GENERAL PHYSICS

PHYSICS can be defined as the study of matter and energy and their relationship.
MATTER refers to any material that can occupy some space and has mass.

MEASUREMENT
Physical quantities
Any measurable property of an object is called its PHYSICAL QUANTITY, e.g. temperature of a body, an area of a
field, speed of a car, etc.
Q. what is a physical quantity?
In Physics length, mass and time are known as Basic or Fundamental physical quantities.
Many other physical quantities (e.g. force, speed, velocity, voltage, etc) are related to these fundamental physical
quantities, therefore they are known as DERIVED PHYSICAL QUANTITIES. (Even their units can be derived from
those of fundamental quantities and hence are called derived units)
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (Systĕme International d’Unitĕs- SI UNITS)
This is an internationally agreed system of units used to measure physical quantities.
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR SI UNITS
Physical quantity SI unit Symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s

SOME DERIVED QUANTITIES AND THEIR SI UNITS

Quantity SI unit Symbol
area square metre m2
acceleration metre per second squared m/s2, m s-2
energy joule J
force newton N
density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3
power watt W
velocity metre per second m/s, m s-1
pressure pascal Pa
frequency hertz Hz
period second s

Submultiples and multiples of a base unit

These are bigger or smaller units obtained by putting certain prefixes (with scientific meanings) in front of a base unit.

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SUBMULTIPLES
Centimetre (cm), decisecond (ds), microvolt(μV), etc.
MULTIPLES
kilometre (km), gigawatt (GW), megahertz (MHz), etc.

PREFEXES USED IN SUBMULTIPLES AND MULTIPLES

Prefix symbol meaning value Conversion factor
nano- n One thousand millionth 0.000 000 001 10-9
micro- μ One millionth 0.000 001 10-6
milli- m One thousandth 0.001 10-3
centi- c One hundredth 0.01 10-2
deci- d One tenth 0.1 10-1

kilo- k One thousand 1000 103

mega- M One million 1 000 000 106
giga- G One thousand million 1 000 000 000 1012

CONVERSION OF UNITS:
Rule 1: When you convert from a larger to smaller unit, you multiply (by an appropriate conversion factor) ; e.g.
km -------> m; multiply by 1000.
Rule 2: When you convert from a smaller to larger unit, you divide (by an appropriate conversion factor); e.g.
seconds ----------> hours; divide by 3600

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Q. what is length?
A. Length is the distance between two points
SI unit: metre (m)
Other units:centimetre (cm); 1 m = 100 cm
millimetre (mm); 1 m = 1000 mm
micrometre (μm); 1 m = 106μm
nanometre (nm); 1 m = 109 nm
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR LENGTH
• Ruler
• Measuring tape
• Vernier calliper
• Micrometrescrewgauge

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1) VERNIER CALLIPER

Vernier calliper has two scales; a) main scale, b) vernier scale and is accurate to 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.

HOW TO READ A VERNIER CALLIPER

-First read the main scale

• Read the main scale mark on the immediate left of the zero mark of the vernier scale and record it as main
scale reading (M.S).
-Then read the vernier scale
• Look along the vernier scale until you find a mark exactly in line with (or closest to) one of the marks on the
main scale. Multiply the number of this mark by 0.01 cm for cm scale (or 0.1 mm for mm scale). Record the
product as vernier scale reading (V.S).

-Finally, to obtain the actual length of the object (vernier caliper’s reading), add the vernier scale reading to the main
scale reading
i.e.

EXAMPLE

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 M.S = 5.3 cm
V. S = 9 x 0.01 cm
= 0.08
Final reading = 5.3 + 0.09
= 5.38 cm

• MICROMETER SCREWGAUGE

This instrument measures very small lengths such as the diameter of a wire, thickness of a coin, thickness of a sheet
of paper.
HOW TO TAKE A READING FROM A MICROMETER
• To read the micrometer, first read the main scale on the sleeve. Sleeve reading (S) is given by the value of
the last visible mark on sleeve before the edge of the thimble.

• Then read the thimble scale. Thimble reading (T) is equal to the number of the thimble division level with the
sleeve scale central line multiplied by 0.01 mm.

• Final reading = sleeve reading + thimble reading

EXAMPLE

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 S = 18.00 mm
T = 42 x 0.01 mm
= 0.42 mm

Final reading = 18.00 + 0.42

= 18.42 cm

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MEASURING

• Parallax error- improper reading of a scale

When reading a scale your eyes must be vertically above the scale

• Zero error - instrument fails to read exactly zero before any measurement is made or when nothing is
measured.

NOTE: every time when asked to state possible source of error in measuring length or reading a scale please
state parallax error.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN TO AVOID ERRORS WHEN MEASURING LENGTH

• Zero the instrument before use (re-set the instrument to read zero), if necessary take the appropriate
measures to correct any zero error detected by either adding or subtracting its value from the obtained
reading.

• Place your eye right above the mark to be read in order to avoid parallax error.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME
Time can be defined as the interval between two events.
SI unit: second (s)

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Other units: microsecond (μs), millisecond (ms), decisecond (ds), minute (min), hour (h), day, year, etc.

time name symbol

24 hours (86 400s) day d
60 minutes (3600 s) hour h
60 seconds minute min
10-3 seconds millisecond ms

Time can be measured with stopwatches or clocks. The electronic stopwatch can measure time precisely up to 1/100
of a second (0.01 s)

Time = 1 min + 48 s + 5/100 s time = 0 min + 15 s

= 108.05 s = 15.00 s

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

A pendulum is a piece of a thread which is fixed at one end and tied to a metal ball (called a bob) on the other end.
The bob of a pendulum is free to swing from one side to another.
The amplitude (a) of a pendulum is the angle between the rest position and position of maximum displacement.
The length (l) of pendulum is measured from the fixed position to the centre of the bob.
The period (T) of the pendulum is the time taken by the bob to complete one swing or oscillation, i.e. the time taken
by the bob to move from point A to C and back to A in the diagram below. Period is measured in seconds (s)
Period = total time taken/number complete swings(oscillations)

Frequency (f) is the number of completed oscillations generated in 1 second. The SI unit is hertz (Hz)
frequency = number of swings/total time taken
Therefore;

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f = 1/T or T = 1/ff = n/t where n is number of complete swings, t = time taken for
swings
then 1 Hz = 1/s

EXPERIMENT:- To determine the period (T) of a simple pendulum

Procedure
• Set up a pendulum as shown in the diagram above with l = 10 cm.

• Pull the bob slightly to one end, release it and then let the pendulum make few oscillations until they are
periodic and start the stopwatch.

• Using the stopwatch, find the time t1 for 20 oscillations. Find time t2 for another 20 oscillations.

• Find the average time <t> for 20 oscillations using the equation <t> = (t1 + t2)/2.

• Calculate the period of the pendulum using the formula T = <t>/20.

• Repeat the experiment for different values of l; l = 20 cm, l = 30 cm, l = 40 cm, l = 50 and l = 60 cm.

• Record the observations appropriately in a table

• Plot a graph of T2 against l

Table of Results
Length l/cm Time for 20 Average time <t>/s Period T/s T2/s2
oscillations t
t1/s t2/s
70.0 32.28 32.06 32.17 1.61 2.6
60.0 29.37 29.69 29.53 1.48 2.2
50.0 26.78 26.82 26.80 1.34 1.8
40.0 24.93 23.29 24.11 1.21 1.5
30.0 24.12 22.15 23.14 1.16 1.3

Plot a graph of T2 against L

T2/s2

L/cm

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From the experiment we found that
• The period of pendulum depends on

(i) length of the pendulum.

(ii) gravity

(NB:- The size of the bob and amplitude of the pendulum [for small angles] do not affect the period).

• The graph is a straight line which means T2 is directly proportional to L, this means if L is doubled, T
quadruples.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASURING TIME
• Human reaction time- a time lag between seeing an event and starting the watch.

• zero error – failure to re-set the watch to zero before starting to time the event.
ACCURACY OF A MEASURING INSTRUMENT
The accuracy of any given instrument is represented numerically by the value of smallest unit an instrument can
measure . This is usually given by the value of the smallest division in any scale.

Table of accuracy for measuring length

Instrument Accuracy in mm Accuracy in cm

Ruler 1 mm 0.1 cm
Vernier 0.1 mm 0.01 cm
micrometer 0.01 mm 0.001 cm

Q. what is the accuracy of the scale below?

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Accurancy =

5. (a) The diagram below shows a simple pendulum.

QUESTIONS

1. Complete the table below to show what property is measured by the instrument or what the instrument can be
used to measure the property stated. State the correct unit in each case.

instrument Property measured Unit

Micrometer
Stopwatch
length centimetre

2. What are lengths of the objects in the diagrams below?

3. What are the readings shown by the micrometers below?

(a) (b)

4. What is time shown by the each of the stopwatches below?

(a) (b)

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 The bob of the pendulum was pulled to position A and then was released. The period of the pendulum was
found to be 0.64 s.

(i) Describe, in terms of positions A, B or C, what is meant by one complete swing.

(ii) How long did it take the pendulum bob to swing from A to B?
(iii) Explain briefly how the period could be accurately measured.

(b) A student performs an experiment to determine the period of a simple pendulum. She uses a stopwatch to
record the time taken to produce 20 oscillations. The diagram below shows the face of the stopwatch
used.

(i) What is the time recorded by the stopwatch?

(ii) Calculate the period of the pendulum.
(iii) State two factors that affect the period of the pendulum.

6. A piece of metal pipe is 3 m long, and its internal and external diameters are 20.0 mm and 24.0 mm respectively.
Describe how you would obtain experimentally accurate values of these (i) the internal and (ii) external diameters of
the pipe.

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7. Fig. 7.1 shows the face of an ammeter. The ammeter reads 0.2 A with no current passing through.

Fig. 7.1
(a) What is the value of the accuracy of the ammeter?
(b) What error does the ammeter show?

c. Fig. 7.1 shows the same ammeter with current passing through.

Fig. 7.2

(i) What is the reading shown?

(ii) What is the correct value of the current passing through the ammeter?

8. In each of the following pairs, which quantity is larger?

(a) 2 km or 2500 m?
(b) 2 m or 1500 mm?
(c) 2 tonnes or 3000 kg?
(d) 2 litres or 300 cm3?

9. For each of the following readings state an approximate instrument suitable for taking the measurement

• 11 mm
• 5.52 mm
• 2.6 cm
• 4.5 mm

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2.0 MOTION
2.1.1 DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance travelled : distance covered by an object measured along the path of motion.
Displacement:- distance travelled in a specified direction
SI unit of distance and displacement :metre (m)
Other unit commonly used: kilometre (km)
Note: Distance is a scalar as it has only the size while displacement is a vector as it has both the size and direction.

