographic Features ..................................................................................................................................172
A. Mid-Ocean Ridges ...............................................................................................................................................172
B. Deep Ocean Floor ................................................................................................................................................174
1. Abyssal Hills ..................................................................................................................................................174
2. Abyssal Plains ................................................................................................................................................174
3. Seamounts ......................................................................................................................................................174
4. Aseismic Ridges .............................................................................................................................................175
5. Deep-Sea Trenches .........................................................................................................................................175
C. Continental Margins ............................................................................................................................................176
1. Continental Shelf ............................................................................................................................................176
2. Continental Slope ...........................................................................................................................................177
3. Continental Rise .............................................................................................................................................177
III. Sediments ...................................................................................................................................................................177
A. Deep Ocean Floor ................................................................................................................................................177
1. Terrigenous Sediment .....................................................................................................................................178
2. Biogenous Sediment .......................................................................................................................................178
3. Pelagic Sediment Distribution ........................................................................................................................180
4. Authigenic Sediment ......................................................................................................................................180
5. Volcanogenic Sediment ..................................................................................................................................181
6. Cosmogenic Sediment ....................................................................................................................................181
7. Deep-Sea Sediment Thickness .......................................................................................................................181
B. Continental Margins ............................................................................................................................................182
1. Continental Shelves ........................................................................................................................................182
2. Continental Slopes and Rises .........................................................................................................................183
IV. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................................183
References .............................................................................................................................................................................184
4.1. Astronomical and Earth Properties ...........................................................................................................................187
4.2. Ocean Basins ..............................................................................................................................................................191
4.3. Plate Tectonics, Mid-Ocean Ridges, and Ocean Crust Formation ............................................................................192
4.4. Hydrothermal Vents ...................................................................................................................................................195
4.5. Lava Flows and Seamounts ....................................................................................................................................... 202
4.6. Submarine Canyons and Oceanic Trenches .............................................................................................................. 206
4.7. Heat Flow ...................................................................................................................................................................216
4.8. Continental Margins ................................................................................................................................................. 220
4.9. Continental Shelves, Beaches, and Estuaries .............................................................................................................221
4.10. Mineral Deposits and Marine Sediments ................................................................................................................. 234

Chapter 5
Marine Biology .................................................................................................................................................................... 237
I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 237
II. Trophic Relationships................................................................................................................................................ 238
III. Marine Microbes ....................................................................................................................................................... 239
A. Archaea ............................................................................................................................................................... 239
B. Bacteria ............................................................................................................................................................... 240
C. Fungi ................................................................................................................................................................... 242
D. Viruses ................................................................................................................................................................ 242
x Contents

IV. Phytoplankton ........................................................................................................................................................... 242

A. Major Taxonomic Groups ................................................................................................................................... 243
1. Diatoms.......................................................................................................................................................... 243
2. Dinoflagellates ............................................................................................................................................... 243
3. Coccolithophores ........................................................................................................................................... 244
4. Silicoflagellates .............................................................................................................................................. 244
B. Primary Production ............................................................................................................................................ 244
V. Zooplankton .............................................................................................................................................................. 246
A. Zooplankton Classification ................................................................................................................................. 246
1. Taxonomic Groups ........................................................................................................................................ 246
2. Classification by Size..................................................................................................................................... 246
3. Classification by Length of Planktonic Life .................................................................................................. 247
B. Zooplankton Vertical Distribution ..................................................................................................................... 248
VI. Benthos...................................................................................................................................................................... 248
A. Benthic Flora ...................................................................................................................................................... 249
1. Salt Marshes .................................................................................................................................................. 250
2. Seagrasses .......................................................................................................................................................251
3. Mangroves ..................................................................................................................................................... 252
B. Benthic Fauna ......................................................................................................................................................253
1. Spatial Distribution.........................................................................................................................................253
2. Reproduction and Larval Dispersal............................................................................................................... 255
3. Feeding Strategies, Burrowing, and Bioturbation ......................................................................................... 255
4. Biomass and Species Diversity ...................................................................................................................... 256
VII. Nekton ....................................................................................................................................................................... 258
A. Fish...................................................................................................................................................................... 258
1. Representative Fish Faunas ........................................................................................................................... 258
B. Crustaceans and Cephalopods ............................................................................................................................ 259
C. Marine Mammals ............................................................................................................................................... 260
D. Marine Reptiles .................................................................................................................................................. 260
E. Seabirds ...............................................................................................................................................................261
VIII. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................................261
References ............................................................................................................................................................................ 262
5.1. Primary Production in Marine Systems ................................................................................................................... 267
References ............................................................................................................................................................................ 268
5.2. Primary Production and Distribution of Coastal Wetlands and Seaweeds............................................................... 273
5.3. Bacteria ..................................................................................................................................................................... 295
5.4. Marine Plankton ....................................................................................................................................................... 297
5.5. Protozoans ................................................................................................................................................................. 299
5.6. Benthic Flora ............................................................................................................................................................. 300
5.7. Benthic Fauna............................................................................................................................................................ 307
5.8. Nekton ........................................................................................................................................................................312
5.9. Food Webs ..................................................................................................................................................................317
5.10. Carbon Flow ...............................................................................................................................................................318
5.11. Coastal Systems .........................................................................................................................................................319
5.12. Deep-Sea Systems ..................................................................................................................................................... 324

Chapter 6
Anthropogenic Effects ..........................................................................................................................................................335
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................335
II. Marine Pollution ........................................................................................................................................................336
III. Types of Anthropogenic Impacts ...............................................................................................................................336
A. Habitat Loss and Alteration .................................................................................................................................337
B. Development and Shoreline Hardening ...............................................................................................................337
C. Eutrophication......................................................................................................................................................338
Contents xi

D. Organic Wastes ....................................................................................................................................................339

E. Chemical Contaminants ......................................................................................................................................339
1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) ...................................................................................................339
2. Halogenated Hydrocarbons ........................................................................................................................... 340
3. Metals .............................................................................................................................................................341
4. Radioactive Waste ......................................................................................................................................... 342
F. Oil, Natural Gas, and Electric Power Generation .............................................................................................. 343
1. Oil Pollution .................................................................................................................................................. 343
2. Hydraulic Fracking ........................................................................................................................................ 345
3. Electric Generating Stations .......................................................................................................................... 346
G. Marine Mining and Shipping ............................................................................................................................. 347
1. Marine Mining .............................................................................................................................................. 347
2. Shipping ......................................................................................................................................................... 347
H. Human-Altered Hydrological Regimes .............................................................................................................. 348
I. Dredging and Dredged-Material Disposal ......................................................................................................... 348
J. Introduced/Invasive Species ............................................................................................................................... 349
K. Overfishing ......................................................................................................................................................... 350
L. Mariculture ..........................................................................................................................................................351
M. Human-induced Sediment/Particulate Inputs .....................................................................................................351
N. Floatables/Solid Waste/Plastics ...........................................................................................................................352
O. Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise ...................................................................................................................352
IV. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................... 354
References .............................................................................................................................................................................355
6.1. Sources of Marine Pollution ......................................................................................................................................359
6.2. Watershed Effects ..................................................................................................................................................... 362
6.3. Contaminant Effects on Organisms .......................................................................................................................... 383
6.4. Nutrients .................................................................................................................................................................... 395
6.5. Organic Carbon ..........................................................................................................................................................410
6.6. Blue Carbon Sequestration.........................................................................................................................................417
6.7. Pathogens .................................................................................................................................................................. 429
6.8. Oil...............................................................................................................................................................................432
6.9. Stockholm Convention on Persistant Organic Pollutants ..........................................................................................439
6.10. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)...............................................................................................................439
6.11. Halogenated Hydrocarbons ....................................................................................................................................... 442
6.12. Heavy Metals ............................................................................................................................................................ 444
6.13. Radioactive Substances ............................................................................................................................................. 454
6.14. Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal .................................................................................................................457

