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 Another Random Document on
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For scenting purposes, chulan flowers, rose, jasmine, and orange leaves, have been employed. The
writer has lately received from Japan specimens of willow, wisteria, te-mo-ki, and other leaves which at
one time were used in that country as admixtures.
Plate III. exhibits some of these leaves, two genuine Japan tea-leaves being included for purpose of
comparison. The leaves represented in this plate are: 1, beech; 2, hawthorn; 3, rose; 4, Japan tea; 5,
willow; 6, te-mo-ki; 7, elm; 8, wisteria; 9, poplar. From very recent reports of the American consuls in
Japan and China, it would appear that the addition of foreign leaves to tea is at present but seldom
resorted to, and this accords with the author’s experience in the testing of the teas imported into this
country.
In 1884, the Japanese Government made it a criminal offence to adulterate tea, and instituted “tea
guilds,” which are governed by very stringent laws, and of which most dealers of repute are members.
The facing of tea does not appear, however, to have been considered an adulteration, its continued
practice being justified by the plea that otherwise Japan teas would not suit the taste of American
consumers.

PLATE III.

TEA AND OTHER LEAVES.

In the microscopic examination of tea, the sample should be moistened with hot water and spread
out on a glass plate, and then submitted to a careful inspection, especial attention being directed to the
general outline of the leaf and its serrations and venations. The presence of exhausted tea-leaves may
often be detected by their soft texture and generally disintegrated appearance. If a considerable
quantity of the tea be placed in a long glass cylinder and agitated with cold water, the colouring and
other abnormal substances frequently become detached, and either rise to the surface of the liquid as a
sort of scum, or fall to the bottom as a sediment. In this way Prussian blue, indigo, soapstone, gypsum,
sand, and turmeric can often be separated, and subsequently recognised by their characteristic
appearance under the microscope. The separated substances should also be subjected to a chemical
examination. Prussian blue is detected by heating with a solution of sodium hydroxide, filtering,
acidulating the filtrate with acetic acid, and then adding ferric chloride, when, in its presence, a blue
colour will be produced. Indigo is best recognised by the microscopic examination. It is not decolorised
by caustic alkali, but it dissolves in sulphuric acid to a blue liquid. Soapstone, gypsum, sand, and
metallic iron, are identified by means of the usual chemical reactions. A compound very aptly termed
“Lie-tea,” is sometimes met with. It forms little pellets, consisting of tea-dust mixed with foreign leaves,
sand, etc., and held together by means of gum or starch. This falls to powder if treated with boiling
water. In the presence of catechu, the tea infusion usually assumes a muddy appearance upon
standing. In case iron salts have been employed to deepen the colour of the infusion, they can be
detected by treating the ground tea-leaves with acetic acid, and testing the filtered solution with
potassium ferrocyanide. Tea should not turn black upon immersion in hydrosulphuric acid water, nor
should it impart a blue colour to ammonia water. The infusion should be amber-coloured, and not
become reddened by the addition of an acid.
The United States Tea Adulteration Act was passed by Congress in 1883. The enactment of this law
was largely due to the exertions of prominent tea merchants, whose business interests were seriously
affected by the sale (principally in trade auctions) of the debased or spurious article. It is stated in the
official report of the United States Tea Examiner at New York City, that from March 1883 to December of
the same year, 856,281 packages (about four millions of pounds) of tea were inspected, of which 7000
packages (325,000 pounds) were rejected as unfit for consumption. Since the enforcement in New York
City of the Tea Adulteration Act, nearly 2000 samples of tea have been chemically tested under the
direction of the author. The proportion grossly adulterated has been a little over nine per cent. But this
does not apply to the total amount imported, since only those samples which were somewhat suspicious
in appearance were submitted for analysis. As the result of the past two years’ experience in the
chemical examination of tea, the prevailing adulterations were found to be of two kinds—the admixture
of spent tea-leaves, and the application to the tea of a facing preparation. A natural green tea
possesses a dull hue, and is but seldom met with in the trade; some Moyunes and uncoloured Japans
(which latter, properly speaking, is not a green tea) being almost the only varieties not exhibiting the
bright metallic lustre due to the facing process. The addition of foreign leaves was detected only in a
few instances; the presence of sand and gravel occurred far more frequently. Apropos of the practical
utility of Governmental sanitary legislation, it can be stated that, since the enforcement of the
Adulteration Act, the tea imported into the city of New York has very perceptibly improved in quality.
Attempts in tea culture are being made in the United States of Columbia, S.A. A specimen of the
prepared plant received by the writer, differed greatly in appearance from the Chinese and Japanese
products. The leaves, which had not been rolled but were quite flat, possessed a light pea-green colour
and a fine but rather faint aroma. An examination indicated that the tea, although very delicate in
quality, was seriously deficient in body.
The analysis showed:—

Per cent.
Moisture 6·70
Total ash 4·82
Ash soluble in water 1·62
Ash insoluble in water 3·20
Ash insoluble in acid 0·16
Extract 27·40
Tannic acid 4·31
Theine 0·66
Insoluble leaf 65·90