2.1.2 SPEED AND VELOCITY

a). SPEED

-is the distance travelled per unit time. Its SI unit is metre per second (m/s) or (m s-1).
Other units: km/h
Conversions between m/s and km/h

3600/1000

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 -------------------------------->
m/s km/h
<---------------------------------
1000/3600
Speed = distance/time

*Average speed = total distance travelled/ total time taken

Average speed is also given by: v = u + v where u = initial speed

2 v = final speed
V = average speed

b). VELOCITY

-is the distance travelled in a unit time in a stated direction, e.g. 60 km/h due north. Velocity is, in fact, the speed in a
specified direction.
Velocity = displacement/time
And
Average velocity = total displacement/total time taken
*NB: - Velocity and speed are not the same. Speed is a scalar whereas velocity is vector.

Uniform/constant velocity
A body is said to be moving in a uniform/constant if it is moving with a steady speed in a straight line. It is therefore
not moving with uniform velocity if moving in a curve. Why?
2.1.3 ACCELERATION
It is the rate of change of velocity with time. Acceleration is also a vector quantity. Its SI unit is metre per second
squared (m/s2) or (m s-2).
Acceleration = change in velocity/time taken
a = final velocity – initial velocity/total time taken
a = (v – u)
t

DECELERATION
When a body slows down its speed decreases and the acceleration becomes negative. Negative acceleration is
called DECELERATION or RETARDATION.

Note: Decleration has a positive sign. Never give a negative answer

a = (u – v) can as well be used
t

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2.3 QUESTIONS
1 Explain the difference between:
• distance travelled and displacement

• speed and velocity

2 Use the words in the list below to complete the paragraphs that follow. Each word may be used once,
more
than once or not at all.
acceleration average displacement distance instantaneous scalar speed
vector velocity
Quantities which have magnitude but no direction are called ................................ quantities. Speed is
a
........................... quantity. Velocity is a ............................ quantity.
If an object moves in unspecified direction, it has moved through a certain
............................................. If
the direction is specified, it has undergone a ....................................................
The rate of change of ......................... of an object is called its acceleration. Acceleration is a
......................
quantity. The formula: (final speed – initial speed) / time gives the ..................................... of an object.
3 a) A millipede moves a distance of 3.0 m in 1.5 s. What is its average speed?

b) A car travels 600 m in 30 s. What is its average speed?

4 A car has a steady speed of 8m/s.

a) How far does the car travel in the 8 s?
b) How long does the car take to travel 160 m?

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6 Express:
• speed of 130 km/h in m/s

b) speed of 20 m/s in km/h

7 What is meant by:
• a speed of 100 km/h

• an acceleration of +10 m/s2

8 A car takes 8 s to increase its velocity from 10 m/s to 30 m/s. What is its acceleration?

9 A motor cycle, travelling at 20 m/s, takes 5 s to stop. What is its average deceleration?

10 An aircraft on its take-off run has a steady acceleration of 3 m/s2.

• What velocity does the aircraft gain 4 s?

b) If the aircraft passes one post on the runaway at a velocity of 20 m/s, what is its 8 s later?

2.4 MOTION GRAPHS

2.4.1 Distance-time graph

A distance-time graph shows how the distance travelled varies with time.

• The gradient of the graph represents the speed of the body

• Uniform speed

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The distance-time graph above is a straight line showing that the body is travelling with uniform speed.

The gradient of the graph;

Grad /slope = y2 – y1 / x2 – x1

=60 - 20/ 6 - 2

= 10

Then speed = 10 m/s

2.4.2 Speed- time graph (Velocity-time graph)

The speed- time graph shows how speed varies with time.
Note; 1) The gradient of the speed- time represents the acceleration of the body
2). The area under the graph is equal to the distance travelled by the body.
a). Uniform acceleration

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b). Uniform deceleration

c). Constant speed

acceleration = gradient = 0

c). Non- uniform acceleration

i) increasing acceleration ii) decreasing acceleration

time/s

Speed(m/s)

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Distance travelled in a speed-time graph

Distance travelled = area of rectangle OPRS + area of triangle PQR

= (L x W) + (½ bh)
= (5 s x 20 m/s) + (½ x 5 s x 20 m/s)
= 100 m + 50 m
= 150 m

Acceleration = slope

2.5 EQUATIONS OF MOTION

The equations used to solve problems on motion when the acceleration of the body is uniform.

SUMMARY OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

v = u + at
s = ½ (u + v)t
s = ut + ½ at2
v2 = u2 + 2as
Note:
s = distance travelled
u = initial velocity/speed
v = final velocity/speed
a = acceleration
t = time taken

2.6 QUESTIONS

(For the questions below, assume that the motion is in a straight line and that the acceleration is uniform)
1 A motor cycle travelling at 10 m/s accelerates at 4 m/s2 for 8 s.
• What is its final velocity?

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 • How far does it travel during the 8 s?

2 A car accelerates from 8 m/s to 20 m/s in 10 s.

• What is its acceleration?

• How far does it travel during the 10 s?

3 A train is travelling at 40 m/s when its brakes are applied. This produces a deceleration of 2 m/s2.
• How long does the train take to come to rest?

• How far does the train travel before stopping?

4 An aircraft accelerates at 25 m/s2. Its take-off speed is 60 m/s.

• What length of runway does it need to take off?

• How long does it take to reach its take-off speed?

5 The approximate velocity-time graph for a car on a 5 hour journey is shown below. (There is a very quick
driver change midway to prevent driving fatigue).

a) State in which of the regions OA, AB, BC, CD, DE the car is i) accelerating ii) decelerating

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 iii) travelling with uniform velocity.

b) Calculate the value of the acceleration, deceleration or constant velocity in each region.

c) What is the distance travelled over each region?

d) What is the total distance travelled?

e) Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey.

7 The distance-time graph for a motor cyclist riding off from rest follows.

a) Describe the motion.

b) How far does the motorbike move in 30 seconds?

c) Calculate the speed.

2.7 FREE FALLING OBJECTS

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 2.7.1 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
An object falling freely in vacuum under gravitational force of the earth only moves with uniform acceleration known
as acceleration due to gravity (or acceleration of free fall). The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by letter g.
The value of g:-
• However the value of g is taken to be 10 m/s2 on Earth.

Equations of motion for free falls

For vertical motion a is replaced with g in the equations of motion studied previously.
• for a dropping object

g = +10 m/s2
v = u + at becomes v = u +gt if the body drops from rest i.e. u =o, v = gt --------------> (1)
s = ut + ½ at2 becomess = ut + ½ gt2 if u = 0, s = ½ gt2 (note s = height) ------>(2)
v2 = u2 + 2as becomes v2 = u2 + 2gs if u = 0, v2 = 2gs ---------------------> (3)
* Same equations can be used for bodies thrown/moving vertically upwards but with g as -10 m/s2
NB:-i) velocity at the highest point is zero for any object.
ii) time for upward journey = time for downward journey to the same level
iii) a falling body would pass every point at same speed it did on its way up.

2.7.2 MOTION OF A BODY FREE FALLING IN AIR

a. At the start b. gaining speed, FR <W) c. At the terminal velocity

(FR =0, a = 10 m/s2) (FR increasing, a< 10 m/s2) (FR = W, a = 0)

When a body falls in air, initially its acceleration is about 10 m/s2.

• As its speed increases so does the air resistance (fluid friction) opposing its motion and this causes the
acceleration of the body to decrease.
• Eventually the air resistance acting upwards equals the force of gravity (weight of the body) acting
downwards and the acceleration becomes zero.
• Then the body falls with a constant velocity/ speed called its terminal velocity

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The value of the terminal velocity depends on the size, shape and weight of the object.
2.7.3 MOTION OF FALLING BODIES IN LIQUIDS

Same as that one for an object falling in air except that the resistive force here is called upthrust

A body falling in a liquid reaches terminal velocity earlier than a body falling in air.1

The sketch of the velocity-time graph for body falling in air or liquid is as shown below;

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MASS, WEIGHT AND CENTRE OF MASS
Mass
• is a measure of the amount of a substance (matter) in an object (or body)

• SI unit: kilogram (kg)

• Other units: gram (g), milligram (mg), tonnes (t)

• Measuring instruments:-tripple-beam balance, bathroom balance, lever-arm scale, electronic scale, top-
pan balance.
NOTE: MASS IS ALWAYS CONSTANT (it never change)
INERTIA
-is the tendency of a body to resist any change in its state of motion i.e. to remain at rest if it is at rest or to continue
moving (with uniform velocity in a straight line) if already in motion. The larger the mass of a body the larger its inertia
Examples of some effects of inertia in everyday life
a. If a car stops suddenly the occupants are thrown forward. Why? Because they tend to want to continue moving
due to inertia OR if the car starts abruptly the upper part of the occupant is moved back. Why? because it seems to
want to remain at rest because of inertia.
b.

When card is pulled away very quickly the coin will not move along with it but instead it drops into the glass due to
inertia.
WEIGHT
Definition: is the amount of force gravity acting on an object.
Measuring instrument: spring balance/forcemeter
SI unit: newton (N).
Unlike mass, the weight of an object is not always constant, it depends on the gravitational pull on a unit mass
(gravitational field strength) at a particular place. On Earth the gravitational pull on a unit mass is 10 N i.e. g = 10
N/kg
On the moon the gravitational pull on a unit mass is 1.6 N i.e. g = 1.6 N/kg.

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W = mg
where W = weight in newtons (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength in N/kg.

QUESTIONS

1) Calculate the weight of a body of mass: Take g to be 10 N/kg.

(i) 2 kg

(ii) 700 g

2) A bag of coal has a mass of 10 kg on Earth. The acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2 on Earth
and on the moon is 1.6 m/s2.

(i) What is its mass on the moon?

(ii) What is its weight on Earth?

(iii) What is its weight on the moon?

3) A bag of sugar has a weight of 125 N on Earth. Calculate it’s mass. Take g to be 10 N/kg.

CENTRE OF MASS
Center of mass is a point on a body at which the whole mass of the body seems to be concentrated.
The centre of (C.M) of an object:
It can be either within or outside the body of the object.
3.5.2 C.M of some regular shaped object

*For some objects, (e.g. a ring, retort stand, etc), the C.M lies outside the body of the object, instead it lies in the air
around the object.

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Experiment: to determine C.M of irregular shaped object

Procedure
• Make three holes A, C and E on the cardboard.

• Suspend the cardboard through hole A from a nail clamped on a stand such that it swings freely. When it
comes to rest, its centre of mass will be exactly below point A.

• To identify the point, hang the plumbline from the same nail

• Draw a line AB along the plumbline

• Hang the cardboard from another hole C and repeat the experiment and draw the line CD.

• The C.M lies at the intersection of the two lines.

• To check if the position of C.M is correct, one can hang the cardboard from the third hole E and then draw
line EF, it must also pass through that point.

STABILITY

This defines whether the object falls over easily or not. When the object is slightly displaced and released, it will
always return to its origin if the vertical line passing through the C.M. lies within the base of the object.

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Ways of increasing the stability of a body

• Lowering the centre of mass

• Widen the base of the object

States of equilibrium

Three states of equilibrium are:-

1) Stable equilibrium

2) Unstable equilibrium

3) Neutral equilibrium

(a) Stable Equilibrium

A body is in a state or position in which when it is slightly displaced and released it returns to its original position.