Chapter 7
Climate Change ................................................................................................................................................................... 463
I.Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 463
II.Climate Reconstruction............................................................................................................................................. 464
III.Climate Change Factors ............................................................................................................................................ 464
IV. Climate Change Effects ............................................................................................................................................ 466
A. Warming Oceans ................................................................................................................................................ 466
B. Melting Ice Sheets and Mountain Glaciers......................................................................................................... 466
C. Arctic Sea Ice...................................................................................................................................................... 467
D. Sea Level Rise .................................................................................................................................................... 467
V. Climate Change Consequences ................................................................................................................................. 467
A. Coastal Communities.......................................................................................................................................... 468
B. Marine Ecosystems............................................................................................................................................. 468
VI. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................................470
References .............................................................................................................................................................................471
xii Contents

7.1. Drivers of Climate Change ........................................................................................................................................473

7.2. Temperature Changes.................................................................................................................................................476
7.3. Ice Loss ......................................................................................................................................................................481
7.4. Sea Level Rise ........................................................................................................................................................... 484
7.5. Organism Responses ..................................................................................................................................................491
7.6. Shoreline Restoration ................................................................................................................................................ 495
Index .....................................................................................................................................................................................501
 Preface
The fourth edition of Practical Handbook of Marine being the principal limiting element to primary production
Science provides an up-to-date, comprehensive treatment of in estuarine and marine waters. However, phosphorus may
the biological, chemical, geological, and physical oceano- be the primary limiting element to autotrophic growth in
graphic sciences, incorporating recent literature, new find- some estuaries during certain periods of the year. Low sili-
ings, and technological achievements. Since the publication con availability in turn can suppress metabolic activity of
of the third edition of this book more than 15 years ago, sig- the cell, can limit phytoplankton production, and can reduce
nificant advances have occurred in all disciplines of marine skeletal growth of diatoms, radiolarians, and siliceous
science. In addition, major challenges have arisen, such as sponges. Hence, these three nutrient elements play a vital
the escalating dangers of climate change on marine, terres- role in regulating biological production in ocean waters.
trial, and human systems. Climate change may be the most Chapter 3 addresses physical oceanography which
formidable problem facing mankind since the beginning of encompasses four main areas of study: (1) physical prop-
the Industrial Revolution. erties of seawater, especially those parameters that influ-
Marine science is a multidisciplinary field of study ence its density (i.e., temperature and salinity); (2) special
requiring collaborative efforts of physical oceanographers, properties of seawater (e.g., light, sound, and pressure); (3)
marine chemists, marine geologists, and marine biologists, energy transfer between the ocean and atmosphere; and (4)
as well as scientists in related fields of study. The fourth water movements in the ocean (e.g., waves, tides, and cur-
edition contains a systematic collection of selective bio- rents) and the forcing mechanisms responsible for these
logical, chemical, geological, and physical reference data movements. The physical properties of seawater and the
on marine and estuarine systems. It is composed of seven circulation patterns observed in open-ocean, coastal-ocean,
chapters in the following order: (1) Physiography, (2) Marine and estuarine waters are investigated. Waves, currents, and
Chemistry, (3) Physical Oceanography, (4) Marine Geology, tidal flow, as well as the forcing mechanisms responsible for
(5) Marine Biology, (6) Anthropogenic Impacts, and (7) water movements, are assessed. Ocean circulation is divided
Climate Change. Each chapter is organized in a multisec- into two components: (1) wind-driven (surface) currents,
tional framework, with information presented in expository, and (2) thermohaline (deep) circulation. These components
illustrative, and tabular formats. are described for all the major oceans. A detailed account
Chapter 1 describes the topography, hypsometry, and struc- is given on conspicuous wind-driven circulation patterns
tural elements of the world’s oceans. Emphasis is placed on (e.g., gyres, meanders, eddies, and rings). In estuaries, water
their major physiographic provinces (i.e., continental-margin, circulation depends greatly on the magnitude of river flow
deep-ocean, and mid-ocean ridge provinces). The oceans can acting against tidal motion and interacting with wind stress,
be subdivided on the basis of major habitats on the seafloor (i.e., internal friction, and bottom friction. Surface wind stress
benthic provinces—littoral, sublittoral, bathyal, abyssal, and and meteorological forcing also play an important role in
hadal zones) and in the water column (i.e., pelagic provinces— modulating circulation in coastal ocean waters.
neritic and oceanic zones). The oceanic zone can be further Chapter 4 deals with marine geology. Major structural
subdivided into the epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, features of the seafloor (e.g., mid-ocean ridges, transform
abyssalpelagic, and hadalpelagic regions. The characteristics faults, seamounts, and deep-sea trenches) are explained in
of benthic and pelagic provinces in the oceans are discussed light of the theory of plate tectonics which represents the
in detail. unifying paradigm in geology. The dynamic nature of the
Chapter 2 examines marine chemistry, focusing on ocean crust and seafloor is coupled to the movement of litho-
the major, minor, trace, and nutrient elements in seawater. spheric planes. The genesis of ocean crust occurs along a
Seawater is composed of a complex mixture of inorganic globally encircling mid-ocean ridge and rift system through
salts, atmospheric gases, small amounts of particulate mat- an interplay of magmatic construction, hydrothermal con-
ter, and traces of organic matter. There are four phases of vection, and tectonic extension. The continental margins are
seawater components: solids, gases, colloids, and dissolved defined by continental shelves, slopes, and rises. The sea-
solutes. Information is presented on dissolved gases and floor is blanketed by sediments in most areas. Terrigenous
organic compounds in the hydrosphere. Carbon dioxide lev- sediments predominate on the continental margins.
els in the ocean, the importance of carbon dioxide as a driver The deep ocean floor contains a mixture of sediment types,
of temperature change in the atmosphere and ocean, and the with various amounts of biogenous, terrigenous, authigenic,
global carbon cycle are also covered. In addition, vertical volcanogenic, and cosmogenic components. The relative
profiles of various chemical constituents in the sea are pro- concentration of these sediment components at any site
vided. The major nutrient elements (i.e., nitrogen, phospho- depends on water depth, the proximity to landmasses, bio-
rus, and silicon) are particularly noteworthy because of their logical productivity of overlying waters, volcanic activity on
importance to algal and vascular plant growth, with nitrogen the seafloor, as well as other factors.