The following Tea Assay, while not including the determinations of all the proximate constituents of
the plant, will, it is believed, in most instances suffice to indicate to the analyst the presence of spent
leaves, mineral colouring matters, and other inorganic adulterations.
Theine (Caffeine), C8H10N4O2.—Contrary to the once general belief, there does not always exist a
direct relation between the quality of tea (at least so far as this is indicated by its market price) and the
proportion of theine contained, although the physiological value of the plant is doubtless due to the
presence of this alkaloid.
 The commercial tea-taster is almost entirely guided in his judgment in regard to the value of a sample
of tea by the age of the leaf, and by the flavour or bouquet produced upon “drawing,” and this latter
quality is to be mainly ascribed to the volatile oil.
The following process will serve for the estimation of theine:—A weighed quantity of the tea is boiled
with distilled water until the filtered infusion ceases to exhibit any colour. The filtrate is evaporated on a
water bath to the consistence of a syrup; it is next mixed with calcined magnesia to alkaline reaction,
and carefully evaporated to dryness.
The residue obtained is then finely powdered, digested for a day or so with ether (or chloroform) and
filtered, the remaining undissolved matter being again digested with a fresh quantity of ether, so long as
any further solution of theine takes place. The ether is now removed from the united filtrates by
distillation, whereupon the theine will be obtained in a fairly pure condition.
Theine contains a very large proportion of nitrogen (almost 29 per cent.), and Wanklyn[6] has
suggested the application of his ammonia process (see p. 205) to the analysis of tea. Genuine tea is
stated to yield from 0·7 to 0·8 per cent. of total ammonia, when tested in this manner.
Volatile Oil.—Ten grammes of the tea are distilled with water; the distillate is filtered, saturated with
calcium chloride, then well agitated with ether, and allowed to remain at rest for some time. The
ethereal solution is subsequently drawn off, and spontaneously evaporated in a weighed capsule. The
increase in weight gives approximately the amount of oil present. A sample of good black tea yielded by
this method 0·87 per cent. of volatile oil.
Tannin.—Two grammes of the well-averaged sample are boiled with 100 c.c. of water, for about an
hour, and the infusion filtered, the undissolved matter remaining upon the filter being thoroughly
washed with hot water, and the washings added to the solution first obtained. If necessary, the liquid is
next reduced to a volume of 100 c.c. by evaporation over a water-bath. It is then heated to boiling, and
25 c.c. of a solution of cupric acetate added. The copper solution is prepared by dissolving five
grammes of the salt in 100 c.c. of water, and filtering. The precipitate formed is separated by filtration,
well washed, dried, and ignited in a porcelain crucible. A little nitric acid is then added and the ignition
repeated. One gramme of the cupric oxide thus obtained represents 1·305 grammes of tannin. For the
estimation of spent leaves (especially in black tea), Mr. Allen suggests the following formula, in which E
represents the percentage of spent tea, and T the percentage of tannin found:—
E = (10 - T) 100.
8
The Ash.—a. Total Ash.—Five grammes of the sample are placed in a platinum dish and ignited over a
Bunsen burner until complete incineration is accomplished. The vessel is allowed to cool in a desiccator,
and is then quickly weighed. In genuine tea the total ash should not be much below 5 per cent., nor
much above 6 per cent., and it should not be magnetic. In faced teas the proportion of total ash is
sometimes 10 per cent.; in “lie-tea” it may reach 30 per cent.; while in spent tea it frequently falls
below 3 per cent., the ash in this case being abnormally rich in lime salts, and poor in potassium salts.
b. Ash insoluble in water.—The total ash obtained in a is washed into a beaker, and boiled with water
for a considerable time. It is then brought upon a filter, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. In
unadulterated tea it rarely exceeds 3 per cent. of the sample taken.
c. Ash soluble in water.—This proportion is obtained by deducting the ash insoluble in water from the
total ash. Genuine tea contains from 3 per cent. to 3·5 per cent. of soluble ash, or at least 50 per cent.
of the total ash, whereas in exhausted tea the amount is often but 0·5 per cent. The following formula
has been proposed for the calculation of the percentage of spent tea E, where S is the percentage of
soluble ash obtained:—
E = (6 - 2S) 20.
A sample prepared by averaging several good grades of black tea, was mixed with an equal quantity
of exhausted tea-leaves. The proportion of soluble ash in the mixture was found to be 1·8 per cent.
According to the above formula, the spent tea present would be 48 per cent., or within 2 per cent. of
the actual amount.
d. Ash insoluble in acid.—The ash insoluble in water is boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid, and the
residue separated by filtration, washed, ignited, and weighed. In pure tea, the remaining ash ranges
between 0·3 and 0·8 per cent.; in faced tea, or in tea adulterated by the addition of sand, etc., it may
reach the proportion of 2 to 5 per cent. Fragments of silica and brickdust are occasionally found in the
ash insoluble in acid.
The Extract.—Two grammes of the carefully sampled tea are boiled with water until all soluble matter
is dissolved, more water being added from time to time to prevent the solution becoming too
concentrated. The operation may also be conducted in a flask connected with an ascending Liebig’s
condenser. In either case, the infusion obtained is poured upon a tared filter, and the remaining
insoluble leaf repeatedly washed with hot water so long as the filtered liquor shows a colour. The filtrate
is now diluted to a volume of 200 c.c., and of this 50 c.c. are taken and evaporated in a weighed dish
until the weight of the extract remains constant. Genuine tea affords from 32 to 50 per cent. of extract,
according to its age and quality; in spent tea the proportion of extract will naturally be greatly reduced.
Mr. Allen employs the formula below for determining the percentage of spent tea E in a sample, R
representing the percentage of extract found.