When an object in stable equilibrium is slightly tilted, its C.M rises and gain some P.E. When released that extra P.e
will be used to produce an anticlockwise moment about the point of contact that will roll the object back to its original
position.

(b) Unstable Equilibrium

A body is in unstable equilibrium if it is positioned such that when it is slightly displaced and released it will move
further away its original position ( topples over).

(c) Neutral Equilibrium

A state in which a body is positioned such that when it is slightly displaced and released it remains at its new
position.

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4.0 DENSITY

4.1 Density is defined as the measure of the amount of mass contained in volume of an object.
Density = mass/volume
D = m/V or ρ = m/V where ρ = density in kg/m3
m = mass in kg
V = volume in m3
SI unit: kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Other unit commonly used is gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

*NB:- Density of pure water is 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3

i.e. to convert g/cm3 simply multiply by 1000 and vice versa

4.2 Experiment #1: Measuring density of regular (shaped) objects

• Measure the mass m of the object using a balance

• Measure the dimensions of the object and then calculate the volume V of the object using the appropriate
formula. E.g. volume of a cube = l3

Volume of a rectangular block = l x w x h

Volume of a cylinder = πr2h, etc

• Find the density of the object using the equation ρ = m/V

4.3 Experiment #2: Determining the density of an irregular shaped object e.g. a stone

• Using a measuring cylinder method

• Measure the mass m of the stone using a balance

• Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water and then record the reading of the volume V1 of water. (remember
to read the mark at the bottom of the meniscus).

• Gently lower the stone into water and note the reading V2 (volume of water and stone)

• Calculate the volume of the stone, V, using the equation V = V2 – V1.

• Work out the density of the stone using the equation ρ = m/ V.

• Displacement can method

For larger objects a displacement can may be used

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 • A beaker or measuring cylinder is placed under the spout and the displacement can is filled with water until
it overflows. The beaker is emptied and replaced.

• Find the mass m of the stoneusing a balance

• The stone is lowered with a thread into the can.

• Overflow is collected in a beaker and its volume is measured to give the volume V of the stone.

• Lastly the density of the stone is found using the equation using the equation ρ = m/V.

4.4.1 Experiment #3: measuring density of a liquid

• Measure the mass m1 of a dry clean beaker

• A convenient volume V of a liquid, let’s say water is run into the beaker and then record the volume V of the
water in cm3.

• Find the mass m2 of the beaker with the liquid in it.

• Then calculate the mass m of the liquid using the equation m = m2 – m1

• Finally calculate the density using ρ = m/V

4.5 Experiment #5: measuring the density of air

• Find the mass m1 of a 500 cm3 rounded bottom flask full of air.

• Remove air from the flask using a vacuum pipe and then determine the mass m2 of an empty flask.

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 • Fill the flask with water

• Transfer water to a measuring cylinder to find the capacity of the flask which the volume V of air.

• Find the mass m of the air using the equation m = m2 – m1

• Calculate the density of air using the equation ρ = m/V.

4.6 FLOATING AND SINKING

An object:-

• Floats in a liquid if its density is less than that of the liquid

• Sinks if its density is greater than that of the liquid

• Stays anywhere within the body of a liquid if its density is equal to that of the liquid.

4.7 A HYDROMETER

It is used to measure the density of the liquids directly. It consists of a thin hollow tube which is weighed at the bottom
with mercury or lead so that it can float upright. The tube has a scale marked on it
The hydrometer floats at different levels/depths in different liquids, depending on their densities. It sinks less in a
dense liquid and sinks more in less dense liquid.

You read the mark level with the surface of the liquid.
Hydrometers are often used to test beer and milk to see if they have too much water in them.
A special hydrometer called lactometer, used for testing the purity of milk.
*At constant temperature the densities of the objects made with the same material are the same irrespective of their
sizes (volumes)

29
4.8 QUESTIONS
1 Copy and complete the table shown below.
Length Width Height Volume of rectangular block

2 cm 3 cm 4 cm ...........
5 cm 5 cm ........... 100 cm3
6 cm ............. 5 cm 300 cm3
........... 10 cm 10 cm 500 cm3

2 Calculate the density of the following:

a) a piece of steel which has a volume of 6 cm3 and a mass of 48 g.

b) a piece of copper which has a volume of 10 cm3 and a mass of 90 g.

3 Calculate the mass of the following:

a) 4 cm3 of aluminium. The density of aluminium is 2.7 g/cm3.

b) 20 cm3 of wood. The density of wood is 0.80 g/cm3.

4 Calculate the volume of the following:

a) 68 g of mercury. The density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm3.

b) 15.8 g of iron. The density of iron is 7.9 g/cm3.

.

5 A block of material is 8 cm long, 2 cm wide and 3 cm high, and has a mass of 46 g.

a) What is its density?

b) Convert the value of density in (a) above to kg/cm3.

30
3 A jeweller has a crown which he thinks is made of pure gold. He finds that it has a volume of 100 cm3 and has
a mass of 1.8 kg.
a) Using these two values, what is the density of the crown?

b) The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. How can the difference be explained?

31
5.0 FORCE
5.1 A force is a push or pull exerted by one object on another.
Force is a vector; it has both magnitude and direction in which it acts.
SI unit: newton (N)
*One newton is a force which gives an acceleration of 1 m/s2 to mass of 1 kg.

5.2 EFFECTS OF FORCE

5.2.1 Effects of a force on the shape and size of an object
A force can or tends to change the shape and size of objects, e.g. i) lump of bostik would change shape when
pressed, ii) a inflated balloon changes size when more air is blown into it.

Stretching a spring

e = L – Lowhere e = extension of the spring

L = new length of stretched spring
L0 = original/normal length of the spring

When the load (weight) which was applied to the spring is removed, the spring returns to its normal length. The
spring is elastic but only to a certain limit.
Experiment: To investigate the relationship between the extension of a spring and load (stretching force)

32
Procedure
- Suspend the mass hanger on the spring as shown Suspend a steel spring from a retort stand as
shown above
- Attach a pointer in a horizontal position to the end of the spring with some bostik.
- Place a metre rule vertically near the spring above
- Adjust the height of the ruler such that the pointer is at a convenient reading, say around 30 cm,
record this as initial scale reading.
- Add 100 g (1.0 N) loads one at a time and note and record the new scale reading after each load.
- Record the observations in a table up to 500 g (5.0 N) and calculate the extension for each load.

TABLE OF RESULTS
e = New reading L – Initial scale reading LO
Load F/N Scale reading/cm Extension e/cm
0 54.0 0.0
1 57.8 3.8
2 63.5 9.5
3 69.0 15.0
4 72.4 18.4
5 76.6 22.5

Graph of load F (force)/N against extension/cm

The graph above is a straight line showing that the extension of the spring is directly proportional to the load i.e.
when the load is doubled the also doubles.
force constant (k)

F = ke

where F = force applied in newtons (N)

e = extension of the spring in metres (m)
k = constant of proportionality known as force constant or spring constant in N/m
*Force constant k:
• is defined as the amount of force require to give a spring a unit extension/ 1m extension

• is measured in N/m, N/cm, N/mm, etc.

*Dividing the load by its corresponding extension always gives the same result. This means every 1N increase in
the stretching force produces the same extra

33
HOOKE’S LAW
If you add more masses to mass hanger and take the corresponding extensions and draw a graph as before, the
graph will be a straight line a curve towards the end showing that towards end load and extension were no longer
proportional.

The spring behaves elastically only to point E. Then, the Hooke’s law is obeyed only in the region OE.
Therefore Hooke’s law states:
“the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the load/force applied provided the elastic limit of
spring is not exceeded”.
Point E is known as elastic limit or limit of proportionality of the spring. This is point beyond which the spring loses its
elasticity, it would fail to return to its original length even when the load is removed from it. Instead a permanent
extension (deformation) OS will remain on the spring.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the force constant of a spring which is stretched2 mm by a force of 4 N b) 4 cm by a mass of 200 g.

2. The graph below shows how a spring stretches when a force is applied to it.

a) Describe what would happen to the spring if forces were applied to it until it reached point A on the

graph and then the forces are removed.

34
 b) Describe what would happen if the spring was stretched to point B on the graph and then the forces

removed.

c) If a force of 10 N caused the spring to stretch by 5 cm what would be the extension of the spring if 20 N

was applied to it?

EFFECTS OF FORCE ON MOTION OF AN OBJECT

A force can change the state of motion of an object by causing:

(i) its speed to increase or decrease
(ii) its acceleration to increase or decrease
(iii) a change in its direction of travel
(iv) a stationary object start to move or an object in motion stop moving.
NEWTON’S 2nd LAW OF MOTION
• Second law
It states that :-
“The acceleration a of a body is
• directly proportional to the force applied F for a fixed mass m

• inversely proportional to the mass m for a fixed force applied F”

Mathematically, newton’s second law of motion is expressed as:-
F = ma

where F = resultant/unbalanced/net force (N)

m = mass of an object (kg)
a = acceleration of the object (m/s2)
5.3 FRICTIONAL FORCE
5.3.1 Effects of friction on motion of a body
Friction – always acts in opposite to the direction of motion of a body and reduces the acceleration or speed of the
body.

Resultant force = forward force – frictional force

35
 F = FF – FR
F = ma --------------> Newton’s second law of motion
a = F/m
then for cases where there is friction

a = F/m = FF – FR/m where a = acceleration in m/s2

FF = forward force in N
FR = frictional force in N
m = mass in kg

Examples

• A car is acted upon by a forward driving force of 700 N which causes an acceleration. The force of friction
between the road and the tyres is 500 N. Calculate the resultant force on the car.

F = FF - FR
= 700 N – 500 N
= 200 N
• A car of mass 3 000 kg is travelling at a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2. The force of friction between the
tyres and the road is 500 N. Calculate the a) resultant force acting on the car b) forward driving force

Solutions
m = 3000 kg, a = 2 m/s2
F = ma
= 3000 kg X 2 m/s2
= 6000 kg m/s-2
= 6000 N

F = 6000 N, FR = 500 N
F = FF - FR
FF = F + FR
= 6000 N + 500 N
= 6500 N

TURNING EFFECTS OF A FORCE (MOMENT OF A FORCE)

Definition: a moment of a force is the measure of the turning effect of a force. It depends on the size of
the force and how far it is applied from the pivot/fulcrum.
Moment = force X perpendicular distance of line of action of the force from the pivot
M = Fd or M = Fs
where M = moment of the force in newton-metre Nm
F = force applied in newton (N)
d or s = perpendicular distance of line of action from the pivot (m)
Units: Nm, Ncm, etc

36
M = Fx D

Moment of a force is a vector quantity, i.e. it has magnitude as well as direction. The direction is either clockwise or
anticlockwise, depending in which the force turns the object.
e.g

5.4.2 Experiment: To verify the principle of moments (law of moments/levers)

• Pivot the metre rule at the 50 cm.

