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Fisheries and Aquaculture The Food Security of the Future

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 Fisheries and
Aquaculture
The Food Security of the Future
This page intentionally left blank
 Fisheries and
Aquaculture
The Food Security of the Future

Ágúst Einarsson
Professor Emeritus, Bifrost University, Iceland

Ásta Dı́s Óladóttir

Associate Professor, University of Iceland
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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To the children and young people of the world and the
role of fisheries and aquaculture in their future.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
List of figures and tables..........................................................................................xi
Foreword ............................................................................................................... xvii
Preface ....................................................................................................................xix

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ...................................................................1

1.1 The dawn of human communities and the origins of fisheries .....1
1.2 The role of fish and the sea in religion and lore ...........................3
1.3 The oceans and marine taxonomy..................................................4
1.4 Fisheries in a historical context......................................................7
An illustration of the Cod Wars .................................................. 10
1.5 Fisheries and aquaculture in modern times .................................11
Endnotes........................................................................................18
CHAPTER 2 Fishing and fish farming ............................................. 21
2.1 Fishing, the principal fishing countries and harvested
species ...........................................................................................21
An illustration of productivity trends in fishing ......................... 26
2.2 Fish farming and principal fish farming countries ......................29
2.3 Consumption of fish .....................................................................35
2.4 Importance of fisheries and aquaculture for countries
and island states............................................................................37
Endnotes........................................................................................49
CHAPTER 3 Market forces and tools to analyse fisheries and
aquaculture ................................................................. 51
3.1 Companies and individuals ..........................................................51
3.2 Demand and utility .......................................................................56
An illustration of demand for fish ............................................... 60
3.3 Supply ...........................................................................................61
3.4 Cost ...............................................................................................66
3.5 Supply and demand in equilibrium ..............................................70
Endnotes........................................................................................74
CHAPTER 4 Environmental issues.................................................. 75
4.1 Climate change and changing ecosystems ...................................75
4.2 The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
and their impact on fisheries and aquaculture .............................85
4.3 Effect of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture................87

vii
viii Contents

4.4 Plastic pollution in the oceans......................................................90

4.5 Antarctica and the Arctic .............................................................93
An illustration of sinking islands and melting glaciers.............. 96
Endnotes........................................................................................97
CHAPTER 5 Fisheries management .............................................. 101
5.1 Common resources .....................................................................101
5.2 Overfishing and its consequences ..............................................104
5.3 Basics of fisheries economics ....................................................106
An illustration of the most efficient fishing effort..................... 113
5.4 Different management systems and fishing licence fees...........117
5.5 Fisheries management around the world ...................................122
Endnotes......................................................................................132
CHAPTER 6 China, the leading fishing and fish farming
country of the world ................................................. 135
6.1 Principal events in the context of history ..................................135
Illustration of China’s impact ................................................... 142
6.2 Development of fisheries and aquaculture.................................143
6.3 Public management and international trade...............................148
6.4 China’s future in fisheries and aquaculture ...............................151
Endnotes......................................................................................154
CHAPTER 7 Developing countries ................................................ 157
7.1 Developing countries in fisheries and aquaculture ....................157
An illustration of fisheries in Lake Victoria ............................. 160
7.2 Fishing by foreigners in the waters of developing countries ....162
7.3 Development aid, gender gap, and corruption...........................165
7.4 Food security of the developing countries.................................171
Endnotes......................................................................................174
CHAPTER 8 Processing and related industries ........................... 177
8.1 Handling of catches and quality control ....................................177
8.2 Business environment and value chain ......................................184
8.3 Cluster collaboration and productivity.......................................187
8.4 Innovation and technological advances .....................................192
An illustration of high-tech solutions in fisheries..................... 198
Endnotes......................................................................................198
CHAPTER 9 Sales and marketing ................................................. 201
9.1 The development of trade...........................................................201
9.2 The market clearing forces of price and quantity......................204
An illustration of marketing ...................................................... 207
 Contents ix