E = (32 - R) 100.
30
In order to test the practical value of this equation, a sample of black tea was mixed with 50 per cent.
of spent tea-leaves, and a determination made of the extract afforded. The calculated proportion of
spent tea was 44 per cent., instead of 50 per cent. It should be added, however, that the tea taken
subsequently proved to be of a very superior quality, yielding an extract of 40 per cent.
Gum (Dextrine).—The proportion of gum contained in genuine tea is usually inconsiderable. Its
separation is effected by treating the concentrated extract with alcohol, allowing the mixture to stand at
rest for a few hours, and collecting the precipitated gum upon a tared filter, and carefully drying and
weighing it. As a certain amount of mineral matter is generally present in the precipitate, this should
afterwards be incinerated and a deduction made for the ash thus obtained. A more satisfactory method
is to treat the separated dextrine with very dilute sulphuric acid, and estimate the amount of glucose
formed by means of Fehling’s solution (see p. 37); 100 parts of glucose are equivalent to 90 parts of
dextrine.
Insoluble Leaf.—The insoluble leaf as obtained in the determination of the extract, together with the
weighed filter, is placed in an air-bath, and dried for at least eight hours at a temperature of 100°,[7]
and then weighed. In genuine tea the amount of insoluble leaf ranges from 47 to 54 per cent.; in
exhausted tea it may reach a proportion of 75 per cent. or more. It should be noted that in the
foregoing estimations the tea is taken in its ordinary air-dried condition. If it be desired to reduce the
results obtained to a dry basis, an allowance for the moisture present in the sample (an average of 6 to
8 per cent.), or a direct determination of the same must be made.
The following tabulation gives the constituents of genuine tea, so far as the ash, extract, and
insoluble leaf are involved:—
Total ash ranges between 4·7 and 6·2 per cent.
Ash soluble in water ranges between 3 and 3·5 per cent.; should equal 50 per cent. of total ash.
Ash insoluble in water, not over 3 per cent.
Ash insoluble in acid ranges between 0·3 and 0·8 per cent.
Extract[8] ranges between 32 and 50 per cent.
Insoluble leaf ranges between 43 and 58 per cent.
 The table below may prove useful as indicating the requirements to be exacted when the chemist is
asked to give an opinion concerning the presence of facing admixtures, or of exhausted or foreign
leaves in a sample of tea.
Total ash should not be under 4·5 per cent. or above 7 per cent.
Ash soluble in water should not be under 40 per cent. of total ash.
Ash insoluble in water should not be over 3·25 per cent.
Ash insoluble in acid should not be over 1 per cent.
Extract (excepting in poor varieties of Congou tea) should not be under 30 per cent.
Insoluble Leaf should not be over 60 per cent.
The British Society of Public Analysts adopt:—
Total ash (dry basis), not over 8 per cent. (at least 3 per cent. should be soluble in water).
Extract (tea as sold), not under 30 per cent.
Below are the proportions of total ash, ash soluble in water, and extract found in 850 samples of tea
(mostly inferior and faced), examined under the direction of the author in the U.S. Laboratory:—

Total Ash.

5 to 5½ 5½ to 6 6 to 6½ 6½ to 7 7 to 8 8 per cent.
Range
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. and over.
Number 21 76 102 194 421 36
Per cent. 2·47 8·94 12·00 21·64 49·53 4·23

Ash Soluble in Water.

Under 2 2 to 3 3 to 3½ 3½ per cent.

Range
per cent. per cent. per cent. and over.
Number 25 649 157 19
Per cent. 2·94 76·35 18·70 2·23

Extract.

20 to 25 25 to 30 30 to 35 35 to 40
Range
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Number 21 151 499 179
Per cent. 2·47 17·76 58·70 21·05

The following tabulation exhibits the results obtained by the examination of various grades of
Formosa, Congou, Young Hyson, Gunpowder, and Japan tea, made, under the supervision of the writer,
by Dr. J. F. Davis.
It will be noticed, if the same varieties of tea be compared, that, with some exceptions, their
commercial value is directly proportional to the percentages of soluble ash, extract, tannin, and theine
contained.

Variety. Formosa Formosa Formosa Formosa Congou, Congou, Con

Oolong, Oolong, Oolong, Oolong, Choicest. Medium. Com
Choice, Superior, Choice, Superior,
 1st 1st 3rd 3rd
Crop. Crop. Crop. Crop.
c. c. c. c. c. c. c

Price per lb.

70 28 55 24 65 to 70 24 1
(wholesale).

p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c. p

Total ash 6·50 5·96 5·80 6·34 6·22 6·36 6·
Ash soluble
3·60 2·86 3·12 3·60 3·56 3·00 2·
in water.

Ash insoluble
2·90 3·10 2·68 2·74 2·66 3·36 3·
in water.

Ash insoluble
0·86 0·94 0·56 0·66 0·56 0·66 1·
in acids.
Extract 42·00 37·40 43·20 40·60 34·60 29·60 26
Insoluble leaf 54·90 59·55 52·70 56·55 60·75 64·80 68
Tannin 18·66 16·31 18·00 16·05 14·87 13·70 12
Theine 3·46 2·20 2·26 1·39 3·29 2·23 2·

First First Third

Second
Young Young Young
Young Choice Third
Variety. Hyson, Hyson, Hyson,
Hyson, Gunpowder. Gunpowder.
Regular Plain Plain
Moyune.
Moyune. Draw. Draw.
c. c. c. c. c.
Price per lb.
28 to 30 25 17 to 18 14 35 23
(wholesale).
p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c.
Total ash 6·26 5·86 5·84 6·20 5·76 5·50
Ash soluble
3·60 3·28 3·36 3·34 3·26 3·14
in water.

Ash insoluble
2·66 2·58 2·48 2·86 2·50 2·36
in water.