xiii
xiv PrefaCe

Chapter 5 covers the subject of marine biology. It focuses contamination. The release of agricultural, industrial, and
on the major taxonomic groups of organisms living in municipal wastes can compromise the ecological integrity of
estuarine and marine environments, including microbes, receiving waters. The most acute environmental degradation
phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthic flora and fauna, fish, occurs in highly urbanized and industrialized coastal sys-
mammals, reptiles, and birds. It also discusses the physical, tems. The multiple impacts of human activities— especially
chemical, and biological factors affecting their abundance, in the coastal zone—will create significant challenges for
distribution, and diversity, as well as the habitats they utilize. mankind during the twenty-first century.
Estuarine and coastal marine environments in particular Chapter 7 focuses on climate change which is having an
provide diverse habitats (e.g., open water, unvegetated bot- increasing impact on estuarine and marine environments
tom sediments, submerged aquatic vegetation, tidal flats and worldwide. The upper ocean is a major sink for heat generated
creeks, and fringing wetlands) that serve as spawning, nurs- on earth via escalating greenhouse gas emissions (mainly
ery, foraging, and refuge areas for many aquatic organisms. CO2), with sea surface temperatures increasing by ~1°C since
Based on how they derive energy for survival and growth, 1900. The heat content of the world ocean has increased in
these organisms can be classified as producers, consumers, the upper 2000–3000 m. From the 1950s to the 1980s, water
and decomposers. Producers (photoautotrophs and chemo- temperatures in the Southern Ocean increased 0.17°C at
autotrophs) generate their own food through photosynthesis mid-depths (700–1100 m) as reported by Scripps Institution
or chemosynthesis. Consumers and decomposers (hetero- of Oceanography in 2002. Between 1955 and 1995, water
trophs) depend directly or indirectly on organic compounds temperatures for the combined Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian
produced by autotrophs for their nutrition. There are four Oceans increased by 0.06°C in the upper 3000 m and 0.31°C
groups of consumers: herbivores (consume vascular plants in the upper 300 m as reported by NOAA in 2000. Increasing
or algae), carnivores (consume animals), omnivores (con- water temperatures have significant implications for biologi-
sume both plants/algae and animals), and bacteriovores (con- cal, chemical, and physical processes in estuarine and marine
sume bacteria). Decomposers (e.g., saprophagic bacteria and ecosystems. Warming ocean waters, changing density, shift-
fungi) obtain their energy needs by breaking down detritus ing currents and water masses, reduced pH and dissolved
(dead and decaying organic matter), transforming it into dis- oxygen, ocean acidification, and other factors are altering the
solved organic matter to meet their energy requirements, and distribution, abundance, diversity, reproduction, phenology,
releasing inorganic compounds in a mineralization process. species interactions, food web dynamics, and community
Numerous marine species of recreational and commercial structure of estuarine and marine organisms. Climate-driven
importance inhabit estuarine and coastal marine environ- biotic invasions and extinctions are increasing. Marine fish-
ments during their lifetime. These environments play a criti- ery yields are changing in different regions. Rising sea lev-
cal role in the production of marine fisheries. els mainly attributable to thermal expansion of the oceans
Chapter 6 assesses pollution and other anthropogenic and melting of ice sheets are responsible for increasing loss
impacts on water quality, habitats, and biotic communities of essential coastal habitat (e.g., salt marshes, seagrasses,
in estuarine and marine environments. Fifteen major cat- and mangroves) and an array of diminishing ecosystem ser-
egories of anthropogenic impacts are recognized in these vices to coastal communities. For example, global sea level
environments: These include: (1) habitat loss and alteration; rise, amounting to ~16–21 cm since 1900 and projected to be
(2) shoreline development and hardening; (3) eutrophication; ~15–38 cm by 2050, is reducing the sustainability and resil-
(4) sewage and organic wastes (pathogens); (5) chemical ience of many coastal wetlands and other essential estuarine
contaminants; (6) oil, natural gas, and electric power gen- and coastal marine habitats that provide protective buffer for
eration; (7) marine mining and shipping; (8) human-altered natural and developed communities from extreme weather
hydrological regimes; (9) dredging and dredged-material events, inundation, and flooding. Mitigation and adaptation
disposal; (10) introduced/invasive species; (11) overfishing; efforts are being implemented to address these serious issues.
(12) mariculture; (13) human-induced sediment/particulate The long-term goal is to improve the sustainability and resil-
inputs; (14) floatables/solid waste/plastics; and (15) climate ience of coastal environments that are subject to increasing
change. Many human activities disrupt habitats and degrade threats from climate change.
water quality, particularly in estuarine and coastal marine
environments, leading to significant decreases in abundance
and diversity of organisms as well as a decline of human ACKNOWLEDGMENT
use. For example, watershed landscape partitioning and
paving, deforestation and silviculture operations, marsh fill- There are numerous people to acknowledge for their data
ing, diking, lagoon formation, dam installation, hardening sources, illustrative and tabular material, and/or discussions
of shorelines, dredging and dredged-material disposal, and on estuarine and marine environments over the years that have
mariculture not only degrade habitats but also adversely been important in the development of this volume. At Rutgers
affect biotic communities. Activities at ports, harbors, University, I acknowledge my colleagues Drs. Kenneth
marinas, and coastal platforms often produce hot spots of W. Able, Joanna Burger, David Bushek, Robert J. Chant,
PrefaCe xv

Thomas Grothues, Qizhong Guo, Richard G. Lathrop, Robert Institution of Oceanography), Robert J. Livingston (Florida
E. Loveland, Richard A. Lutz, Marcia Meixler, James R. State University), Frank J. Millero (University of Miami),
Miller, Daphne Munroe, Karl F. Nordstrom, Norbert P. Psuty, Kenneth A. Moore (Virginia Institute of Marine Science),
David A. Robinson, Costantino Vetriani, and Judith S. Weis. Robert J. Orth (Virginia Institute of Marine Science), Hans W.
At other academic institutions, I acknowledge Drs. Iris C. Paerl, (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), Dwayne
Anderson (Virginia Institute of Marine Science), Walter E. Porter (University of South Carolina), Nancy N. Rabalais
Boynton (University of Maryland), Mark J. Brush (Virginia (Louisiana State University), Sybil S. Seitzinger (University
Institute of Marine Science), Edward J. Buskey (University of Victoria), Erik Smith (University of South Carolina), and
of Texas at Austin), Robert R. Christian (East Carolina Mark S. Woodrey (Mississippi State University).
University), Michael Elliott (University of Hull), Patricia I also acknowledge the excellent editorial and produc-
M. Glibert (University of Maryland), Raymond E. Grizzle tion support of the people at CRC Press (Taylor & Francis
(University of New Hampshire), Robert W. Howarth (Cornell Group), most notably Alice Oven and Kyle Meyer. In addi-
University), John N, Kraeuter (University of New England), tion, I gratefully acknowledge the production work on this
Lisa A. Levin (University of California San Diego, Scripps book by Sasireka Sakthi of Lumina Datamatics.
 Author

Dr. Michael J. Kennish and habitats. Most notably, Dr. Kennish has been heavily
(B.A., M.S., Ph.D., engaged in investigations of impairment and remediation of
Rutgers University) is impacted estuarine and coastal marine environments. These
professor emeritus in the include studies of the natural and anthropogenic stressors
Department of Marine that effect change in coastal ecosystems, and the dynamics
and Coastal Sciences, of environmental forcing factors that generate imbalances
School of Environmental in biotic community structure and ecosystem function.
and Biological Sciences, His research is multidisciplinary in scope, addressing an
Rutgers University, New array of nationally significant problems, such as habitat
Brunswick, New Jersey. loss and alteration of aquatic systems, nutrient enrichment
His career in coastal and eutrophication, hypoxia and anoxia, organic pollution,
and marine sciences chemical contaminants, climate change, sea-level rise,
has spanned more than overfishing, invasive species, watercraft effects, dredging and
40 years and has included dredged-material disposal, freshwater diversions, calefaction
extensive research of estuarine, coastal ocean, and deep-sea of estuarine waters, entrainment and impingement of electric
environments. He has also taught coastal and marine sci- generating stations, and the effects of watershed development
ence classes at Rutgers for many years. In addition, he has on coastal systems. In addition, he has examined the effects
been active for decades in the outreach of science to coastal of construction and operation of industrial facilities,
communities and K-12 schools. As a member of the Climate maintenance of shorelines and waterways, and human use
Change Institute at Rutgers, Dr. Kennish has been involved of coastal space and aquatic systems. He has also studied
in the study of long-term climate change impacts on the New the biology and geology of mid-ocean ridge and deep-sea
Jersey coast. He is the author or editor of 15 scholarly books, hydrothermal vent systems as a member of the Center for
the author or co-author of more than 175 research articles Deep-Sea Ecology and Biotechnology at Rutgers.
in science journals and other publications, and the editor of Dr. Kennish is the recipient of many awards, including
9 peer-reviewed science journal special issues focusing on the 2008 Guardian of the Barnegat Bay Award (Barnegat
various topics in marine science. Bay National Estuary Program/USEPA), 2009 NOAA/
Dr. Kennish has maintained a wide range of research NERRA National Award for outstanding contributions to
interests in marine ecology and marine geology. He has been the National Estuarine Research Reserve System of NOAA,
most actively involved in leading research teams investigating 2010 Graham Macmillan Award of the American Littoral
estuarine and coastal marine environments in New Jersey. Society for significant contributions to marine science
Much of this research has involved the development and and conservation, 2010 Sierra Club Award for outstanding
application of innovative methods to determine the condition environmental accomplishments, 2011 Pearl S. Schwartz
and ecosystem health of coastal systems in the state. He is Environmental Award of the League of Women Voters for
widely known for his work on the human impacts of estuarine work on New Jersey’s coastal environments, 2013 Frank
and marine environments, and has served on environmental Oliver Award of the New Jersey Environmental Lobby
panels and workgroups assessing these problems in New for contributions to the protection of New Jersey’s envi-
Jersey, the mid-Atlantic region, and nationwide, while ronments, and the 2017 Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime
concomitantly collaborating extensively with state and federal Achievement Award for dedication to the environmental and
government agencies to remediate degraded water quality oceanographic sciences.