• Hang the masses m1 and m2 on either side of the pivot until the ruler balances.
• Measure the distance d1 and d2 from the pivot
• Calculate the anticlockwise moment M1 and clockwise moment M2 using equations, M1 = F1d1 &
M2 = F2d2

What do you notice about clockwise and anticlockwise moments when the ruler is balanced?
Answ: the clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

The principle of moments states that:

“when the body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments about the same point”

5.4.3 CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM

1) the sum of forces in one direction must equal the sum of the forces in the opposite direction i.e the net force
is equal to zero

37
2) the principle of moments should be obeyed, i.e. the resultant turning effect is equal to zero.

e.g. The beam below is equilibrium

Therefore:
i) Force A + Force B + Force C + Force D = Force C
Then A + B + C + D – C = 0
ii) Ax + By = Dz
total anticlockwise moments = total clockwise moment

5.6 QUESTIONS
Question 1
A car has a mass of 900 kg. It accelerates from rest at a rate of 1.2 m/s2.
a) Calculate the time taken to reach a velocity of 30 m/s.
b) Calculate the force required to accelerate the car at a rate of 1.2 m/s2.
c) Even with the engine working at full power, the car’s acceleration decreases as
the car goes faster. Why is this?

38
Question 2
The diagram below shows some of the forces acting on a car of mass 500 kg.

a) State the size of the total drag force when the car is travelling at a constant
speed.
b) The driving force is increased to 3000 N.
i) Find the resultant force on the car at this instant.
ii) Calculate the initial acceleration of the car.
Question 3
The manufacturer of a car gave the following information; Mass of car = 1000 kg. The car will accelerate
from 0 to 30 m/s in 12 seconds.
a) Calculate the average acceleration of the car during the 12 seconds.
b) Calculate the force needed to produce this acceleration.
Question 4
Fig. 6.1 shows a car of mass 500 kg moving from rest with constant acceleration of 10 m/s2. Two forces
act on it, a forward force and a friction force.

Fig. 6.1
a). (i) Calculate the resultant force acting on the car. Show your working.
(ii) If the friction force is 2000 N, calculate the forward force acting on the car.
Show your working.
(iii) After some time, the car reaches a velocity of 20 m/s. How long did it take for
the car to reach this velocity?

Question 5
Fig. 7.1 shows a metal ball being dropped from the surface of oil in a tube of length 2 m. the ball has a
mass of 1 kg and it moves with constant acceleration of 5 m/s2.

39
Fig. 7.1

(a) Calculate the resultant force acting on the ball.

(b) Calculate the friction caused by the oil. (g = 10 N/kg).
(c) Calculate the time taken by the ball to reach the bottom of the tube.
Question 8
Fig. 8.1 shows a model crane. The crane has a movable counterbalance.

(a) Why does the crane need a counterbalance?

(b) Why does the counterbalance need to be movable?
Refer to Fig. 8.1
(c) What is the moment of the 100 N force about O?
(d) To balance the crane, what moment must the 400 N force have?
(e) How far from O should the counterbalance be positioned?

40
(f) Where would you expect the counterbalance to be positioned if the crane is
lifting its maximum load?
(g) What is the maximum load the crane should lift?
(h) Describe two ways of making the design of the crane more stable.
9 The diagram below shows a spanner being used to undo a nut on a car wheel.

a) Calculate the moment created by the force trying to undo the nut.
b) Suggest how you could increase the moment applied to the nut without
increasing the applied force.

10. The diagrams show forces acting on various beams. For each beam, the fulcrum
is at its midpoint. Which of the beams are in equilibrium? What happens in the
other cases? What is the upward force of the fulcrum on the beam in each
case?

11. A 1 N weight is hung from the 5 cm mark of a metre rule. The rule balances on a
knife edge at the 30 cm mark. What is the weight of the rule?

41
12 The diagram shows a beam balanced with the fulcrum at the midpoint. How big
is the force X?
13. The diagram shows two beams balanced with the fulcrum at the midpoint. In
each case, what is the distance x?

5.7 SCALARS AND VECTORS

5.7.1 DEFINITIONS
SCALAR QUANTITY: expressed in terms of magnitude/size only, e.g. distance, temperature, time, etc.
VECTOR QUANTITY: expressed in terms of magnitude and direction, e.g. force, acceleration, moment, velocity, etc.
5.7.2 Addition of vectors
1. Resultant of 3 N and 7 N forces at a right angle to one another.
i) GRAPHICAL METHOD

Choose a suitable scale; 1 cm : 1 N

42
After drawing the vector diagram to scale, you measure the length of line that represents the resultant and then use
the chosen scale to find the resultant..
Length = 7.6 cm, therefore resultant = 7.6 N
Direction is obtained by measuring the angle between the resultant force and one of the forces, e.g. 23° to the
7N
R = 7.6 N, 23° to the 7 N
• Algebraically
For right-angled triangle – use Pythagoras theorem
c2 = a2 + b2
OR2 = OP2 + PR2
= (7 N)2 + (3 N)2
= 58 N2
OR = √58 N2
Resultant R = 7.6 N
for direction trignometrical functions

sinθ = OPP/HYP cosθ = ADJ/HYP tanθ = OPP/ADJ

e.g. sinθ = OP/OR, cosθ = PR/OR tanθ = OP/PR
sinθ = 3/7.6 cosθ = 7/7.6 tanθ = 3/7
θ = sin-1(0.3974) θ = cos-1(0.921) θ = tan-1(0.4286)
= 23° = 23°= 23°

2. Forces acting at an angle not 90° to each other

PARALLELOGRAM RULE
If two forces acting at appoint are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a parallelogram, the
resultant is represented in size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram.
E.g.Find the resultant of forces of 3500 N and 2500 N acting at an angle of 60° to each other
Using parallelogram rule (graphical method)
Scale 1 cm : 500 N

43
 Resultant force = 10.5 x 500 N = 5250 N
Direction = angle between the resultant and the 3500 N force (measure using a protractor) = 24°
ALGEBRICALLY,
Use cosine rule
C2 = a2 + b2 – 2abcosΦ
To find the direction, use sine rule
a/sin A = b/sin B = c/sin C
5.7.3 Resolving a force
When a single is converted into components it is said to be resolved. Components together have the same effect as
that of the single force. Usually the components are at the right angle to one another.

44
The components of the resultant force F are FX (OB) along the x-axis and Fy (OA) along the y-axis.
To find FX and FY
Using trigonometry

sinθ = OA/OC cosθ = OB/OC

sinθ = Fy/F cosθ = Fx/F
Fy=FsinθFx = Fcosθ

e.g. If F = 200 N, θ = 30°

Fy = F sin Fx = Fcos30°
= 200sin30° Fx = 200cos30°
= 100 N = 173 N

5.7.4 QUESTIONS

1. How is a scalar different from a vector? Give an example of each.

2. Forces of 12 N and 5 N both act at the same point, but their directions can be varied.
a) What is their greatest possible resultant?
b) What is their least possible resultant?
c) If the two forces are at right angles, find by scale drawing or otherwise the size and direction of their
resultant.
3. Find the resultant of a displacement of 5 m north-east and one of 3.5 m due east.. (State the size of the
displacement as well as its direction). What would your answer have been if the second displacement had
been due south instead of due east.
4. Which of the following quantities are scalar quantities; temperature, potential energy, density, weight
5. Fig. 5.1 shows a heavy block hanging from two ropes so that it does not move. The forces and the angles are
shown. Draw a vector diagram to find the resultant force exerted by the ropes on the block. Say what scale
you have used.

Fig. 5.2

45
WORK, ENERGY, POWER
WORK
Work is done when a force moves an object in its direction.
It is given by the product of force and the distance moved in the direction of the force
The SI unit of work is a joule (J).
W = Fxs or W = Fxd
where W = work done in joules (J)
F = force in newtons (N)
s = distance moved in metres (m)
1J=1NX1m
= 1 Nm
Other units (larger): kilojoule (KJ) ; 1 KJ = 1000 J
Megajoule (MJ); 1 MJ = 106 J
*Note: No work is done if :-
i) the force applied on the object does not move the object
ii) the direction of motion is perpendicular to the direction of force.
Example
1. A horizontal force of 50 N is applied onto a box which then moves a distance of 2 m. How much work is done
on the box?
W = Fxd
= 50N X 2m
= 100 J

ENERGY
Energy is a measure of the ability or capacity to do work.

Work done and energy transferred

When a body A does work on body B, body Atransfers energy to body B. The amount of energy transferred from
body A to body B is equal to the work done by body A on body B.
WORK DONE = ENERGY TANSFERRED

Energy is also measured in joules (J)

6.2.2 DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
• Chemical energy
• Electrical energy
• Heat/thermal energy
• Sound energy
• Mechanical energy

46
 • Light energy
• Nuclear energy
• Radiant energy – given out by source in form of wave, e.g light, microwave, sound, heat, etc
MECHANICAL ENERGY
There are two types of mechanical energy
• Gravitational Potential energy (G.p.e)
• Kinetic energy (K.e)

• Gravitational Potential energy

Is the energy possessed by a body due to its position or condition. An object suspended above the ground has
gravitational potential energy
Gravitational potential energy = weight X height
Pe = mgh

where g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2(N/kg)

m = mass of the object in kg
h = height in metres (m)
Example
• calculate the potential energy of body of mass 50 kg which is 4 m above the ground. (g = 10 N/kg)
solun. G.p.e =mgh
= 50kg x 10 x 4 m
= 2000 J
2) Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is possessed by a moving object.
Ke = ½ mv2
where m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
Example.
• A car of mass 1500 kg is moving with a velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate the car’s kinetic energy.
Soln.
K.e =1/2mv2
= 1/2x1500x102
= 750x100
= 75 000 J

• Acar of mass 1500 kg has a kinetic energy of 75 000 J. calculate its speed/velocity.
Soln.

K.e =1/2mv2
2xk.e=mv2

47
 2xk.e = v2
m

Principle of conservation of energy

It states that:-
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can only be converted from one form to
another”.
Examples
#1. falling bodies

• Its energy is all PE at the beginning of the fall

• Gains some K.E and loses P.E as it falls and its velocity increases and height decreases.
• On reaching the ground all energy will be changed to K.E and P.E is zero.
#2. A swinging pendulum

• Energy all PE at the extreme positions.

• All energy KE when passing the resting position.
• The pendulum will eventually stop swinging because all the energy would be lost to the surrounding as heat
energy due to doing work against friction (air resistance).