Ash insoluble
0·64 0·58 0·50 0·52 0·54 0·52
in acids.
Extract 40·60 41·00 39·80 30·40 39·60 36·00
Insoluble leaf 55·50 57·70 57·15 61·95 56·70 57·90
Tannin 18·00 19·96 18·53 16·99 20·09 17·87
Theine 2·26 2·30 1·16 1·08 1·78 1·42

Uncoloured Japan Dust

Coloured Japan, Coloured Japan,
Japan,
Variety. Good Medium Good Medium, Coloured, Uncoloured,
Choicest,
First Picking. Third Picking Fine. Common.
First Picking.
 c. c. c. c. c.
Price per lb.
30 22 19 9 6
(wholesale).
p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c. p.c.
Total ash 5·44 6·06 6·50 9·74 6·66
Ash soluble
3·46 2·84 2·90 1·48 2·78
in water.

Ash insoluble
1·98 3·22 3·60 8·26 3·88
in water.

Ash insoluble
0·46 0·78 0·96 3·90 1·46
in acids.
Extract 39·20 36·40 33·40 31·80 32·80
Insoluble leaf 56·85 57·10 59·90 61·45 60·05
Tannin 21·92 18·27 17·35 15·66 17·74
Theine 1·54 1·66 0·74 0·82 2·43

The following analyses of several kinds of spurious tea, received from the U.S. Consuls at Canton and
Nagasaki (Japan), have been made by the author:—

1. 2. 3. 4.
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Total ash 8·62 8·90 7·95 12·58
Ash insoluble in water 7·98 6·04 4·95 8·74
Ash soluble in water 0·64 1·86 3·00 3·84
Ash insoluble in acid 3·92 3·18 1·88 6·60
Extract 7·73 14·00 12·76 22·10
Gum 10·67 7·30 11·00 11·40
Insoluble leaf 70·60 70·55 67·00 60·10
Tannin 3·13 8·01 14·50 15·64
Theine 0·58 nil 0·16 0·12

1. Partially exhausted and refired tea-leaves, known as “Ching Suey” (clear water), which name
doubtless has reference to the weakness of a beverage prepared from this article.
2. “Lie tea,” made from Wampan leaves.
3. A mixture of 10 per cent. green tea and 90 per cent. “lie tea.” It is sometimes sold as “Imperial” or
“Gunpowder” tea, and is stated to be extensively consumed in France and Spain.
4. “Scented caper tea,” consisting of tea-dust made up into little shot-like pellets by means of
“Congou paste” (i. e. boiled rice), and said to be chiefly used in the English coal-mining districts.
The following are the results of the analysis by American chemists of samples representing 2414
packages of Indian tea.

Per cent. Average per cent.

Moisture 5·830 to 6·325 5·938
Extract 37·800 „ 40·350 38·841
Total ash 5·050 „ 6·024 5·613
Ash soluble in water 3·122 „ 4·280 3·516
Ash insoluble in water 1·890 „ 2·255 2·092
Ash insoluble in acid 0·120 „ 0·296 0·177
Insoluble leaf 47·120 „ 55·870 51·910
Tannin 13·040 „ 18·868 15·323
Theine 1·880 „ 3·24 2·736
 COFFEE.
Coffee is the seed of the Caffea Arabica, indigenous to Abyssinia
and southern Arabia, and since naturalised in the West Indies,
Ceylon, Brazil, and other tropical countries. Its importance as an
almost universal beverage is only equalled by that of tea. The
ancient history of coffee is shrouded in great obscurity. It was
unknown to the Romans and Greeks, but its use is said to have been
prevalent in Abyssinia from the remotest time, and in Arabia it
formed an article of general consumption during the fifteenth
century. From its introduction, in 1575, into Constantinople by the
Turks, it gradually made its way into all civilised countries. In 1690 it
was carried by the Dutch from Mocha to Java, whence specimens of
the tree were taken to Holland and France. Coffee houses were
opened in London about the middle of the seventeenth century, and
in 1809 the first cargo of coffee was shipped to the United States. As
with many other articles of diet, the adulteration of coffee has kept
well apace with its increased consumption. The bean is deprived of
its external fleshy coatings before exportation, and is met with in
commerce in a raw, roasted, or ground condition. Bell[9] gives the
following analyses of two samples of coffee, both in the raw and
roasted state:—

Mocha. East Indian.

Raw. Roasted. Raw. Roasted.
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Caffeine 1·08 0·82 1·11 1·05
Saccharine matter 9·55 0·43 8·90 0·41
Caffeic acids 8·46 4·74 9·58 4·52
Alcohol extract 6·90 14·14 4·31 12·67
(containing nitrogen
 and colouring matter).
Fat and oil 12·60 13·59 11·81 13·41
Legumin or Albumin 9·87 11·23 11·23 13·13
Dextrine 0·87 1·24 0·84 1·38
Cellulose (and
insoluble colouring 37·95 48·62 38·60 47·42
matter).
Ash 3·74 4·56 3·98 4·88
Moisture 8·98 0·63 9·64 1·13
100·00 100·00 100·00 100·00

Other authorities have obtained the following results:—

Smethan.
König.
Payen. (Average of
Raw. 7 Varieties.)
Raw. Roasted.
Roasted.
per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Substances soluble in water 27·44 27·45 .. ..
Nitrogen 1·87 2·31 .. 2·26
Nitrogenous substances 11·43 12·05 11 to 13 ..
Caffeine 1·18 1·38 0·8 ..
Caffetannic acid .. .. 3·5 to 5 ..
Fat 13·23 15·03 10 to 13 10·99
Ethereal oil .. .. 0·013 ..
Sugar 3·25 1·32 .. ..
Sugar and Dextrine .. .. 15·5 ..
Other non-nitrogenous
31·52 38·41 .. ..
substances.
Cellulose 27·72 24·27 34·0 29·28
Ash 3·48 3·75 6·7 4·19
Soluble ash .. .. .. 3·37
Moisture 11·19 3·19 12·0 2·87