xvii
 ChAPTEr 1

Physiography

I. OCEAN PrOVINCES salinity conditions of the major ocean basins. For example,
the warm, saline waters of the Mediterranean Sea can be
detected over thousands of kilometers at mid-depths in the
A. Ocean Dimensions Atlantic Ocean.
Temperature and salinity differences are evident in the
There are five major oceans of the world. From larg- major oceans. Excluding the Southern Ocean as a separate
est to smallest, these include the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, entity, the Pacific Ocean exhibits the lowest temperatures
Southern, and Arctic oceans; together with their adjacent and salinities with mean values of 3.14°C and 34.6‰, respec-
seas, they cover ~71% of the earth’s surface (~3.62 × 108 km2) tively. In contrast, the highest mean temperature (3.99°C)
and have a volume of ~1.34 × 109 km3. The surface area, and salinity (34.92‰) exists in the Atlantic Ocean despite
volume, and average depth of the Pacific Ocean exceed its large volume of riverine inflow. This is particularly true
all others, amounting to 1.66 × 108 km2, 6.96 × 108 km3, in the North Atlantic, where the mean temperature (5.08°C)
and 4.19 × 103 m, respectively. The Pacific Ocean consti- and salinity (35.09‰) exceed those of all other major ocean
tutes more than 50% of the world’s ocean environment, basins. The Indian Ocean has intermediate mean tempera-
and it occupies more than one-third of the earth’s surface. ture (3.88°C) and salinity (34.78‰) values. The mean tem-
The Atlantic Ocean, with dimensions about half of those of perature of the oceans is 3.51°C, and the mean salinity is
the Pacific Ocean, has a surface area, volume, and depth of 34.7‰.
8.41 × 107 km2, 3.23 × 108 km3, and 3.84 × 103 m, respec- The landmasses and ocean waters are not evenly dis-
tively. Somewhat smaller, the Indian Ocean has a surface tributed around the globe. For example, the percentage of
area, volume, and depth of 7.34 × 107 km2, 2.84 × 108 km3, water (80.9%) to land (19.1%) in the southern hemisphere far
and 3.87 × 103 m, respectively. The Southern and Arctic exceeds the percentage of water (60.7%) to land (39.3%) in
Oceans are much smaller. The surface area, volume the northern hemisphere. This uneven distribution greatly
and depth of the Southern Ocean are 2.20 × 107 km2, affects world meteorological and ocean circulation patterns.
7.18 × 107 km3, and 3.270 × 103 m, respectively, and those The hypsographic curve shows the significance of the
of the Arctic Ocean are 1.56 × 107 km2, 1.88 × 107 km3, and great depths of the oceans relative to the elevations of the
1.21 × 103 m, respectively.1–5 land areas. Comparing oceanic depths and land elevations
The Pacific Ocean comprises 50.1% of the world ocean on earth, it is clearly evident that relative to sea level, the
and occupies more than one-third of the earth’s surface. landmasses are not as high as the oceans are deep. As dem-
By comparison, the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean onstrated by the hypsographic curve, 84% of the ocean floor
constitute 29.4% and 20.5% of the world ocean, respec- exceeds 2000 m depth, while only 11% of the land surface is
tively. The oceans range in width from ~5000 km (Atlantic) greater than 2000 m above sea level. The maximum ocean
to ~17,000 km (Pacific). depth, recorded in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana
About 75% of the ocean basins lies within the depth zone Trench in the western Pacific, is 11,022 m. The highest ele-
between ~3000 and 6000 m. The seas are much shallower, vation on land, Mt. Everest, is 8848 m.
being ~1200 m deep or less. Some of the marginal seas
are bounded by land or island chains (e.g., Caribbean Sea, B. Physiographic Provinces
Mediterranean Sea, and Sea of Japan). Others not bounded
by land are distinguished by local oceanographic charac- The ocean floor is divided into three major physiographic
teristics (e.g., Labrador, Norwegian, and Tasman seas).1,2 provinces: the continental margins, deep-ocean basins,
Marginal seas can strongly influence temperature and and mid-ocean ridges. Each province is characterized by

1
2 PraCtICaL HanDBooK of MarIne sCIenCe

distinctive bathymetry and unique structural features.3,4 margins have continental slopes averaging ~3°, while the
Physiographic features of the ocean floor vary in the differ- Pacific Ocean with convergent active margins has continen-
ent ocean basins of the world. tal slopes averaging ~5°.4