48
Energy changes/transfers - examples;

Action device/transducer Energy changes

Lifting a weight Chemical energy --------→ PE

Dropping the weight PE ------→ KE -----------→ heat + sound
Electric motor Electrical ------------→ KE
Burning candle Chemical ---------→ heat + light
Generator KE -----------------→ electrical
Microphone Sound -------------→ electrical-------- sound
Loudspeaker Electrical ------------→ sound
Hot air balloon Heat ---------------→ PE
Battery torch Chemical ---------------→ electrical--------- Light,

POWER
Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy to other forms.
Power = work done/time taken
P = w/t

OR
P = E/t

SI unit:- watt (W)

1 W = 1 J/s
Other units:
1 kilowatt (kW) = 103 W
1 megawatt (MW) = 106 W
Examples
• Suppose a girl weighing 500 N climbs 6 stairs each 25 cm high in 5 seconds
W = weight X height
= 500 N X (6 X 0.25 m)
= 750 J
Calculate the average power
P = w/t
= 750 J/5 s
= 150 W

49
6.5 QUESTIONS
2. A can of 500 g is lifted onto a shelf through a vertical height of 1.5 m. How much work is done? (g=10 N/kg)
F=W=mg
=0.5x10
= 5N

W=Fxd
= 5Nx1.5m
=7.5J

3. A man pushes a box across the floor by applying a horizontal force of 100 N. The box travels with a constant
speed of 0.5 m/s.
• What is the distance moved by the box in 10 s?
d = sxt
= 0.5x10
= 5m/s
• Calculate the work done on the box in 10 s.
W = fxs
= 100N x 5 m
= 500J
4. A builder lifts 10 bricks to the top of a building through a vertical distance of 5 m. Each brick has a mass of
500 g. (g=10N/kg)
• Calculate the work done by the builder.
• If it takes 20 s to lift the bricks at what rate is the builder working?
• State form of energy gained by the bricks.
5. A body of mass 5 kg falls from rest and has k.e of 1000 J just before it touches the ground. Assuming there is
no friction and using the value 10 m/s2 for the acceleration due to gravity. Calculate the loss of potential
energy during the fall.
p.e. lost = k.e. gained
= 1000J
6. A 100 g steel ball falls from a height of 1.8 m onto a plate. Calculate
• the G.P.E of the ball before the fall.
g.p.e. = mgh
= 0.1 x 10 x 1.8
= 1.8 J
• its k.e as it hits the plate.
g.p.e. lost = k.e gained
= 1.8 J
• Its velocity as it hits the plate.
k.e. = 1/2mv2
v = 6 m/s

50
7. The diagram below shows a model power-station. A small steam engine drives a generator which
lights a bulb. Decide where each of the following energy changes is taking place. (You can answer
by writing one of the letters A – D in each case.)

a) Kinetic energy to electrical energy: …………………………………….

b) Heat energy to kinetic energy: ………………………………
c) Electrical energy to heat and light energy: ………………………..
d) Chemical energy to heat energy: ………………………..
8. Some workers on a building site have set up an electric winch in order to lift a
bucket with tiles up to the roof. The bucket and tiles weigh 500 N.
a) What is the minimum force that must be applied in order to lift the bucket of
tiles off the ground?
b) How much energy is spent in lifting the tiles 20 m from the ground to the
roof?
c) What energy transformations are taking place as the tiles are raised?
d) If the tiles are lifted 20 m in 10 s, what is the power of the winch?
e) If the winch is only 50 % efficient, how much energy must be fed into the
electrical motor to lift the tiles through the 20 m?
f) Suggest one or two reason why the system might be less than 100 % efficient.
g) How can the efficiency of the system be improved?
9. In a certain ward in Serowe people use solar panels and windmills as energy
sources.

(a) Write down one advantage of using each of these energy sources
i) solar panels:
ii) windmills:
(b) Write down one disadvantage of using solar panels
(c) Write down one disadvantage of using windmills

51
10. The diagram below shows a hydroelectric scheme. Water rushes down from the
top of the lake to the power-station. In the power-station, the water turns a
turbine which drives a generator.

a) What type of energy does the water have when it reaches the power-
station?
b) Some of the water’s energy is wasted.
(i) Why is energy wasted?
(ii) What happens to the wasted energy?
c) The hydroelectric scheme is a renewable energy source. What is meant by
a renewable energy resource?
d) When water flows from the lake, potential energy is lost. How is this energy
replaced?
e) What advantages does a hydroelectric scheme have over a fuel-burning
power-station?
f) What environmental damage does a hydroelectric scheme cause?
11. At night time when most of us are asleep the demand for electricity is quite
small. The generators at the power stations, however, are still working as it is very
wasteful and inefficient to turn them off. In some power stations the excess
electrical energy they are manufacturing is used to pump water into dams.
Then during the day the water is released and used to drive
generators when demand is high.
a) What weight of water can be pumped 50 m uphill if the surplus energy from
a generator is 2 MJ?
b) When released, how much kinetic energy will this have after it has fallen
(i) 25 m (ii) 50 m?
c) What assumptions have you made in order to answer (b) above?
d) Suggest why off-peak night-time electricity is cheaper than daytime
electricity.
13. To be a good pole vaulter it is essential not only to be strong and agile but also
to have good sprinting speed.
a) What kind of energy does a vaulter possess;
(i) before starting his run?

52
 (ii) as he sprints down the runway?
(iii) as he clears the bar?
b) When a competitor has completed his vault where has all the energy
gone?

7.0 PRESSURE
7.1 Pressure is force per unit area
Pressure = force/area
P = F/A
SI unit :- pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Pressure increase with:-
i). Increase in force
ii). Decrease in the area of contact
Examples
#1. A concrete block has a mass of 2600 kg. If the block measures 0.5 m by 1.0 m by 2.0 m. What is the
maximum pressure that it can exert when resting on the ground?
Data
F = 26000 N, A = (0.5 X 1.0) m = 0.5 m2

P = F/A
= 26000 N/0.5 m2
= 52 000 N/m2
= 52 000 Pa = 52 kPa
#2. What force is produced if a force of 1000 Pa acts on an area of 0.2 m2.
Data
F = 1000 N, A = 0.2 m2
P = F/A
F = P(A)

53
 =1000 N/m2 x 0.2 m2
= 200 N
#3. Explain why a tractor’s big tyres stop sinking to far into the soft soil

Answ: Exert less pressure on the soil because of small area contact between the tyres and the
soil/ground

7.2 LIQUID PRESSURE

• Pressure in a liquid increases with depth; the further down you go, the greater the weight of the liquid above.

Water spurts out fastest and furthest from the lowest from the lowest hole.
• Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions

The can of water has similar holes all round it at the same level. Water comes out as fast as far from each hole.
Hence the pressure exerted by the water at this depth is the same in all directions.

54
 • A liquid finds its own level

In the U-tube the liquid pressure at the foot of P is greater than at the foot of Q because the left hand
column is higher than the right one. When the clip is opened the liquid moves from P to Q until the pressure
in both is the same and the levels of liquid in both column are equal.

b.

The liquid is at the same level. This confirms that pressure at the foot of a liquid column depends only on the
vertical depth of the liquid and not the width or shape of the tube.

7.3 HYDRAULIC MACHINES

A liquid is incompressible therefore its volume cannot be reduced by squeezing. Pressure in a liquid is therefore
transmitted in hydraulic machines to magnify a force.

55
Pressure, piston A
PA = FA/AA
= 1.0 N/0.01 m2
= 100 Pa

The pressure is transmitted wholly through the liquid to piston B

Force in piston B
FB = PBAB note: PB = PA
= 100 N/m2 x 0.5 m2
= 50 N
A force of 1.0 N is therefore magnified 50 times.
Note:
PA = PB
FA/AA = FB/AB
FA = (AA/AB)FB; AA/AB = force multiplying factor

7.5.1 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (AIR PRESSURE)

Owing to its weight, air exerts pressure at the surface of the earth and objects on the surface of the Earth. The air
pressure at the sea level (known as the standard atmospheric pressure, PO) is 105 Pa (100 kPa)
7.5.2 EFFECTS OF AIR PRESSURE
Collapsing/crushing a can

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If air is removed from the can it collapses because the pressure inside the can becomes or is less than outside.
Magdeburg hemisphere

After removing (pumping out the air) it becomes very difficult to separate the spheres because air pressure inside is
less than outside.

7.5.3 AIR PRESSURE GAUGES

• U-tube manometer

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In diagram (a) atmospheric pressure acts equally on both arms of the tube. The levels of the water (liquid) inside
therefore are the same. In diagram (b) arm one arm is connected to a gas cylinder which exerts pressure to the liquid
and it rises to the height h in the other arm.
Pressure of the gas = Atmospheric pressure + Pressure due to the liquid column h
P = PO + hρg
Pressure of the liquid column h is therefore equal to the amount by which the gas supply exceeds atmospheric
pressure.
• Mercury Barometer

A mercury barometer is a manometer which is used to measure atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure acts on
the surface of the mercury in the bowl and maintains the height of the liquid column h. This height is 760 mm at sea
level. When the pressure acting on the surface of the mercury in the bowl is reduced, the height h decreases. When
the barometer is slightly tilted the height h is not affected because atmospheric pressure acts equally in all directions.

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Pressure at x due to the liquid column h equals the atmospheric pressure on the surface of mercury in the bowl. This
pressure is stated in terms of height of the mercury column e.g. 760 mmHg (at sea level), 74 mmHg, etc. Increasing
the diameter of the tube doesn’t change the pressure at x because the weight of the liquid column (force) will now be
acting on a large surface area.
7.6 Weather maps
Weather maps are constructed by plotting of pressure readings from different weather stations in a region. When this
has been done, lines known as isobars are drawn.
Isobars are lines drawn on the map weather to join places of equal atmospheric pressure. Closely spaced isobars
indicate a big pressure difference over a short distance and suggest that strong winds are likely to occur. Widely
spaced isobars indicate a small pressure difference over a large area and suggest light winds,
Winds blow from places of high atmospheric pressure to places of low atmospheric pressure. Because of the rotation
of the Earth, winds blow more or less along the isobars. Winds blow in a clockwise direction in the northern
hemisphere and in an anticlockwise direction in the southern hemisphere for an anticyclone. For a cyclone they blow
in clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere and in the anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere.
In weather a region of high atmospheric region surrounded by places of low pressure is called a HIGH OR AN
ANTICYCLONE and region of low atmospheric pressure in the middle of high pressures is called a LOW OR
CYCLONE OR DEPRESSION

CYCLONE ANTICYCLONE

7.7 QUESTIONS
1. a) A thumb tack is squeezed between finger and thumb as shown in Fig. 1.1. Which experiences the
greater pressure, thumb or the finger? Explain your answer.

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 Fig. 1.1

b) A hippopotamus has very large feet. How do the large feet help the hippo to walk on soft mud?
c) Why is a dam built thicker at the bottom than at the top?
2. Explain why air pressure decreases as height above the Earth increases.
3. Explain, in terms of pressure, how you are able to drink liquid by using a straw.
4. Fig. 4.1 shows a simple mercury barometer.

a) What occupies the space labelled X?

b) Copy the diagram and show on it the distance which would be measured to find the atmospheric
pressure?
c) If the atmospheric pressure rises, what happens to (a) the mercury level in the tube, (b) the mercury
level in the reservoir?
d) Explain what would happen to the mercury if the barometer is slowly slanted out of the vertical.
5. The oil in a tank is 1.5 m deep and it has a density of 800 kg/m3. What pressure does the oil exert on the
base of the tank, in pascals?
6. A bench top measures 2 m x 1 m. atmospheric pressure is 100 000 Pa. What is the downward force of the air
on the bench top? How many tonnes of air would have this weight? (1 t = 1000 kg) Why does the bench top
not collapse?