It will be noticed from these analyses that the amount of sugar is

greatly diminished by the process of roasting. According to some
analysts, the proportion of fat experiences an increase, but it is more
probable that this constituent is simply rendered more susceptible to
the action of solvents by a mechanical alteration of the structure of
the berry. Recent determinations of the ash in coffee place its
average proportion at 4 per cent.; 3·24 being soluble in water, and
0·74 per cent. insoluble. The soluble extract in roasted coffee usually
amounts to about 30 per cent.
An analysis made by Beckurts and Kauder[10] gives the general
composition of roasted chicory, dried at 107°, as follows:—

Per cent.
Substances soluble in water 57·40
„ insoluble „ 41·90
Ash 7·66
Fat 0·73
Nitrogenous substances 7·12
Grape sugar 4·35
Cane sugar and dextrine 5·33
Starch 2·45
Other non-nitrogenous substances 49·13
Woody fibre 26·23

The most common adulterations to which coffee is liable consist in

the addition of chicory, caramel, and numerous roasted grains, such
as corn, wheat, and rye, as well as such roots and seeds as
dandelion, mangold wurzel, turnips, beans, peas, etc. The roasted
and ground article is naturally most exposed to falsification, although
letters patent have been issued for the fictitious manufacture of a
pressed “coffee bean,” containing absolutely no coffee. The addition
of chicory is by far the most prevalent adulteration of coffee. Of
thirty-four samples examined by Hassall, thirty-one (91 per cent.)
contained this root. In regard to the moral aspects of its use, it can
safely be asserted that, while the addition of chicory to coffee is
largely sanctioned, and indeed demanded by the existing tastes of
many coffee-drinkers, its use constitutes a true adulteration, and
should be condemned, unless its presence is prominently stated on
the label of the package. In chicory the active principles of coffee,
which exert valuable physiological effects on the system (viz.
caffeine, the essential oil, etc.), are totally absent; moreover, its
comparative cheapness is a constant temptation to employ a
proportion largely in excess of the amount requisite to produce any
alleged improvement in the flavour of the resulting admixture.
The sophistications of coffee may be detected, in a general way,
by physical tests, by chemical analysis, and by microscopic
examination, in which processes great aid is derived from the
characteristic properties exhibited by the pure roasted and ground
berry which distinguish it from its more usual adulterants.
(a) Physical Examination.—The following tests, while not always
decisive in their results, are often of service.
A small portion of the suspected sample is gently placed upon the
surface of a beaker filled with cold water, and allowed to remain at
rest for about fifteen minutes. If pure, the sample does not imbibe
the water, but floats upon the surface without communicating much
colour to it; if chicory or caramel be present, these substances
rapidly absorb moisture and sink, producing brownish-red streaks in
their descent, which, by diffusion, impart a very decided tint to the
entire liquid. A similar coloration is caused by many other roasted
roots and berries, but not so quickly or to so great an extent. The
test may be somewhat modified by shaking the sample with cold
water, and then allowing the vessel to stand aside for a short time.
Pure coffee rises to the surface, little or no colour being imparted to
the water; chicory, etc., fall to the bottom as a sediment, and give a
brownish colour to the liquid.
 If a small quantity of the sample is placed upon a clean plate of
glass, and moistened with a few drops of water, the pure coffee
berries remain hard, and offer resistance when tested with a needle;
most grains employed for their adulteration become softened in their
texture.
A considerable portion of the mixture is treated with boiling water
and allowed to settle. Genuine coffee affords a clear and limpid
infusion; many foreign grains yield a thick gummy liquor, resulting
from the starchy and saccharine matters contained. An infusion of
pure coffee, if treated with solution of cupric acetate and filtered,
will show a greenish-yellow colour; if chicory be present, the filtrate
will be reddish-brown. As a rule, samples of ground coffee which are
much adulterated, pack together when subjected to a moderate
pressure.
Owing to the low density of a coffee infusion (due to its almost
entire freedom from sugar), as compared with that of the infusions
of most roots and grains, it has been suggested by Messrs. Graham,
Stenhouse and Campbell, to apply the specific gravity determination
of the infusion obtained from the suspected sample as a means for
detecting adulteration. The results afforded are fairly approximate.
The solution is prepared by boiling one part of the sample with ten
parts of water and filtering. The following table gives the densities,
at 15°·5, of various infusions made in this manner:—

Acorns 1·0073
Peas 1·0073
Mocha coffee 1·0080
Beans 1·0084
Java coffee 1·0087
Jamaica coffee 1·0087
Costa Rica coffee 1·0090
Ceylon coffee 1·0090
Brown malt 1·0109
Parsnips 1·0143
 Carrots 1·0171
Yorkshire chicory 1·0191
Black malt 1·0212
Turnips 1·0214
Rye meal 1·0216
English chicory 1·0217
Dandelion root 1·0219
Red beet 1·0221
Foreign chicory 1·0226
Mangold wurzel 1·0235
Maize 1·0253
Bread raspings 1·0263

Assuming the gravity of the pure coffee infusion to be 1·0086, and

that of chicory to be 1·0206, the approximate percentage of coffee,
C, in a mixture, can be obtained by means of the following equation,
in which D represents the density of the infusion:—
C = 1·00(1·020 - D)
12.
This was tested by mixing equal parts of coffee and chicory, and
taking the specific gravity of the infusion; it was 1·01408, indicating
the presence of 49 per cent. of coffee. Some idea of the amount of
foreign admixture (especially chicory) in ground roasted coffee may
be formed from the tinctorial power of the sample. It has already
been mentioned that coffee imparts much less colour to water than
do most roasted grains and roots. The table below shows the
weights of various roasted substances which must be dissolved in
2·000 parts of water in order to produce an equal degree of colour:
[11]—