1. Continental Margin Province c. Continental Rise

The continental margins are the submerged edges of the At the base of the continental slope, the angle of the
continents. They consist of the continental shelf, slope, and ocean floor decreases significantly resulting in the deposi-
rise, which extend seaward from the shoreline down to depths tion of large volumes of sediment transported via turbidity
of ~3000–4000 m. Water depths over the continental shelf are currents along submarine canyons and other areas. The sed-
typically <200 m compared to ~2000–3000 m over the con- iments spread seaward across the deep seafloor to adjacent
tinental slope and ~3000–4000 m over the continental rise. abyssal plains as extensive fan-like or apron-like deposits
that form the continental rise. These deposits spread sea-
a. Continental Shelf ward for 100–1000 km from the base of the continental
slope, being transported by deep-ocean currents.2 They also
The continental shelf has a gently sloping bottom gradi- merge along the base of the continental slope. The inclina-
ent (0.1°–0.5°), being underlain by a thick wedge of sediment tion of the continental rise is only about 10%–15% that of the
mainly derived from continental sources and a basement of continental slope, which accounts for the sediment accumu-
granitic continental crust. It varies in width from <5 km to lation from continental shelf and slope sources.
~1500 km with an average of ~60 km, being narrowest along The continental rise is a topographically smooth fea-
the Pacific coasts of North America and South America and ture, having a gradient of only ~1°. Sediments comprising
widest along the Arctic Ocean.2 Tectonics are an important the continental rise cover hundreds of kilometers of the
determining factor. Continental shelves are generally wide ocean floor down to water depths of ~4000 m. Clay, silt,
on passive continental margins facing the edges of diverging and sand turbidites—thick sequences of graded bedding
lithospheric plates and narrow near the edges of converging deposits—underlie the continental rise, accumulating to
lithospheric plates.3 Although typified by broad expanses of several kilometers thick. Transported by turbidity currents
nearly flat terrain, many shelf regions also exhibit irregu- from the nearby continental shelf and slope, the continen-
larly distributed hills, valleys, and depressions of low to tal rise deposits are most extensive in ocean basins off pas-
moderate relief. They cover ~7% of the total area of the sive continental margins. However, they can also be found
ocean floor. The outer margin of continental shelves lies at a extending directly into deep-sea trenches along convergent
depth of ~150–200 m, where the slope of the ocean bottom active continental margins.
increases abruptly to ~1–4°, marking the shelf break and
upper margin of the continental slope. Although typified by 2. Deep-Ocean Basin Province
broad expanses of nearly flat terrain, many shelf regions also
exhibit irregularly distributed hills, valleys, and depressions There are marked differences between the continental
of low to moderate relief. margins and deep-ocean basins. Granitic basement under-
lies the continental margins. In contrast, basaltic basement
b. Continental Slope underlies the deep-ocean basins located seaward of the con-
tinental rises at a depth of ~3000–5000 m.2 Their topogra-
Thick deposits of sediment also underlie the continental phy is more variable than that of the continental margins,
slope. These mud, silt, and sand deposits originate mainly ranging from nearly flat abyssal plains to abyssal hills,
by erosion of landmasses. Submarine canyons having steep- steep-sided volcanic edifices (seamounts), and deep narrow
sided, V-shaped profiles cut into these sedimentary deposits, trenches.
and they serve as conduits for turbidity currents that trans-
port continental shelf sediments to the continental rise and a. Abyssal Plains
deep-ocean basins. The Hudson Canyon, Baltimore Canyon,
Scripps Canyon, LaJolla Canyon, Redondo Canyon, The abyssal plains are the flattest areas of the ocean
Monterey Canyon, Amazon Canyon, Congo Canyon, Ganges basins, having a slope of <1 m/km. These level-bottom
Canyon, and Zhemchung Canyon provide examples. These features form by the slow deposition of land-derived clay,
erosional features, occurring seaward of the shelf break and silt, and sand particles (turbidites) transported by turbidity
inclined at a maximum of ~4°, have a topographic relief of currents off the outer continental shelf and slope, as well as
~1000–2000 m. Although the average slope of continental the accumulation of biogenic sediment settling through the
slopes worldwide is ~4°, there is considerable variation of water column.
continental slopes in different ocean basins ranging from ~1° The sediments ultimately bury much of the irregular vol-
to 25°. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans with many passive canic terrane.2 Abyssal plain sediments range from ~100 m
PHysIograPHy 3

to more than 1000 m in thickness. More abyssal plains occur provides an example. It forms an acute V-shaped indentation
in the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean, than in the Pacific in the seafloor ~70 km wide and 2559 km long.2 Subduction
Ocean where they are uncommon.4 Deep-ocean trenches of lithospheric plates also produces the upwelling of magma
in the Pacific Ocean trap land-derived sediment from the and eruption of lava onto the seafloor that forms volcanic
continental margins, precluding the sediment from being island arcs parallel to, and ~200 km from, the trenches (e.g.,
transported seaward of the continental slope. In contrast, Aleutian Islands and Japanese Archipelago). The volcanic
sediments from the continental margins in the Atlantic and island arcs or continental margin magmatic belts mark the
Indian Oceans are transported beyond the continental slope sites of major lithospheric subduction zones. Ocean trenches
by turbidity and deep-sea currents and are then deposited on are tectonically active areas associated with strong, deep-
the abyssal plains. focus earthquakes and volcanism.

b. Abyssal Hills 3. Mid-Ocean Ridge Province

The abyssal plains are dotted with abyssal hills usually The Mid-Ocean Ridge Province consists of a globally
<200 m high, 5 km wide, and 20 m long. Several hundred encircling submarine mountain range that lies at a depth of
thousand abyssal hills have been identified worldwide, many 2–3 km below the sea surface. It is a topographically high
constituting abyssal hill provinces.3 These dome-like pro- feature, rising ~2.5 km above the surrounding seafloor,
jections or elongated hills are mainly composed of volcanic and it covers a wide swath of the seafloor, extending across
rocks, and they are often covered by a thin layer of sedi- ~1000 km of the deep-ocean basin or 23% of the earth’s
ments. Abyssal hills form by volcanic and tectonic activity surface.4 The volcanic ridges comprising this submarine
at mid-ocean ridges or at the flanks of the ridges; hence, mountain system are comparable in physical dimensions to
they are associated with seafloor spreading. Abyssal hills those on the continents. Most seamounts form on or near
are particularly abundant along the fast-spreading seafloor mid-ocean ridges. The inner valley floor of the northern
of the Pacific Ocean. Mid-Atlantic Ridge is composed of piled-up seamounts
and hummocky pillow basalts, representing the product of
c. Seamounts crustal accretion.7 Variable volcanic features create rug-
ged terrain across and along mid-ocean ridges. As volca-
Seamounts are larger volcanic edifices that rise ~1–4 km nic eruptions occur and newly formed lithosphere cools and
above the deep-ocean basins. Many have a conical form or subsides on either side of mid-ocean ridges, the elevations of
a circular, ovoid, or lobate shape, typically with slopes of the submarine volcanic mountains decline, and the topog-
5°–25°. Seamounts may occur as isolated peaks or in clus- raphy becomes less rugged. The original volcanic topogra-
ters. Occasionally, seamounts merge into a chain of aseismic phy is gradually buried under a thick apron of sediments
ridges. Flat-topped forms, referred to as guyots, develop as as the lithosphere moves away from the mid-ocean ridges.
active volcanic peaks above the sea surface and are subse- Seamounts are found over extensive areas of the seafloor,
quently eroded flat by wave action. They gradually submerge including along continental margins.8
below sea level. Both seamounts and guyots are formed by Ocean crust formation takes place at mid-ocean ridges
volcanic activity at mid-ocean ridges or hot spots in the through an interaction of magmatic construction, hydrother-
ocean. Lateral movement of the lithospheric plates trans- mal convection, and tectonic extension at divergent litho-
ports these volcanic edifices away from seafloor spread- spheric plate boundaries. Ocean crustal accretion occurs
ing centers. Cooling of the newly formed ocean crust leads by the emplacement of mantle-derived magma in narrow,
to their sinking away from the seafloor spreading centers. subaxial magma chambers at mid-ocean ridges, which are
Seamounts are most numerous in the Pacific Ocean basin, integral elements in the creation of ocean crust. Mantle melt
where as many as 1 million of the edifices cover ~13% of accumulates in these mantle chambers and forms the source
the seafloor.5–6 of basaltic rock that builds new ocean crust through crystal-
lization below the seafloor and eruption of lava on the sur-
d. Oceanic Trenches face of the seafloor.
Mid-ocean ridge spreading centers are not only sites of
The deepest areas of the ocean occur in oce- active basaltic volcanism but also the locus of shallow-focus
anic trenches—long, arc-shaped depressions that are earthquakes and high rates of heat flow. It is at the mid-ocean
~3000–5000 m deeper than the surrounding basin floor. ridge axis where seafloor spreading widens ocean basins by
These topographic depressions are formed at convergent the accretion of newly formed basaltic rock in a narrow litho-
tectonic plate boundaries, where subducting lithospheric spheric plate boundary zone. The result is a globally encir-
plates driven into the upper mantle create forces that gener- cling mid-ocean ridge and rift system that forms the largest
ate steep, V-shaped depressions in the ocean crust near con- and most volcanically active chain of mountains on earth,
tinental margins. The Mariana Trench in the western Pacific extending through all the major ocean basins as seafloor
4 PraCtICaL HanDBooK of MarIne sCIenCe