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8.0 THERMAL PHYSICS
8.1 MATTER

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass.

8.1.1 Kinetic molecular model of matter
The kinetic theory of matter states that
• All matter is made up of very tiny particles (molecules).
• The particles of matter are in constant, random motion.
• There are forces of attraction between the particles (the force is called a bond). It holds particles together in
solid and liquid. But it is almost negligible in gases.
• There spaces between the molecules.
8.1.2 Intermolecular forces
• Are electromagnetic in nature due to electric and magnetic forces between particles.
• Can either be attractive or repulsive depending on the distance between the particles. If the particles come
closer together than their normal spacing, the force is repulsive and is relatively large to push them apart. If
the separation of the particles is slightly more than their normal spacing, the force is attractive and relatively
large to push them back.
8.1.3 SOLIDS
• Particles are close together and arranged in regular form lattice.
• Most of true solids exist as a regular three dimensional structures called crystals.
• Have definite shapes and volumes
• Each particle has a fixed position in the crystal lattice.
• Particles vibrate slightly from their fixed positions but the intermolecular forces are strong enough to prevent
the molecules from moving out of their positions to other positions.
8.1.4 LIQUIDS
• Particles are little further apart than those in solids
• Particles have no fixed positions.
• Have definite volumes but no definite shapes.
• Have slightly weaker intermolecular forces
• Particles are free to slide over each other in a random motion.

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8.1.5 GASES
• Particles are much further apart (so gases are less dense and can easily be compressed)
• Particles are in continuous motion with high speed in all directions (random motion), completely independent
of one another.
• Intermolecular forces are negligible (almost non-existent) except during collisions.
• Have neither fixed volumes nor fixed shapes (always expand to fill the whole container).

A diagram to illustrate a typical motion of a gas particle

8.2.1 TEMPERATURE AND KINETIC ENERGY

The average of the kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to its temperature in kelvins. Doubling the
kelvin temperature of a gas doubles its molecular energy.
The total energy of molecules consists:-
a). kinetic energy which depends on temperature.
b). potential energy which depends on the force between molecules and the distance in-between.

*NB:- At any instant, different particles have different amount of kinetic energy. On heating, the kinetic energy of
the particles (also their average kinetic energy) increases.
The temperature of a substance is the measure of the average kinetic energy of its particles.
At any given temperature, particles of any two gases have the same kinetic energy but their average speed are not
the same.
8.2.2 Pressure of a gas in terms of molecular forces
Gases consist of large of particles in constant random motion. Gas pressure is a result of force exerted on the
surface of the container walls by the gas particles when they strike walls and rebound.
8.3 GAS LAWS
8.3.1 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
The pressure of a gas increase with in temperature because the particles collide with the container walls:-i) more
frequently each second and ii) with greater force as the increase in temperature increase their kinetic energy.

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 PαT when volume is constant. --------------> Pressure law
P/T = a constant
Pressure law states that:-
“ The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is proportional to its temperature”
8.3.2 PRESSURE AND VOLUME
When the volume of a given mass of a gas is decreased;
a). the particles have less space to move in,
b). so particles collide more frequently each second with the walls,
c). as a result the force and pressure increase.
P α 1/V when temperature is constant --------------------------> Boyle’s law

Boyle’s law states that:-

“The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure, provided the temperature
remains constant”.
8.3.3 VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE
When a gas is heated, its temperature rises as its particles move faster. If pressure of the gas is to remain constant,
the volume must increase so that the number of collisions of the particles with walls does not more frequent and
violent and hence increase the pressure.
VαT when pressure is constant---------------------------------> Charles’ law

8.4 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE OF MOLECULAR MOTION

8.4.1 DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the spreading of a fluid on its own accord and is due to molecular motion. It takes place from region of
high concentration to a region of low concentration.
It is slow process and it continues till the distribution of the molecules is even. Solids do not diffuse through solids but
gases and liquids can diffuse through solids.

The speed of diffusion of a gas depends on:-

a). the speed of its molecules
b). mass of its molecules (light molecules diffuse faster than heavy ones)
*If a small amount of a gas is released into another gas, it will spread much more slowly than it would if it
were released into a vacuum because its molecules will collide with molecules of the other gas.
8.4.2 BROWNIAN MOTION
The random motion of small sized particles in a fluid (such as smoke particles in air) that is seen when viewed
through a microscope. The motion of the particles is due to the collision with fast moving air molecules.
Experiment : Demonstration of Brownian Motion

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Apparatus are set as shown above in a dark room. The smoke cell is filled with smoke from smouldering paper and it
is brightly lit.
On viewing through a microscope, the smoke particles (seen as pin point of light due to light reflected by them) are
seen to move at random (womble). Since there is no wind present in the box, the motion of the smoke particles can
only be due to the collision of air molecules with the smoke particles.
Explanation of Brownian motion using the kinetic theory
Brownian motion is due to the continuous bombardment of tiny smoke particles by numerous air molecules which are
too small to be seen.
The air molecules move with different velocities in different directions. The resultant force on the smoke particles is
therefore unbalanced and irregular in magnitude and directions. This causes the smoke particles to move to a new
position now and then when another unbalanced force acts on it. All these result into the random motion of the
particles.
8.5 QUESTIONS
1 Describe the spacing of molecules and their movement in solids, liquids and gases.
2 What do each of the following statements tell you about the forces between atoms?
a) It is not easy to stretch or compress a metal.
b) If the extension is not too big, a stretched copper wire regains its original length when the stretching force
is removed?
3 A gas is heated in a closed container. What happens to the temperature and to the pressure of the gas?
Explain your answer in terms of molecules.
4 A gas in a closed container is compressed to half its volume. Explain, in terms of molecules, why the pressure
doubles if the temperature is not allowed to change.

5 A bubble of air released from a diver’s helmet under water rises to the surface. As it rises, its diameter
increases. Explain why.
6 Explain the following results.
a) A gas inside a container exerts a pressure on the walls of the container.
b) The pressure increases when the mass of the gas in the container is increased.

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7 Some smoked-filled air is put into a clear plastic box and viewed through a microscope.
a) Describe carefully what is seen through the microscope.
b) Use the molecular model of gases to explain what is seen.
8 The diagram shows the main parts of a bicycle pump with the end blocked up. When a bicycle tyre is pumped
up, the volume of the air trapped in the pump is reduced and its pressure is increased.
a) Explain, in terms of the motion of molecules, why the pressure increases.
b) The volume of air in the pump at start of the stroke is 20 cm3, and the pressure of the air is 1.00 x 105 Pa.
Calculate the pressure when the volume has been reduced to 8.0 cm3 assuming that no air has escaped
from the pump and the temperature of the air is constant.
c) In practice, the temperature of the air increases as it is compressed. Explain why this is so.

8.6 THERMAL EXPANSION

IN SOLIDS
Solids expand when heated and contract on cooling. When a solid is heated, its particles vibrate more vigorously and
faster. So particles are pushed further apart and the solid increase in size hence expands.
And vice versa when cooled
Demonstration of expansion of solids
1). Ball and ring experiment

When the ball and the ring are at the same temperature, the ball fits into the ring and can pass through easily.
Procedure : - Heat the ball strongly several minutes
- Try to pass the ball through the ring
Questions
a) State what will be observed after heating the ball
Answer: the ball no longer passes through the ring

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Conclusion: solids expand when heated.

Expansion IN LIQUIDS

Liquids expand more than solids because the molecules are not tightly bound together as those in solids.

Questions

a) State what will be observed when the flask is heated at the bottom
Answer: the level of the water will rise in the capillary tube

Conclusion: liquids expand when heated

Unusual expansion of water

If we start with water that is warmer than 4 °C, as the water cooled to 4 °C it contracts as any liquid would do. But
surprisingly as it is cooled from 4 °C to 0 °C it expands. Water therefore has a minimum volume (and maximum
density) at 4 °C.

As the water freezes at 0 °C it expands even more. This is why the water pipes burst in very cold weather.

The unusual expansion of water between 4 °C and 0 °C helps the fish to survive in a frozen pond.

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The water at the top cools first, contracts and becomes denser and sinks to the bottom. The less dense water rises to
the surface to be cooled, become denser and then sinks as well. When all the water is 4 °C, the circulation ceases. If
the temperature of the surface water falls below 4 °C the water becomes less dense and remains at the top and
eventually forming a layer of ice of 0 °C. The temperatures in the pond are then as shown above.

*NB:- When water is heated from 0 °C to 4 °C instead of expanding it contracts and also reaches its minimum
volume at 4 °C. From 4 °C upwards it expands as we would expected.

Expansion IN GASES

GASES expand much more than solids and liquids. This is because gas molecules have negligible attractive forces
between them since they are far apart.

Experiment to compare the expansion of water (liquid) and air (gas)

Two identical flasks A and B are filled with water and air. Flasks A and B are at the same time placed into warm
water in a small bowl C.

The water level in flask A is seen to rise very slowly but the coloured pellet in flask B rises up the capillary tube
rapidly. This shows that air expands more faster than water.

The relative order of magnitude of expansion of solids, liquids and gases is 1 : 10 : 100 respectively

Most expansion -------------------------------------------------------------------------> least expansion

Gases liquids solids

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APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

A).Bimetallic strip – it is a device based on the different expansion of solids. It consists of two metal strips of
equal size but different rates (amount) of expansion, e.g. iron and brass. The strips are riveted or welded
together. On heating, the bimetallic strip bends with aluminium on the outside of the curve and copper inside.
This is because the aluminium expands more than copper for the same temperature rise.

Uses of a bimetallic srip

Bimetallic strip is used in
(i) Thermostats to work as electric switch. Thermostats are useful to control
automatically temperature of:

1). Electric iron

2). Electric and gas ovens
3). Waters heaters
4). Refrigerators
5) Bimetallic thermometer, etc.

(ii)Fire alarms
(iii) Car indicator system
*NB;- Some of the above appliances have control knobs. When the control knob is screwed down the
strip has to bend to bend more to break the heating circuit and this needs a higher temperature.

B). Riveting metal plates

Rivets are used to join two sheets of metals very tightly. During riveting, holes are bored in the two sheets, then a
very hot rivet is pushed through and hammered strongly on both sides to make head on each end. The heads hold
the sheets together. As the rivets cools, it contracts and this pulls the sheets even more firmly together.

C).Shrink fitting – This is method to fit axles in gear wheel. An axle which is slightly too large to fit into the gear
wheel is cooled in liquid nitrogen. The axle contracts until it can easily fit into the gear wheel. Then when the
axle warms up later, it expands and this produces a very tight fit between the wheel and the axle.
D). Liquid-in-glass thermometer:- mercury or alcohol expand when heated (or contract when cooled). This
fact is used to measure temperature.
E). Hot air balloon:- propane gas expands and becomes lighter when heated. It fills up a balloon which will
then because of the density difference between the propane inside and air outside will rise upwards and fly

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 around.