Caramel 1·00
Mangold wurzel 1·66
Black malt 1·82
 White turnips 2·00
Carrots 2·00
Chicory (darkest Yorkshire) 2·22
Parsnips 2·50
Maize 2·86
Rye 2·86
Dandelion root 3·33
Red beet 3·33
Bread raspings 3·36
Acorns 5·00
Over-roasted coffee 5·46
Highly-roasted coffee 5·77
Medium-roasted coffee 6·95
Peas 13·33
Beans 13·33
Spent tan 33·00
Brown malt 40·00

The comparative colour test may also be applied as follows:[12]—

One gramme each of the sample under examination, and of a
sample prepared by mixing equal parts of pure coffee and chicory,
are completely exhausted with water, and the infusions made up to
100 c.c. or more; 50 c.c. of the filtered extract from the suspected
sample are then placed in a Nessler cylinder, and it is determined by
trial how many c.c. of the extract from the standard mixture,
together with enough distilled water to make up the 50 c.c., will
produce the same colour. In calculating the chicory present, it is
assumed that this substance possesses three times the tinctorial
power of coffee.
(b) Chemical Examination.—Some of the chemical properties of
roasted coffee afford fairly reliable means for the detection of an
admixture of chicory. Coffee ash dissolves in water to the extent of
about 80 per cent.; of the ash of roasted chicory only about 35 per
cent. is soluble. Coffee ash is almost free from silica and sand, which
substances form a notable proportion of the constituents of the ash
of chicory.
The following (see p. 36) are the results obtained by the writer
from the analysis of the ash of coffee and chicory.
It will be observed from these analyses, that the most distinctive
features presented by coffee ash are the absence of soda, and the
small amounts of chlorine, ferric oxide and silica present. In these
respects, it is very different from the ash of chicory. The proportion
of phosphoric acid found in the latter is in excess of that given by
some authorities. Several analyses of chicory ash have been made
by the author, and, in every instance, the amount of phosphoric acid
was over 8 per cent.; in one sample of the ash of commercial chicory
it approximated 13 per cent.

Java Coffee. Chicory Root

per cent. per cent.
Percentage of ash 3·93 4·41
Potassa 53·37 23·00
Soda .. 13·13
Lime 5·84 9·40
Magnesia 9·09 5·88
Alumina 0·43 ..
Ferric oxide 0·53 5·00
Sulphuric acid 3·19 9·75
Chlorine 0·78 4·93
Carbonic acid 15·26 4·01
Phosphoric acid 11·26 8·44
Silica and sand 0·25 16·46
100·00 100·00

Blyth gives the annexed table, showing the characteristic

differences between coffee and chicory ash:[13]—
 Coffee Ash. Chicory Ash.
per cent. per cent.
Silica and sand none 10·69 to 35·88
Carbonic acid 14·92 1·78 „ 3·19
Ferric oxide 0·44 to 0·98 3·13 „ 5·32
Chlorine 0·26 „ 1·11 3·28 „ 4·93
Phosphoric acid 10·00 „ 11·00 5·00 „ 6·00
Total soluble ash 75·00 „ 85·00 21·00 „ 35·00

The following formula has been suggested for determining the

percentage of pure coffee, in mixtures:—
C = 2 (100S - 174)
3
where S represents the percentage of soluble ash.
Another noteworthy difference between roasted coffee and
chicory, is the amount of sugar contained. As a rule, in roasted
coffee, it ranges from 0·0 to 1·2 per cent.; in roasted chicory, it
varies from 12· to 18· per cent. The quantity of sugar in a sample
can be determined by Fehling’s method as follows:—
A standard solution of pure cupric sulphate is first prepared by
dissolving 34·64 grammes of the crystals (previously ground and
dried by pressing between bibulous paper) in about 200 c.c. of
distilled water; 173 grammes of pure Rochelle salt are separately
dissolved in 480 c.c. of a solution of sodium hydroxide of sp. gr.
1·14. The solutions are then mixed and diluted with distilled water to
one litre. Each c.c. of the above solution represents 0·05 gramme of
grape sugar. The test is applied by taking 10 c.c. of the copper
solution, adding about four times its volume of water, and bringing it
to the boiling point. The coffee infusion is then gradually added from
a burette, until the copper salt is completely reduced to the red sub-
oxide, which point is recognised by the disappearance of its blue
colour, and can be more accurately determined by acidulating the
filtered fluid with acetic acid and testing it (while still hot) for any
remaining trace of copper with potassium ferrocyanide. In preparing
the coffee solution for the foregoing test, it is advisable to exhaust a
weighed quantity of the sample with hot water. The infusion is
treated with basic plumbic acetate so long as a precipitate forms; it
is then filtered, the precipitate being well washed, and the lead
contained is removed by conducting sulphuretted hydrogen gas
through the fluid which is subsequently again filtered and boiled until
the dissolved gas is expelled. The sugar determination is now made.
Wanklyn employs the following equation to estimate the amount of
chicory in an adulterated sample:—
E = (S - 1)100,
14
where E is the percentage of chicory, and S the percentage of
sugar.
According to the analysis of König, the proportions of sugar and
other constituents in some of the adulterants of coffee, are as
follows:—

Chicory. Figs. Acorns. Rye.