spreading centers. It is along the 75,000 km global length of bathypelagic, abyssalpelagic, and hadalpelagic regions.2
mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust forms.9–12 Epipelagic waters comprise the uppermost portion of the
The surface structure of mid-ocean ridges has been well water column extending from the sea surface down to a depth
characterized. The seafloor at mid-ocean ridges consists of of 200 m. The waters between 200 and 1000 m constitute
a narrow neovolcanic zone (1–4 km wide) flanked succes- the mesopelagic zone, and those between 1000 and 2000 m,
sively by a zone of crustal fissuring (0.5–3 km) and a zone of the bathypelagic zone. Deepest ocean waters of the pelagic
active faulting out to a distance of ~10 km from the spread- province occur in the abyssalpelagic zone, located between
ing axis. The neovolcanic zone is the region of most recent 2000 m and 6000 m depth, and in the underlying hadalpe-
volcanic activity along the ridge. The summit of the ridge lagic zone, located in the deep-sea trenches. The abyssal-
is marked by a rift valley, axial summit caldera, or axial pelagic, mesopelagic, and bathypelagic zones contain the
summit graben. The mid-ocean ridge system is segmented greatest volume of seawater, amounting to 54%, 28%, and
along-axis by transform faults, which commonly extend far 15% of all water present in the oceanic zone, respectively.
into deep-ocean basins as inactive fracture zones. The irreg-
ular partitioning of the ridge axis by transform faults creates
a hierarchy of discontinuities.13 II. CONCLUSIONS

C. Benthic and Pelagic Provinces The oceans comprise the most extensive and complex
aquatic systems on earth. As such, their study is necessar-
The oceans can also be subdivided on the basis of major ily a multidisciplinary endeavor, encompassing the efforts
habitats on the seafloor (benthic province) and in the water of investigators in the biological, chemical, geological, and
column (pelagic province). These provinces can be further physical oceanographic sciences, as well as those of inves-
divided into discrete zones, largely as a function of water tigators in related disciplines, including ocean engineer-
depth.2 Distinct biotic communities can be found in different ing and the atmospheric sciences. The scope is extensive,
habitats of the provinces. covering research on estuaries, harbors, lagoons, shallow
seas, continental shelves, continental rises, deep-sea abyssal
1. Benthic Province regions, and mid-ocean ridges. Over the past 50 years, vast
amounts of data have been collected on the oceans, lead-
The benthic province consists of five discrete zones: the ing to significant advances in understanding of the processes
littoral, sublittoral, bathyal, abyssal, and hadal zones. The lit- operating in the water column as well as on and below the
toral (or intertidal) zone encompasses the bottom habitat seafloor.
between the high and low tide marks. Immediately seaward, The burgeoning literature on the oceans provides valu-
the sublittoral (or subtidal) zone defines the benthic region able insight into the major areas of scientific inquiry related
from mean low water to the shelf break at a depth of ~200 m. to the marine realm. While much of this literature is focused
The seafloor extending from the shelf break to a depth of on the continental margins, scientific inquiry has also pro-
~2000 m corresponds to the bathyal zone. The deepest ben- gressed rapidly in the deep-ocean basins. The discovery of
thic habitats include the abyssal zone from 2000 to 6000 m deep-sea hydrothermal vents in the 1970s and the expansion
depth and the hadal zone below 6000 m. These zones of geological investigations on mid-ocean ridges provide
roughly conform to the aforementioned physiographic prov- examples. Since 1950, extensive exploration of the seafloor
inces. For example, the sublittoral zone represents the ben- has unraveled new findings on seafloor spreading centers,
thic environment of the continental shelf. The bathyal zone deep-sea trenches, submarine volcanic and seismic activity,
corresponds to the continental slope and rise, and the abys- and the abyssal plains. Advances continue to be made driven
sal zone, to the deep-ocean basins exclusive of the trenches, in part by development of emerging issues, such as climate
which are represented by the hadal zone. The abyssal zone change, renewable energy resources (e.g., wind energy), off-
accounts for 75% of the benthic habitat area of the oceans, shore oil and gas exploration, and mineral mining on conti-
and the bathyal and sublittoral zones 16% and 8% of the area, nental shelves and in the deep sea. Ongoing multiple uses of
respectively. the ocean will require an integrated effort of scientists from
various disciplines working in concert to achieve the long-
2. Pelagic Province term goal of preserving the integrity of marine ecosystems.

The Pelagic Province encompasses the water column of

the oceans. Pelagic environments are subdivided into neritic rEFErENCES
and oceanic zones. The neritic zone includes all waters over-
lying the continental shelf, and the oceanic zone, all waters 1. Pickard, G. L. and Emery, W. J., Descriptive Physical
seaward from the shelf break. Waters of the oceanic zone Oceanography: An Introduction, 4th ed., Pergamon Press,
are further subdivided into the epipelagic, mesopelagic, Oxford, 1985.
PHysIograPHy 5

2. Pinet, P. R., Essential Invitation to Oceanography, Jones margins, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 11, 2010, Q05006,
and Bartlett Learning, Burlington, MA, 2014. doi:10.1029/2010GC003064.
3. Garrison, T. Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine 9. Macdonald, K. C. and Fox, P. J., The mid-ocean ridge, Sci.
Science, 6th ed., Thomson Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA, 2007. Am., 262, 72, 1990.
4. Trujillo, A. P. and Thurman, H. V., Essentials of Oceanography, 10. Cann, J. R., Elderfield, H., and Laughton, A. S., Eds., Mid-
12th ed., Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2017. Ocean Ridges: Dynamics of Processes Associated with
5. Millero, F. J., Chemical Oceanography, 4th ed., CRC Press, Creation of New Ocean Crust, Cambridge University Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2013. Cambridge, 1999.
6. Smith, D. K. and Cann, J. R., The role of seamount volca- 11. German, C. R., Lin, J., and Parson, L. M., Eds, Mid-Ocean
nism in crustal construction at the Mid-Atlantic (24°–30°), Ridges, Geophysical Monograph Series, Volume 148,
J. Geophys. Res., 97, 1645, 1992. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 2004.
7. Smith, D. K. and Cann, J. R., Building the crust at the Mid- 12. Searle, R., Mid-Ocean Ridge, Cambridge University Press,
Atlantic ridge, Nature, 365, 707, 1993. Cambridge, 2013.
8. Davis, A. S., Clague, D, A., Paduan, J. B., Cousens, B. L., 13. Macdonald, K. C., Scheirer, D. S., and Carbotte, S. M., Mid-
and Huard, J., Origin of volcanic seamounts at the conti- ocean ridges: Discontinuities, segments, and giant cracks,
nental margin of California related to changes in plate Science, 253, 968, 1991.