9.3 Market models of producer and consumer interaction ..............207

9.4 Other aspects of marketing.........................................................210
9.5 Exports and imports of fishery commodities.............................214
9.6 Dynamics of trade and increased interdependence....................218
Endnotes......................................................................................220
CHAPTER 10 Finances .................................................................... 223
10.1 Basic financial principles of fisheries and aquaculture .............223
An illustration of money and its role ........................................ 225
10.2 Financial analysis .......................................................................226
10.3 Competitive advantage and investments in technology
and innovation ............................................................................230
10.4 State support in fisheries and aquaculture .................................233
Endnotes......................................................................................237
CHAPTER 11 Globalisation ............................................................. 239
11.1 Globalisation in fisheries and aquaculture .................................239
11.2 Market entry strategies and motives ..........................................245
11.3 Nonequity mode..........................................................................248
11.4 Equity modes ..............................................................................251
11.5 Largest companies in fisheries and aquaculture
in the world.................................................................................253
Illustration of the merger of enterprises in fisheries
and aquaculture ......................................................................... 260
Endnotes......................................................................................261
CHAPTER 12 Management ............................................................. 263
12.1 Size, organisation, and management of enterprises...................263
12.2 Strategy and SWOT analysis......................................................267
12.3 Porter’s five forces model ..........................................................270
12.4 Knowledge management ............................................................273
An illustration of the use of knowledge in the fishing
industry ...................................................................................... 275
12.5 Family-owned enterprises...........................................................276
12.6 Women in fisheries and aquaculture..........................................278
Endnotes......................................................................................281
CHAPTER 13 Legal framework, research, and some
peripheral issues ...................................................... 283
13.1 Governments and legislation that applies to fisheries
and aquaculture...........................................................................283
13.2 Education, research, and artistic creation ..................................288
x Contents

13.3 Whaling.......................................................................................291
An illustration of disasters at sea ............................................. 294
13.4 Angling and recreational fishing ................................................295
13.5 Demand and supply of fish in the future and food security......299
Endnotes......................................................................................305
CHAPTER 14 Summary ................................................................... 307
Index of names ......................................................................................................315
Index of terms........................................................................................................317
References..............................................................................................................325
List of figures and tables

List of figures
Fig. 1.1 Ancient stone fish hook from Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean. 2
Fig. 1.2 The Ring of the Fisherman, carried by Pope Francis. 3
Fig. 1.3 Atlantic cod in the sea. 6
Fig. 1.4 Bottom trawling. 9
Fig. 1.5 The British Frigate HMS Scylla rams the Icelandic coast guard
vessel Ódinn, in the Cod War in April 1976. 10
Fig. 1.6 World population in millions from 1 to 2100 CE. 12
Fig. 1.7 Fishing in earlier times. 13
Fig. 1.8 World catch in million tons 1950–2019. 15
Fig. 1.9 World fish farming output in million tons, 1950–2019. 16
Fig. 1.10 World catch by continent in 2000 and 2018. 16
Fig. 1.11 World fish farming by continent in 2000 and 2018. 17

Fig. 2.1 Utilisation of the world’s fish stocks in 1975 and 2015. 22
Fig. 2.2 British fishing boats head out to sea. 23
Fig. 2.3 Labour productivity index in fishing 1982–2018. 27
Fig. 2.4 Index of capital productivity in fishing in 1982–2018. 27
Fig. 2.5 Fishermen gutting fish in Matanzas in Chile. 30
Fig. 2.6 Size of a 56-day-old chicken in 1957 and 2005. 34
Fig. 2.7 Traditional Atlantic salmon and genetically modified Atlantic salmon. 35
Fig. 2.8 Location of countries in Africa where fisheries and aquaculture
are economically significant. 41
Fig. 2.9 Location of countries in the Americas where fisheries and aquaculture
have a high level of significance. 43
Fig. 2.10 Location of countries in Asia where fisheries and aquaculture
have a high level of significance. 45
Fig. 2.11 Location of countries in Europe where fisheries and aquaculture
have a high level of significance. 46
Fig. 2.12 Location of countries in Oceania where fisheries and
aquaculture are economically significant. 48
Fig. 3.1 Fish feast. 53
Fig. 3.2 Fish farming in China. 54
Fig. 3.3 The demand curve in sales of fish. 57
Fig. 3.4 Dried cod (stockfish) in Lofoten in Norway. 58
Fig. 3.5 Traditional utility function. 60
Fig. 3.6 Relationship of factors of production and production. 61
Fig. 3.7 The supply curve and changes in the curve. 64
Fig. 3.8 Supply of fish in the Solomon Islands. 66
Fig. 3.9 Economies of scale and the learning curve. 69