8.6.7 PRECAUTIONS AGAINST THERMAL EXPANSION

1). When railway tracks were laid with the ends of individual rails closely and firmly fixed together with no gaps
between, expansion made the tracks buckle.

To allow for expansion and avoid destruction, gaps are left between the end of one rail and the next.

The rails are tapered at each end, then each end overlaps with the end of the next rail. As the rails expand or
contract their ends slide over one another.

2). Steel bridge

One end of the bridge is supported on the rollers and the other end is fixed. As the bridge expands the end on the
rollers can move slightly, enough to avoid any damage to the bridge.
3). Telephone and power-lines:- are hung slightly slack ( too loose) if they are put up in summer to allow for
safe contraction in winter or at night without pulling the poles down or the wire snapping (breaking). If they
are put up in winter, they are tightened up a bit so that they do not become loose (slack) when they expand
in summer or during the day.
4). Tyrebursting:- more common during very hot days. It is caused by the expansion excessive expansion of
air inside the tyre.
5).Water pipe bursts:- due to expansion of water as it freezes.

69
6). Creaking noises in the roofs of buildings:- caused when the corrugated iron sheets slide over each other
as they expand or contract.
7). Freezing of water in the car radiators:- car radiator should have anti-freeze added to it to lower the
freezing point of water.

8.6.8 QUESTIONS
1. A student sets up the apparatus as shown below. When the student holds his hands on the flask, air bubbles
flow out from the bottom of the tube. Explain this, mentioning in your answer the behaviour of the air
molecules. When the student removes his hands from the flask, water goes up the tube to a point higher than it
was before. Explain why this happens.

2. The diagram shows electricity cables that have been put up between their poles on a day when the weather
was quite warm

Why do you think the cables have been left slack?

- so that they don’t contract and break during cold weather

3. Explain why

(a) thick glass vessels often crack if placed in very hot water.
- more expansion outside than inside

(b) a stubborn screw lid on a jar can often be unscrewed after being warmed in hot water.
- screw lid expands more than the jar

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 (c) a bimetallic strip bends when heated
- one metal expands more than the other

(d) water pipes likely to burst during a very cold weather

- water expands when cooled to freezing (below 4C)

4. The diagram shows a bimetallic strip. Given that brass expands more than iron, draw diagrams to show how
the strip will appear:

(a) if it is heated up

(b) if it is cooled down

5. The diagram below shows a thermostat. It contains a bimetallic strip made of brass and steel. When heated,
brass expands more than steel. The bimetallic strip is used to switch the heater off when the temperature
rises above the pre-set value.

(i) When the bimetallic strip is heated the heater is switched off. Explain why.
- Bimetallic strip expands and bends downwards
- Contact opens and no current flows in circuit
(ii) How would you use the control knob to make the heater switch off at a higher temperature?
- Screw the control knob more

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6. The diagram shows a warning system containing a bimetallic strip. The bimetallic strip has two metals X and
Y firmly joined together.

(a) Explain how and why

(i) lamp B lights when the temperature of the strip increases by 20 °C.
- metal x expands more than y and strip bends to the right and close the contact
(ii) lamp A lights when the temperature falls by 20 °C.
- metal x contracts more than y and strip bends to the left and close the contact
(b) State what effect moving the metal contacts nearer to the bimetallic strip would have on the warning
system.

- the system will warn at a change in temperature less than 20 C( at increase or decrease of
temperature less than 20C)

7. A glass bottle was heated. State whether the following properties were unchanged, decreased or increased.
(a) mass of the bottle
(b) density of the bottle
(c) external diameter of the bottle
(d) volume inside the bottle.

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8.7 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

8.7.1 Temperature can be defined as the measure of the degree of hotness or

coldness of a body. The temperature is measured using a thermometer.
Thermometers make use of some physical properties that change linearly/uniformly with temperature
to make measurements. These properties could be referred to as thermometric properties.
Examples:

TYPE OF THERMOMETER PHYSICAL PROPERTY

Liquid-in-glass thermometer Thermal expansion

Thermocouple thermometer Electric current/ e.m.f

Platinum resistance thermometer Variation in electrical resistance of platinum wire

Gas-volume thermometer Change in pressure of a gas

8.7.2 Liquid-in-glass thermometer

• LABORATORY (LAB) THERMOMETER

Main features:-

• A thin capillary tube/bore

• A bulb with a thin glass wall

• A liquid in bulb (alcohol, mercury)

• A vacuum above the liquid in the capillary tube

Heat is transferred to the liquid inside bulb by conduction and radiation through the glass wall. After
some time the heat will reach the liquid. The heat is transferred through the liquid by convection. The
glass and the liquid will begin to expand. The liquid rises up the column of the capillary bore because it
expands faster than the glass.

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Thermometric liquid

The liquid should have the following properties:

• It should have a linear expansion when heated

• It should be a liquid over a wide range of temperatures and expands by large amounts.

• It should not wet i.e. should not stick to the glass.

NB: Alcohol should be coloured to make it visible through glass.

Comparing alcohol and mercury as thermometric liquids

• Alcohol

• Its expansion is about six times that of mercury

• Has lower freezing point (about -122 °C) so can be used in very cold temperature region.

Disadvantages

• Has a lower boiling point (78° C)

• Colourless so it always needs to be coloured for it to work as thermometric liquid.

• Mercury

• is opaque so it can easily be seen

• does not vaporises easily

• conducts heat rapidly

• does not wet the glass (does not cling to the walls of the capillary bore)

• it has a higher boiling point (375 ° C)

Disadvantages

• it has a higher freezing point (-39 ° C) so it is not suitable to measure low temperatures
in very cold regions

• poisonous

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Calibrating or graduating a thermometer

This is a process of marking a scale on a thermometer. Calibrating a thermometer in degrees celsius

(Celsius scale of temperature) involves several stages.

• First, the lower and upper fixed points must be marked on the scale. Fixed points are standard
temperatures which their values are known and fixed. Lower fixed point (or ice point) is defined
as the temperature at which pure ice melts at sea level and its value is taken to be 0 °C. The
upper fixed point (steam point) is the temperature of steam above boiling water at standard
atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg and is taken to be 100 °C.

• Determining the fixed points experimentally

• LOWER FIXED POINT (L.F.P)

• Place the thermometer in crushed pure melting ice placed in a funnel above a beaker.

• The mercury thread falls and eventually stabilises at one point. That point represents the
L.F.P.

• Mark on the stem against the level of the mercury thread and label it 0 °C.

• UPPER FIXED POINT (U.F.P)

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 • Next, place the thermometer in the steam above boiling water in a flask.

• Allow the mercury thread to rise until it stabilises at a particular point. That point represents
U.F.P.

• Mark against the level of mercury thread on the stem and label it 100 °C.

• Measure the distance between L.F.P and U.F.P and divide the space into 100 equal divisions.
Each division is equal to 1 °C.

NOTE: When using a thermometer without scale marks but only with lower fixed point and
upper fixed point marked, one may use the following equation to find the value of temperature
for any given length of the column.

Examples #1.

A student puts the bulb of an unmarked liquid-in-glass thermometer into melting ice, then into steam
above boiling water and finally into sea-water. Each time she waits until the liquid level is steady and
then marks the level. The diagram shows the liquid levels measured from the bulb. What is the
temperature of the sea-water?

79
Data: X0 = 2 cm, Xθ = 4 cm, X100 = 12 cm, θ = temp. of sea-water, ∆T = 100 °C

1o cm:100C

1cm:10C

Difference from ice to sea water is 4cm-2cm=2cm

Therefore sea water temp = 2 x10C

= 20 °C

Example #2.

Find temperature X

= 60 °C

Example #3

Find temperature X

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 12 cm : 120 C

1 cm : 10 C

= 60 °C

• CLINICAL THERMOMETER

Clinical thermometer is designed to measure human temperature. It has the following features:-

• Thin-walled glass bulb

• Narrow capillary bore

• Constriction in the capillary just above the bulb

• Short temperature range (35 °C – 42 °C).

• Vacuum above the mercury

EXPLANATION OF PURPOSE OF DIFFERENT FEATURES

• A vacuum – allow free movement of the mercury inside the capillary bore.

• Glass bulb with thin wall allows heat to pass quickly into the mercury. Even though the glass bulb of a
clinical thermometer is smaller than that of a laboratory thermometer, but in relation to its bore, it is
large and this improves its sensitivity.

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 • Narrow capillary makes the thermometer sensitive to small changes in temperature.

• Constriction prevents back flow of mercury before a reading is taken. The mercury above will be trapped
and this allows the nurse to take accurate reading from the thermometer. When the reading is taken the
thermometer is shaken/flicked carefully so that mercury moves back into the bulb.

• Short temperature range- this is so because the normal body temperature is 37 °C and does not vary
much from this value. With a few degrees marked on the scale, the distance between unit degrees is
greater and this makes the thermometer very sensitive and easy to read accurately.

• Lastly the stem of the clinical thermometer is specially shaped, it has a triangular cross-section. This shape
produces a lens effect which would magnifies the bore and make it more visible for easy reading.

• Uses only mercury because it is quick responding since it has a low specific heat capacity and great
conductivity.

Question :- Why should we not put a clinical thermometer inside boiling water?

Answer :- Temperature of boiling water is 100 °C but the maximum temperature that can be read by a clinical
thermometer is only 42 °C. So if sterilized in boiling water, the large expansion of mercury will cause the
thermometer to break.

8.7.3 SENSITIVITY, RANGE AND LINEARITY

SENSITIVITY OF A THERMOMETER:- refers to its ability to detect even small changes in temperature. It can also be
defined in terms of the distance between unit degrees marked on the scale. For a very sensitive thermometer, the
degrees are far apart and are close together for less sensitive thermometer. Sensitivity depends on the following:-

• Bulb :- if the bulb is small, heat will be distributed quickly throughout the whole liquid and the liquid will
expand quickly. But the bulb needs to be large in relation to the size of the bore for higher sensitivity.

Thermometer A with a large bulb and a narrow bore is more sensitive than thermometer B with a small
bulb but wide bore.

• Thickness of the glass wall:- bulb should be made of thin walled glass for heat to easily reach the liquid in
the bulb

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 C D

Thermometer C with a thin glass wall responds quickly because heat passes quickly through the thin glass
to the liquid inside. Thermometer D with a thick glass wall responds slowly because heat passes slowly
through the thick glass to the liquid.

• Width of the bore:- for higher sensitivity the bore of the thermometer should be very thin (narrow) so
that a small expansion of the liquid can result in a larger change in the position of the level of the mercury
(length of mercury thread) inside the thermometer.

e.g. If a column of a thermometer increases by 10 mm for every 2 °C increase in temperature, what is the
sensitivity of the thermometer?