1.1. GENErAL FEATUrES OF ThE EArTh

Table 1.1–1 Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth

Quantity Symbol Value Unit

Mass M 5.9742 × 10 27 g
Major orbital semi-axis aorb 1.000000 aU
1.4959787 × 108 km
Distance from sun at perihelion rx 0.9833 aU
Distance from sun at aphelion rα 1.0167 aU
Moment of perihelion passage Tx Jan. 2, 4 h 52 min
Moment of aphelion passage Tα July 4, 5 h 05 min
siderial rotation period around sun Porb 31.5581 × 106 s
365.25636 d
Mean rotational velocity Uorb 29.78 km/s
Mean equatorial radius ā 6378.140 km
Mean polar compression (flattening factor) α 1/298.257
Difference in equatorial and polar semi-axes a–c 21.385 km
Compression of meridian of major equatorial axis αa 1/295.2
Compression of meridian of minor equatorial axis αb 1/298.0
equatorial compression ε 1/30,000
Difference in equatorial semi-axes a–b 213 m
Difference in polar semi-axes cn–cs ~70 m
Polar asymmetry η ~1.10−5
Mean acceleration of gravity at equator ge 9.78036 m/s2
Mean acceleration of gravity at poles gp 9.83208 m/s2
Difference in acceleration of gravity at pole and at equator gp–ge 5.172 cm/s2
Mean acceleration of gravity for entire surface of terrestrial ellipsoid g 9.7978 m/s2
Mean radius R 6371.0 km
area of surface S 5.10 × 108 km2
Volume V 1.0832 × 1012 km3
Mean density ρ 5.515 g/cm3
siderial rotational period P 86,164.09 s
rotational angular velocity ω 7.292116 × 10−5 rad/s
Mean equatorial rotational velocity v 0.46512 km/s
rotational angular momentum L 5.861 × 1033 Js
rotational energy E 2.137 × 1029 J
ratio of centrifugal force to force of gravity at equator qc 0.0034677 = 1/288
(Continued)
6 PraCtICaL HanDBooK of MarIne sCIenCe

Table 1.1–1 (Continued) Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth

Quantity Symbol Value Unit

Moment of inertia I 8.070 × 10 37 kg m2
relative braking of earth’s rotation due to tidal friction Δωe/ω −4.2 × 10−8 century−1
relative secular acceleration of earth’s rotation Δωi/ω −1.4 × 10−8 century−1
not secular braking of earth’s rotation Δω/ω −2.8 × 10−8 century−1
Probable value of total energy of tectonic deformation of earth Et −1 × 1023 J/century
secular loss of heat of earth throughradiation into space Δ′Ek 1 × 1023 J/century
Portion of earth’s kinetic energy transformed into heat as a result of Δ″Ek 1.3 × 1023 J/century
lunar and solar tides in the hydrosphere
Differences in duration of days in March and august ΔP 0.0025 s
(March–august)
Corresponding relative annual variation in earth’s rotational velocity Δ*ω/ω 2.9 × 10−8
(aug.–March)
Presumed variation in earth’s radius between august and March Δ*R −9.2 (aug.–March) cm
annual variation in level of world ocean Δho ~10 (sept.–March) cm
area of continents SC 1.49 × 108 km2
29.2 % of surface
area of world ocean So 3.61 × 108 km2
70.8 % of surface
Mean height of continents above sea level hC 875 m
Mean depth of world ocean ho 3794 m
Mean thickness of lithosphere within the limits of the continents hc.l. 35 km
Mean thickness of lithosphere within the limits of the ocean ho.l. 4.7 km
Mean rate of thickening of continental lithosphere Δh/Δt 10–40 m/106 y
Mean rate of horizontal extension of continental lithosphere Δl/Δt 0.75–20 km/106 y
Mass of crust m1 2.36 × 1022 kg
Mass of mantle 4.05 × 1024 kg
amount of water released from the mantle and core in the course of 3.40 × 1021 kg
geological time
total reserve of water in the mantle 2 × 1023 kg
Present content of free and bound water in the earth’s lithosphere 2.4 × 1021 kg
Mass of hydrosphere mh 1.664 × 1021 kg
amount of oxygen bound in the earth’s crust 1.300 × 1021 kg
amount of free oxygen 1.5 × 1018 kg
Mass of atmosphere ma 5.136 × 1018 kg
Mass of biosphere mb 1.148 × 1016 kg
Mass of living matter in the biosphere 3.6 × 1014 kg
Density of living matter on dry land 0.1 g/cm2
Density of living matter in ocean 15 × 10−8 g/cm3
age of the earth 4.55 × 109 y
age of oldest rocks 4.0 × 109 y
age of most ancient fossils 3.4 × 109 y
Source: Lide, D. r. and frederikse, H. P. r., eds., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 79th ed., CrC Press,
Boca raton, fL, 1998, 14–6. With permission.
Note: this table is a collection of data on various properties of the earth. Most of the values are given in sI units. note
that 1 aU (astronomical unit) = 149,597,870 km.

rEFErENCES 2. Lang, K. R., Astrophysical Data: Planets and Stars,

Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992.
1. Seidelmann, P. K., Ed., Explanatory Supplement to the
Astronomical Almanac, University Science Books, Mill
Valley, CA, 1992.
PHysIograPHy 7

Table 1.1–2 Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust and in the Sea

Abundance Abundance
Element Crust (mg/kg) Sea (mg/L) Element Crust (mg/kg) Sea (mg/L)
ac 5.5 × 10 −10 n 1.9 × 101 5 × 10−1
ag 7.5 × 10−2 4 × 10−5 na 2.36 × 10 4 1.08 × 104
al 8.23 × 104 2 × 10−3 nb 2.0 × 101 1 × 10−5
ar 3.5 4.5 × 10−1 nd 4.15 × 101 2.8 × 10−6
as 1.8 3.7 × 10−3 ne 5 × 10−3 1.2 × 10−4
au 4 × 10−3 4 × 10−6 ni 8.4 × 101 5.6 × 10−4
B 1.0 × 101 4.44 o 4.61 × 105 8.57 × 105
Ba 4.25 × 102 1.3 × 10−2 os 1.5 × 10−3
Be 2.8 5.6 × 10−6 P 1.05 × 103 6 × 10−2
Bi 8.5 × 10−3 2 × 10−5 Pa 1.4 × 10−6 5 × 10−11
Br 2.4 6.73 × 101 Pb 1.4 × 101 3 × 10−5
C 2.00 × 102 2.8 × 101 Pd 1.5 × 10−2
Ca 4.15 × 104 4.12 × 102 Po 2 × 10−10 1.5 × 10−14
Cd 1.5 × 10−1 1.1 × 10−4 Pr 9.2 6.4 × 10−7
Ce 6.65 × 101 1.2 × 10−6 Pt 5 × 10−3
Cl 1.45 × 102 1.94 × 104 ra 9 × 10−7 8.9 × 10−11
Co 2.5 × 101 2 × 10−5 rb 9.0 × 101 1.2 × 10−1
Cr 1.02 × 102 3 × 10−4 re 7 × 10−4 4 × 10−6
Cs 3 3 × 10−4 rh 1 × 10−3
Cu 6.0 × 101 2.5 × 10−4 rn 4 × 10−13 6 × 10−16
Dy 5.2 9.1 × 10−7 ru 1 × 10−3 7 × 10−7
er 3.5 8.7 × 10−7 s 3.50 × 102 9.05 × 102
eu 2.0 1.3 × 10−7 sb 2 × 10−1 2.4 × 10−4
f 5.85 × 102 1.3 sc 2.2 × 101 6 × 10−7
fe 5.63 × 104 2 × 10−3 se 5 × 10−2 2 × 10−4
ga 1.9 × 101 3 × 10−5 si 2.82 × 105 2.2
gd 6.2 7 × 10−7 sm 7.05 4.5 × 10−7
ge 1.5 5 × 10−5 sn 2.3 4 × 10−6
H 1.40 × 103 1.08 × 105 sr 3.70 × 102 7.9
He 8 × 10−3 7 × 10−6 ta 2.0 2 × 10−6
Hf 3.0 7 × 10−6 tb 1.2 1.4 × 10−7
Hg 8.5 × 10−2 3 × 10−5 te 1 × 10−3
Ho 1.3 2.2 × 10−7 th 9.6 1 × 10−6
I 4.5 × 10−1 6 × 10−2 ti 5.65 × 103 1 × 10−3
In 2.5 × 10−1 2 × 10−2 tl 8.5 × 10−1 1.9 × 10−5
Ir 1 × 10−3 tm 5.2 × 10−1 1.7 × 10−7
K 2.09 × 104 3.99 × 102 U 2.7 3.2 × 10−3
Kr 1 × 10−4 2.1 × 10−4 V 1.20 × 102 2.5 × 10−3
La 3.9 × 101 3.4 × 10−6 W 1.25 1 × 10−4
Li 2.0 × 101 1.8 × 10−1 Xe 3 × 10−5 5 × 10−5
Lu 8 × 10−1 1.5 × 10−7 y 3.3 × 101 1.3 × 10−5
Mg 2.33 × 104 1.29 × 103 yb 3.2 8.2 × 10−7
Mn 9.50 × 102 2 × 10−4 Zn 7.0 × 101 4.9 × 10−3
Mo 1.2 1 × 10−2 Zr 1.65 × 102 3 × 10−5
Source: rumble, J. r., ed., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 98th ed., CrC
Press, Boca raton, fL, 2017, 14–17. With permission.
Note: this table gives the estimated abundance of the elements in the continental crust
(in mg/kg, equivalent to parts per million by mass) and in seawater near the surface
(in mg/L). Values represent the median of reported measurements. the concentra-
tions of the less abundant elements may vary with location by several orders of
magnitude.
8 PraCtICaL HanDBooK of MarIne sCIenCe