per per per per
cent. cent. cent. cent.
Water 12·16 18·98 12·85 15·22
Nitrogenous substances 6·09 4·25 6·13 11·84
Fat 2·05 2·83 4·61 3·46
Sugar 15·87 34·19 8·05 3·92
Other non-nitrogenous
46·71 29·15 62· 55·37
substances.
Cellulose 11·0 7·16 4·98 5·35
Ash 6·12 3·44 2·12 4·81
Substances soluble in water 63·05 73·8 .. 45·11

Estimations of the amount of sugar obtained upon boiling the

suspected coffee with water containing a little sulphuric acid (see p.
37), and the proportion of the sample which is soluble in hot water
should be made. The presence of chicory is shown by a decided
increase in the amount of soluble substances; that of rye, by the
notable quantity of sugar produced by the inversion with acid, due
to the starch contained in the grain.
In this connection, the following determinations of Krausch are of
interest:—

Substances Ready- Sugar

Soluble in formed after
Water. Sugar. Inversion.
per cent. per cent. per cent.
Roasted coffee 23·81 0·20 24·59
„ chicory 65·42 23·40 22·14
„ rye 31·92 .. 75·37
„ coffee + 10 per cent. chicory 30·63 2·30 23·15
„ coffee + 10 per cent. rye 25·98 0·19 29·60

The presence of roasted rye, corn, and other grains in coffee, may
be qualitatively recognised by testing the cold infusion of the sample
with iodine solution for starch, which is not contained in a ready
formed state in coffee. Caffeine is absent in chicory and the other
usual adulterants of coffee, and the estimation of this alkaloid is of
decided service (see p. 21). Roasted coffee contains about 1 per
cent. of caffeine.
A popular brand of ground coffee received by the author for
examination, and labelled “Prepared Java Coffee,” had the following
approximate composition:—Coffee, 38; peas, 52; rye, 2; and chicory,
7 per cent.
A sample of “acorn” coffee, analysed by König, gave the following
results:—

Per cent.
Water 12·85
 Nitrogenous substances 6·13
Fat 4·01
Sugar 8·01
Other non-nitrogenous substances 62·00
Cellulose 4·98
Ash 2·02

The non-nitrogenous constituents contained from 20 to 30 per

cent. of starch, and from 6 to 8 per cent. of tannic acid.
The composition of the well-known German coffee-substitutes,
prepared by Behr Bros., is stated to be as follows:—

“Rye Coffee-substitutes.”

Per cent.
Substances soluble in water 61·33
Substances insoluble in water 36·45
Cellulose 9·78
Starch 8·34
Dextrine 49·51
Nitrogenous substances 11·87
Other non-nitrogenous substances 9·83
Fat 3·91
Ash 4·54
Moisture 2·22

“Malt Coffee-substitute.”

Per cent.
Soluble Albuminoid substances 4·22
in Dextrine 50·19
hot water Alcoholic extract 7·57
 Inorganic matter, containing
2·27
phosphoric acid, 0·54
Insoluble in hot water 35·00
Moisture 0·35

The raw coffee bean is sometimes subjected to a process termed

“sweating,” which consists in treating it with moist steam, the object
being to artificially reproduce the conditions present in the holds of
vessels, by means of which the bean is increased in size, and also
somewhat improved in colour and flavour. Another form of
manipulation, analogous to the facing of tea, is to moisten the raw
bean with water containing a little gum, and agitate it with various
pigments, such as indigo, Prussian blue, Persian berries, turmeric,
alkanet, Venetian red, soap-stone, chrome-yellow, and iron ochre.
Mexican coffees are sometimes made to resemble the more
expensive Java in appearance. The chemist of the New York City
Board of Health has found in the quantity of such treated coffee
commonly taken to make a cup of the beverage 0·0014 gramme of
cupric arsenite. Indigo may be detected in the artificially coloured
product by treating a considerable portion of the sample with dilute
nitric acid, filtering and saturating the filtrate with sulphuretted
hydrogen. If indigo be present, it can now be extracted upon
agitating the solution with chloroform. Alkanet root and Prussian
blue are separated by warming the coffee with solution of potassium
carbonate, from which these pigments are precipitated upon
addition of hydrochloric acid.
(c) Microscopic Examination.—Great aid to the chemical
investigation is afforded by the microscopic examination of ground
coffee. It is necessary to first become familiar with the appearance
of the genuine article—low magnifying powers being employed—and
then make comparative examinations of the adulterant suspected to
be present.
The coffee bean mainly consists of irregular cells inclosed in very
thick walls which are distinguished by uneven projections. The cells
contain globules of oil. Most of the roots added to coffee exhibit a
conglomeration of cells (provided with thin walls) and groups of
jointed tubes, often quite similar to one another in structure. The
microscopic appearance of some of the starch granules, occasionally
met with in coffee mixtures, is represented on p. 100.
Of 151 samples of ground coffee recently purchased at random
and tested by various American chemists, 69 (45·7 per cent.) were
found to be adulterated.
 C O C O A A N D C H O C O LAT E .
Cocoa is prepared from the roasted seeds of the tree Theobroma
cacao, of the order Byttneriaceæ. It sometimes appears in
commerce as “cocoa-nibs” (i. e. partially ground), but it is more
frequently sold in the powdered state, either pure or mixed with
sugar and starch, and also often deprived of about one-half of its
fat. Chocolate usually consists of cocoa-paste and sugar flavoured
with vanilla, cinnamon, or cloves, and commonly mixed with flour or
starch. According to Wanklyn, the average composition of cocoa is
as follows:—

Per cent.
Cocoa butter 50·00
Theobromine 1·50
Starch 10·00
Albumin, fibrine and gluten 18·00
Gum 8·00
Colouring matter 2·60
Water 6·00
Ash 3·60
Loss, etc. 0·30