xi
xii List of figures and tables

Fig. 3.10 Excess demand and equilibrium. 70

Fig. 3.11 Excess supply and equilibrium. 71
Fig. 3.12 Aquarium. 72

Fig. 4.1 Global CO2 emissions in billion tons 1950–2019. 77

Fig. 4.2 Changes in global temperature 1850–2018 in degrees Celsius. 77
Fig. 4.3 Global energy consumption in terawatt hours 1950–2018. 78
Fig. 4.4 Energy use in kg of oil equivalent per capita 1971–2018. 79
Fig. 4.5 Greta Thunberg in a protest in front of the Swedish parliament. 81
Fig. 4.6 A hand water pump in Manica in Mozambique. 84
Fig. 4.7 Pictogram for the 14th United Nations Sustainable Development
Goal. 87
Fig. 4.8 Pollution in the sea at Borneo. 89
Fig. 4.9 Global plastic production in millions of metric tons 1950–2018. 91
Fig. 4.10 Plastic pollution on a beach near the Panama Canal. 92
Fig. 4.11 Antarctica. 94
Fig. 4.12 The Arctic. 95
Fig. 4.13 Starving polar bear. 97
Fig. 5.1 Pine tree forestry in the Highlands of Scotland. 103
Fig. 5.2 Discards of fish. 105
Fig. 5.3 Ilulissat in Greenland. 108
Fig. 5.4 Relationship of stock size and growth. 109
Fig. 5.5 Relationship of income and cost to fishing effort. 111
Fig. 5.6 Income and cost as a function of effort in an example. 113
Fig. 5.7 A scene from the Kota Kinabalu market in Malaysia. 117
Fig. 5.8 Setting out to sea in 1916. 119
Fig. 5.9 Brown bear catching salmon in North America. 125
Fig. 5.10 Melting glaciers in Juneau in Alaska. 126
Fig. 5.11 Big-game fishing in Mah
e, the largest island of the Seychelles,
in the Indian Ocean. 130
Fig. 6.1 Population of China 221 BCE–CE 2100. 137
Fig. 6.2 Three leaders of China. 139
Fig. 6.3 Economic growth in China and the world from 1970 to 2018. 140
Fig. 6.4 Gross domestic product (GDP) in billion current international dollars
(PPP) in China and United States 1990–2018. 141
Fig. 6.5 Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in current international
dollars (PPP) in 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2018. 142
Fig. 6.6 Christopher Columbus’ ship and Chinese vessel in the 15th century. 143
Fig. 6.7 Marine capture in China in million tons 1950–2018. 144
Fig. 6.8 Share of China and Europe in world marine capture 1950–2018. 145
Fig. 6.9 Inland capture in China in million tons 1950–2018. 146
Fig. 6.10 Production in aquaculture in China in million tons 1950–2018. 146
Fig. 6.11 China’s share in world aquaculture 1950–2018. 147
Fig. 6.12 Hong Kong harbour. 149
Fig. 6.13 World export of fish and fish products and China’s exports 2000
and 2018 in billion USD. 150
 List of figures and tables xiii

Fig. 6.14 World imports of fish and fish products and China’s exports 2000
and 2018 in billion USD. 151
Fig. 6.15 Distribution of populations in 195 independent countries of the
world in 2020. 152

Fig. 7.1 Quality control in fish processing. 159

Fig. 7.2 Lake Victoria in Africa. 161
Fig. 7.3 Fishing in Africa. 164
Fig. 7.4 Food market in Dawei in Myanmar. 166
Fig. 7.5 Shrimp processing in Samutprakarn in Thailand. 170
Fig. 7.6 Progress in several areas 1900–2020. 172
Fig. 7.7 World spending in several areas in billion USD. 173