rEFErENCES 2. Bodek, I. et al., Environmental Inorganic Chemistry, Pergamon

Press, New York, 1988.
1. Carmichael, R. S., Ed., CRC Practical Handbook of Physical 3. Ronov, A. B. and Yaroshevsky, A. A., Earth’s crust geochem-
Properties of Rocks and Minerals, CRC Press, Boca Raton, istry, in Encyclopedia of Geochemistry and Environmental
FL, 1989. Sciences, Fairbridge, R. W., Ed., Van Nostrand, New York,
1969.

1.2. GENErAL ChArACTErISTICS OF ThE OCEANS

Table 1.2–1 Area, Volume, Mean, and Maximum Depths of the Oceans and Their Adjacent Seas

Depth
Sea Area (10 km )
a 6 2 Volume (10 km )
a 6 3 Mean (m)
a Maximumb (m)
Oceans without adjacent seas
Pacific ocean 166.24 696.19 4,188 11,022a
atlantic ocean 84.11 322.98 3,844 9,219b
Indian ocean 73.43 284.34 3,872 7,455c
Total 323.78 1,303.51 4,026 —
Mediterranean seas
arcticd 12.26 13.70 1,117 5,449
austral-asiatice 9.08 11.37 1,252 7,440
american 4.36 9.43 2,164 7,680
europeanf 3.02 4.38 1,450 5,092
Total 28.72 38.88 1,354 —
Intracontinental Mediterranean seas
Hudson Bay 1.23 0.16 128 218
red sea 0.45 0.24 538 2,604
Baltic sea 0.39 0.02 55 459
Persian gulf 0.24 0.01 25 170
Total 2.31 0.43 184 —
Marginal seas
Bering sea 2.26 3.37 1,491 4,096
sea of okhotsk 1.39 1.35 971 3,372
east China sea 1.20 0.33 275 2,719
sea of Japan 1.01 1.69 1,673 4,225
gulf of California 0.15 0.11 733 3,127
north sea 0.58 0.05 93 725g
gulf of st. Lawrence 0.24 0.03 125 549
Irish sea 0.10 0.01 60 272
remaining seas 0.30 0.15 470 —
Total 7.23 7.09 979 —
Oceans, including adjacent seas
Pacific ocean 181.34 714.41 3,940 11,022a
atlantic ocean 106.57 350.91 3,293 9,219b
Indian ocean 74.12 284.61 3,840 7,455c
World ocean 362.03 1,349.93 3,729 11,022a
Source: Millero, f. J. and sohn, M. L., Chemical Oceanography, CrC Press, Boca raton, fL, 1992, 6. With permission.
a Vitiaz Depth in the Mariana trench.
b Milwaukee Depth in the Puerto rico trench.
c Planet Depth in the sunda trench.
d Consisting of arctic ocean, Barents sea, Canadian archipelago, Baffin Bay, and Hudson Bay.
e Including aegean sea.
f Including Black sea.
g In the skagerrak area.
 PHysIograPHy

Table 1.2–2 Depth Zones in the Oceans

Depth Zone (km) World

Ocean Area a 0–0.2 0.2–1 1–2 2–3 3–4 4–5 5–6 6–7 7–8 8–0 9–10 10–11 Oceanb

Pacific Oceanb 1.631 2.583 3.250 6.856 21.796 34.987 26.884 1.742 0.188 0.063 0.019 0.001 45.919
austral asiatic 51.913 9.255 10.433 12.151 6.698 7.780 1.636 0.076 0.058 0 0 0 2.509
Mediterranean Seasc
Bering sea 46.443 5.975 7.623 10.330 29.629 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.625
sea of okhotsk 26.475 39.479 22.383 3.403 8.260 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.384
east China sead 81.305 11.427 5.974 1.239 0.055 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.332
sea of Japan 23.498 15.176 19.646 20.096 21.551 0.033 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.280
gulf of California 46.705 20.848 25.891 6.556 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.042
Atlantic Oceanb 7.025 5.169 4.295 8.590 19.327 32.452 22.326 0.738 0.067 0.012 0 0 23.909
arctic Med.e 47.083 17.427 9.317 11.153 12.834 2.195 0 0 0 0 0 3.386
american Med. 23.443 10.674 13.518 15.313 20.796 13.440 2.572 0.193 0.051 0 1.203
european Med.f 22.868 20.814 18.362 30.326 7.426 20.204 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.834
Baltic sea 99.832 0.168 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.105
Indian Oceanb 3.570 2.685 3.580 10.029 25.259 36.643 16.991 1.241 0.001 0 0 0 20.282
red sea 41.454 43.058 14.920 0.568 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.125
Persian gulf 100.000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.066
World Ocean 7.492 4.423 5.376 8.497 20.944 31.689 21.201 1.232 0.105 0.032 0.009 0.001 100.00
Source: Millero, f. J., Chemical Oceanography, 2nd ed., CrC Press, Boca raton, fL, 1996, 4. With permission. originally adapted from Dietrich, g. et al., General Oceanography, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & sons, new york, 1980.
a as a percentage of the surface of each ocean.
b Without adjacent seas.
c Including aegean sea.
d Including yellow sea.
e Consisting of arctic ocean, Barents sea, Canadian archipelago, Baffin Bay, and Hudson Bay.
f Including Black sea.
9
10 PraCtICaL HanDBooK of MarIne sCIenCe

High Water Sea Level

Low Water
Shelf Break in Slope

Continent

Shore

Island Arc
Slop
e

Mount
Sea

Trench
Basin

Deep Sea Bottom

Figure 1.2–1 generalized structure of the ocean bottom. (from Millero, f. J., Chemical Oceanography, 4th ed., CrC Press, Boca raton,
fL, 2013, 3. With permission.)

S.Explorer Ridge
Juan de Fuca Ridge
Azores
Gorda Ridge

Red
Okinawa Guaymas Basin
Sea
Trough Mariana Trough

Mid
Atl Central
Manus & Woodlark ant
ic
Indian
East Pacific Rise

Basins
Ridge

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Lau Basin Rodrigues
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Havre Ch
Trough ile e
idg
R is nR
e Bouvet dia
T.J. . In SE Indian
Southeast Indian Ridge
Scotia S.W
Ridge
Plate

E. Scotia Ridge
Pacific Atlantic Ridge

Locations of known hydrothermal activity along the global mid-ocean ridge system
= Known active sites = Active sites indicated by midwater chemical anomalies

Figure 1.2–2 Mid-ocean ridge seafloor spreading centers in the world oceans. (from Millero, f. J., Chemical Oceanography, 4th ed.,
CrC Press, Boca raton, fL, 2013, 3. With permission.)
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