R. Benzeman[14] has furnished the following averages of the

results obtained by the analysis of cocoa and chocolate. The air-
dried cocoa berries gave—husks, 13·00 per cent.; nibs, 87·00 per
cent.:—

Cocoa Chocolate
Nibs. made
from Cocoa
 and
Sugar.
per cent. per cent.
Moisture at 100° 6·41 1·65
Fat 51·47 22·57
Starch 11·75 4·58
Other organic substances, insoluble
in 18·03 8·58
water.
Organic substances, soluble in water 8·54 60·63
Mineral Ash 3·80 1·99
100·00 100·00
Ash of insoluble substances 0·89 0·30

Recent analysis of shelled cocoa-beans, made by Boussingault,

gave the following results:—

Fresh. Dry.
per cent. per cent.
Fat 49·9 54·0
Starch and starch-sugar 2·4 2·5
Theobromine 3·3 3·6
Asparagine traces ..
Albumin 10·9 11·8
„ gum 2·4 2·5
Tartaric acid 3·4 3·7
Tannin 0·2 0·2
Soluble cellulose 10·6 11·5
Ash 4·0 4·4
Water 7·6 ..
Undetermined 5·3 5·8
 Dr. Weigman[15] obtained the following results from an
examination of several varieties of the shelled beans:—

Water. Fat. Ash. Nitrogen.

per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.
Machala 4·97 47·80 3·88 2·25
Arriba 6·57 47·44 3·52 2·31
Caracas 6·00 46·39 4·19 2·23
Puerto Cabello 5·71 48·74 3·94 2·13
Surinam 5·01 46·26 2·99 2·20
Trinidad 6·07 45·74 2·04 2·04
Port au Prince 4·73 48·58 3·89 2·33

The most important constituents of cocoa are the fat (cocoa-

butter), and the alkaloid (theobromine).
Cocoa butter forms a whitish solid of 0·970 specific gravity, fusing
at 30°, and soluble in ether and in alcohol.
Theobromine (C7H8N4O2) crystallises in minute rhombic prisms,
which are insoluble in benzol, but dissolve readily in boiling water
and alcohol. It sublimes at 170°. Theobromine is exceedingly rich in
nitrogen, containing over 20 per cent. of the element. In this and
many other respects it bears a great resemblance to theine.
The proportion of mineral ash in cocoa varies from 3·06 to 4·5 per
cent.
James Bell[16] gives the following composition of the ash of
Grenada cocoa nibs:—

Per cent.
Sodium chloride 0·57
Soda 0·57
Potassa 27·64
Magnesia 19·81
 Lime 4·53
Alumina 0·08
Ferric oxide 0·15
Carbonic acid 2·92
Sulphuric acid 4·53
Phosphoric acid 39·20
100·00

The most characteristic features of the ash of genuine cocoa are

its great solubility, the small amounts of chlorine, carbonates, and
soda, and the constancy of the proportion of phosphoric acid
contained. Bell has also analysed several samples of commercial
cocoa. The following will serve to illustrate their general
composition:—

Per cent.
Moisture 4·95
Fat 24·94
Starch (added) 19·19
Sugar (added) 23·03
Non-fatty cocoa 27·89
100·00

Per cent.
Nitrogen 2·24
Ash 1·52
Cocoa, soluble in cold water 31·66
Ash in portion soluble in cold water 1·17

The comparatively low percentage of ash contained in prepared

cocoas and chocolate, is of use in indicating the amount of real
cocoa present in such mixtures. A large proportion of the mineral
constituents of cocoa are dissolved by directly treating it with cold
water. Wanklyn obtained in this way from genuine cocoa-nibs 6·76
per cent. organic matter, and 2·16 per cent. ash, the latter chiefly
consisting of phosphates; a commercial cocoa gave, extract, 46·04
per cent.; ash, 1·04 per cent. The most common admixtures of
cocoa and chocolate, are sugar and the various starches. The
addition of foreign fats, chicory, and iron ochres, is also sometimes
practised. Since prepared cocoas are generally understood to contain
the first-named diluents, their presence can hardly be considered an
adulteration, if the fact is mentioned upon the packages. Many
varieties of the cocoas of commerce will be found to be deficient in
cocoa-butter, a considerable proportion of which has been removed
in the process of manufacture. This practice is also claimed to be
justifiable, the object being to produce an article unobjectionable to
invalids, which is not always the case with pure cocoa. In the
analysis of cocoa the following estimations are usually made:—
Theobromine.—10 grammes of the sample are first repeatedly
exhausted with petroleum-naphtha. The insoluble residue is mixed
with a small quantity of paste, prepared by triturating calcined
magnesia with a little water, and the mixture evaporated to dryness
at a gentle heat. The second residue is boiled with alcohol and the
alcoholic solution of theobromine filtered and evaporated to dryness
in a tared capsule. It is then purified by washing with petroleum-
naphtha and weighed. Bell has verified the existence in cocoa of a
second alkaloid, distinct from theobromine, which crystallises in silky
needles very similar to theine.
Fat.—The proportion of fat is readily determined by evaporating to
dryness the petroleum-naphtha used in the preceding estimation. As
already stated, it is generally present in a proportion of 50 per cent.
in pure cocoa; the amount contained in prepared soluble cocoas
being often less than 25 per cent. The English minimum standard is
20 per cent.
Ash.—The ash is determined by the incineration of a weighed
portion of the sample in a platinum dish. In prepared cocoas and
chocolates, the proportion of ash is considerably lower than in pure
cocoa. It is of importance to ascertain the amount of ash soluble in
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