Fig. 8.1 Red caviar processing in Khabarovsk in Russia. 178

Fig. 8.2 Salmon transport. 180
Fig. 8.3 Clarence Birdseye’s application of 1927 for a patent on the first
plate freezer. 181
Fig. 8.4 Salted fish in a Barcelona fish shop. 182
Fig. 8.5 Wooden barrels in a fish sauce factory on Phu Quoc island
in Vietnam. 183
Fig. 8.6 The business environment of an enterprise. 184
Fig. 8.7 The value chain in fisheries and aquaculture. 185
Fig. 8.8 Fishing port in Iceland. 188
Fig. 8.9 Productivity in fish processing in Iceland, 1990–2017. 191
Fig. 8.10 Saltfish production in Reus in Catalonia. 193
Fig. 8.11 Algaennovation’s Micro-Algae Production Unit. 196
Fig. 8.12 A robot in fish processing. 197
Fig. 9.1 Fishing boats in Canakkale in Turkey. 202
Fig. 9.2 Demand and supply and area of trade. 204
Fig. 9.3 Fresh fish sold to a customer. 206
Fig. 9.4 Market model for fisheries and aquaculture. 208
Fig. 9.5 Fish species on a price and quality scale. 208
Fig. 9.6 ABC analysis. 210
Fig. 9.7 The Tsukiji fish market in Tokyo, Japan, the largest in the
world. 212
Fig. 9.8 World exports of fishery commodities in billion USD
(2019 US price level) in 1980, 2000, and 2017. 214
Fig. 9.9 Exports and imports of fishery commodities in Africa in billion USD
(2019 US price level) in 1980, 2000, and 2017. 215
Fig. 9.10 Exports and imports of fishery commodities in the Americas in
billion USD (2019 US price level) in 1980, 2000, and 2017. 215
Fig. 9.11 Exports and imports of fishery commodities in Asia in billion USD
(2019 US price level) in 1980, 2000, and 2017. 216
Fig. 9.12 Exports and imports of fishery commodities in Europe in billion
USD (2019 US price level) in 1980, 2000, and 2017. 216
Fig. 9.13 Exports and imports of fishery commodities in Oceania in billion
USD (2019 US price level) in 1980, 2000, and 2017. 217
xiv List of figures and tables

Fig. 9.14 Cargo vessel of the A.P. Møller—Mærsk Shipping company. 219
Fig. 10.1 Fish farming in Greece. 224
Fig. 10.2 Profit distribution of enterprises in fishing and fish processing. 229
Fig. 10.3 Average monthly income in USD at purchasing power parity (PPP)
in 2018 in OECD countries. 230
Fig. 10.4 Salmon farming in Arctic waters. 232
Fig. 10.5 Luanda, capital of Angola in Africa. 234
Fig. 11.1 Globalisation. 240
Fig. 11.2 Aquaculture in Si Lanna National Park, Thailand. 242
Fig. 11.3 Global Fishery Forum and Seafood Expo in Brussels. 244
Fig. 11.4 A scene in Kiritimati in the Pacific Ocean. 247
Fig. 11.5 Leading exporting countries of fish and fishery products
in billion USD worldwide in 2018. 249
Fig. 11.6 London protest against climate change in October 2019. 249
Fig. 11.7 Fish research in laboratory. 252
Fig. 11.8 World’s largest seafood companies in Asia, Africa, Europe,
and Oceania. 254
Fig. 11.9 World’s largest seafood companies in North and South America. 255
Fig. 11.10 Revenue distribution of the top 100 largest seafood enterprises
in 2018. 256
Fig. 11.11 Japanese seafood dish. 257
Fig. 11.12 Ownership of world’s 100 largest seafood companies. 260
Fig. 11.13 Top 20 largest seafood companies in the world by country. 260
Fig. 12.1 Organisation chart for fish processing. 265
Fig. 12.2 Organisation chart aboard a fishing vessel. 265
Fig. 12.3 Technological changes in processing fish. 266
Fig. 12.4 Boats in Essaouira in Morocco. 268
Fig. 12.5 Porter’s five forces analysis in the fishing industry. 270
Fig. 12.6 Competitive advantage of a country in the fish processing industry. 271
Fig. 12.7 Delta rivers in Iceland. 274
Fig. 12.8 System collaboration. 276
Fig. 12.9 Ásta Dı́s Óladóttir, jr., 11 years of age, attempts to save a beached
whale on the coast of Iceland, 2019. 277
Fig. 12.10 Percentage of women employed in aquaculture. 280
Fig. 13.1 The legal environment of fisheries and aquaculture. 284
Fig. 13.2 The countries of the world and their exclusive economic zones. 286
Fig. 13.3 Italian naval education barquentine Palinuro, moored at a pier
in Odessa, Ukraine. 288
Fig. 13.4 Masters students in Fisheries at the University of Iceland. 289
Fig. 13.5 The Raft of the Medusa by the French painter Th
eodore G
ericault,
dated 1818–19. 290
Fig. 13.6 Whales in the North Atlantic. 292
Fig. 13.7 The British passenger liner Titanic departing Southampton 1912. 294
Fig. 13.8 Angling at Blanda river in Iceland. 296
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