Sensitivity = 10 mm/2 °C = 5 mm/°C

RANGE OF A THERMOMETER:- is the temperature interval (value of the lowest temperature and highest
temperature) that can be measured by a thermometer.

e.g. A clinical thermometer; range = 35 °C – 42 °C

A laboratory thermometer; range = -10 °C – 110 °C

The range of the thermometer also depends on the size of the bulb and the width of the bore:- If the bore is small
relative to the size of the bulb, the thermometer will be able to measure a wide range of temperature.

The range of a thermometer is also affected by the length of the stem. Thermometers with long stem have large
ranges whilst those with shorter stems have smaller ranges.

Summary of the effects of bulb size and bore width on range and sensitivity

Range Sensitivity

Volume Large low high

of bulb
Small high low

Width Wide high low

of bore
Narrow Low high

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LINEARITY OF TEMPERATURE SCALE

It refers to whether the temperature degree marks are uniformly/equally spaced on the scale.

Linear scale: temperature scale on the thermometer should have equal temperature divisions of equal
size/length/spacing (equal temperature differences equally spaced). This is so because change in temperature is
proportional to change in the length of the liquid column (or any thermometric property).

But for the temperature scale to be linear, the tube must have a uniform diameter.

8.7.4 THERMOCOUPLE THERMOMETER

This is an electrical thermometer. A simple thermocouple is made from three pieces of two kinds of wires with
some of their ends twisted together to form junctions and the free ends connected to a sensitive galvanometer.
The wires can be arranged so that they alternate, e.g. Cu – Ni – Cu or Ni – Cu – Ni

To use the thermometer, one junction X (cold junction) must be put into melting ice. The other junction Y (hot
junction) is placed into the body of substance of which its temperature is to be measured, e.g. warm water.
Difference in temperatures at the two junctions induces an e.m.f (voltage) across the junctions which causes the
current to flow through the circuit. This will result with a deflection on the sensitive galvanometer.

Note:

• The deflection is greater when the temperature difference is greater.

• If the temperature of both junctions is the same then no voltage is produced.

Advantages of a thermocouple

• A thermocouple responds quickly to temperature changes, because metal wires are good conductor

of heat and also only a small part can be put into a substance, it can quickly attain the temperature of

of the substance.

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 • A thermocouple can be used to measure very high and very low temperatures (-200 °C – 1500 °C),

e.g. used to measure high temperature inside blast furnaces and car engines.

8.7.5 ABSOLUTE ZERO AND KELVIN SCALE

When the temperature falls, the kinetic energy of its particles fall as well and move more and more slowly. At
lowest temperature that can be reached by the object the particles have the minimum energy possible. This
temperature is known as absolute zero. And its value is taken to be -273 °C or 0 K.

Another temperature scale that is used is the Kelvin scale, in which the temperature is expressed in kelvin (K). One
Kelvin (1 K) has the same size as one degree Celsius (1 °C). The Kelvin scale uses absolute zero as its zero (0 K).

The Kelvin and Celsius scales can be connected by the equation below:

T = θ + 273

where T = temperature in kelvin (K)

θ = temperature in degree Celsius (°C)

E.G.

Absolute zero Melting point Boiling water

Celsius scale -273 °C 0 °C 100 °C

Kelvin scale 0K 273 K 373 K

#2 Convert a) 50 °C to K

b) 100 K to °C

ANSW: a) Data: θ = 50 °C, T = ?

T = θ + 273

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 = 50 + 273

= 323 K

b) Data: T = 100 K, θ = ?

T = θ + 273

THEN θ = T -273

= 100 K – 273

= 173 °C

8.7.6 QUESTIONS

1. The scale on a thermometer used for measuring the temperature includes two fixed points. What are the

values of these?

Explain why the length of the mercury thread changes when the temperature rises?

- mercury expands and moves along the capillary tube

2. (a) A clinical thermometer, used to measure human body temperature has a constriction just above the
bulb, why is the constriction necessary?
- to prevent back flow of mercury before reading is taken

(b) The clinical thermometer temperature is 35 °C – 42 °C, why is the range made to be so small?

- this is so because the normal body temperature is 37 °C and does not vary much from this value

(d) How is the thermometer made very sensitive?

- Large bulb
- Thin capillary tube

3. The diagram shows a laboratory thermometer.

(a) Name the substance labelled A.

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 (b) Name the section labelled B.

(c) Why is part C of the tube enlarged?

(d) Is the wall of the tube marked D thin or thick? Explain why it is so.

(e) Using a well-labelled diagram, describe how you would check the accuracy of the point marked 0 °C on

the thermometer.

4. (a) Convert these to kelvin (K): i) 27 °C ii) -3 °C iii) 150 °C iv) -90 °C.

(b) Convert these to degrees Celsius (°C): i) 373 K ii) 200 K iii) 1000 K.

5. The scale of a mercury-in-glass thermometer is linear. One such thermometer has a scale extending from

-10 °C to 110 °C. The length of that scale is 240 mm.

(a) What is meant by the statement that the scale is linear?

- It refers to the temperature degree marks being uniformly/equally spaced on the scale

(b) Calculate the distance moved by the end of the mercury thread when the temperature of the

thermometer rises

(i) from 0.0 °C to 1.0 °C

(ii) from 1.0 °C to 100 °C.

6. A mercury thermometer is calibrated by immersing it in turn in melting ice and then boiling water. The

column of the mercury is respectively 2.0 cm and 22.0 cm long. What would be temperature reading when

the column is 7.0 cm long?

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8.8 MELTING AND BOILING
8.8.1 Whenever a substance undergoes a phase change (boils, melts or condenses, etc) energy is taken away
or added to the substance. But surprisingly there is no temperature change during a phase change.

*Phase – refers to a state in which a substance (matter) can exist.

8.8.2 Melting
Melting is a process in which a substance changes its state from solid to liquid and the reverse process (liquid to
solid) is called freezing or solidification.

When a pure solid melts it stays at the same, definite temperature is called its melting point and it also solidifies
at the very same temperature (now it would be called its freezing point). During melting or freezing, the temperature
does notchange even though the substance continues to gain or lose (heat) energy. The energy gained is used to
re-arrange the particles/molecules/atoms of the substance.

The heat absorbed by the substance during melting or given out during solidification is called latent heat of
fusion. The energy is used to overcome the attractive forces between the particles that keep them in their fixed
positions. Latent heat changes the state of the substance without change in the temperature (“latent” literally means
hidden)

8.8.2 Boiling

Boiling is a process in which the substance changes state from liquid to gas and the reverse process is called
condensation (gas -----> liquid).

If the energy is supplied to a liquid, e.g. water, its temperature rises until it boils. During boiling the temperature of
water remains constant. The temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas by boiling is called its boiling point. As
water turns into steam, the energy supplied does not cause a rise in temperature instead is used to enable molecules
to break the attractive forces holding the particles together. The energy absorbed and used to change a liquid to a
gas without changing the temperature of the substance is called latent heat of vaporisation. The latent heat of
vaporization is given out during condensation to change a gas to a liquid.

8.8.3 PLOTTING A GRAPH OF TEMPERATURE AGAINST TIME

1) BOILING CURVE

When ice at a temperature below 0 °C, say -10 °C is allowed to warm up slowly, its temperature will rise to 0 °C and
remain constant until all the ice has melted. The temperature will begin to rise up to 100 °C where it remains constant
until all the water has vapourised into steam and the temperature of the steam will rise above 100 °C.

MELTING

BOILING

88
2 COOLING CURVE

We can also plot a graph of temperature against time (boiling curve) when the steam of temperature above
100 °C.

steam

Freezing/solidification

condensation

ice

water + ice

water

Water + steam

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8.9 Evaporation

8.9.1 It is the process in which a liquid changes into a gas at a temperature below its boiling point. All molecules
do not have the same energy. During evaporation, molecules with greater energy than others and are
nearer to the surface escape into the space above the liquid

*Liquids which evaporate and boil at low temperatures are called volatile liquids.

8.9.2 Factors increasing the rate of evaporation.

a). Temperature of the surrounding

At higher temperature, molecules gain more energy and move faster and time for them to reach the surface
decrease. Therefore a larger number of molecules can escape from the surface.

b). Surface area

If the surface area is large, more molecules will evaporate because more molecules are near the surface and also
there is more room for them to escape.

c). Humidity

When the humidity is high (i.e. water vapour is present in air in greater proportion) the molecules which escaped from
the liquid collide with the water molecules in the atmosphere, so some of the escaped liquid molecules will return into
the liquid.

d). Draught (wind) over the surface

If wind blows over the surface of the liquid, the escaped molecules from the surface of the liquid will be rapidly carried
away by the draught and thus reducing the possibility of their return into the liquid.

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8.9.3 Cooling by evaporation

During evaporation, the high energy molecules escape from the liquid leaving the low energy molecules behind.
Therefore the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules decreases. This lowers the temperature of the liquid
because the temperature of a substance is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules.

8.9.4 Some applications of evaporation

i). Cooling our bodies- your body sweats in hot weather, as the sweat evaporates it takes in latent heat from
your body and cools it, this helps get rid of excessive internal energy.

ii)In refrigerators and freezers

Refrigerator has sealed system of thin pipes with compressor, a condenser and an evaporator. A volatile liquid (such
as Freon or ammonia) known as refrigerant is pumped through the coiled pipes around the freezer compartment in
the top of the refrigerator. The refrigerant evaporates and takes latent heat from its surroundings, producing cooling
inside the refrigerator. A pump is used to draw the vapour (so reducing its pressure, loweing its boiling point and
encouraging further evaporation and removing more from the refrigerator) and then forces it into the heater
exchanger at the rear of the refrigerator. Here the vapour is compressed. It liquefies, giving out latent heat of
vapourisation into the surrounding air. The liquid, now at room temperature, returns to the coils, returns to the coils in
the freezer and the cycle is repeated.

iii). In air conditioners

It works in the same way, but on a larger. The refrigerant liquid evaporates in the coil inside the building and extracts
latent heat from the air in the room, cooling it down. The resulting vapour then condenses under pressure in the coil
outside the house releasing the latent heat to the outside air.

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8.9.5 Evaporation and Boiling

During boiling, the average k.e. of particles is high enough for some groups of particles to form separate bubbles of
vapour throughout the liquid, these bubbles will be seen moving rapidly and will burst at the surface during boiling. At
the boiling point, some of the particles near the surface gain enough energy to escape from the liquid. These
escaping particles form vapour above the surface of the liquid. This is evaporation.

Differences and similarities between boiling and evaporation

Both processes involve a change in state from liquid to gas, but evaporation is not the same as boiling.

A). Differences

Boiling Evaporation

1). quick 1). Slow

2). Occurs at only one temperature – boiling point 2). Occurs at all temperatures

3). Occurs throughout the whole body of the liquid 3). Occurs only at the surface

4). Bubbles seen 4). Nothing visible happens (no bubbles)

5). Source of energy is needed 5). Energy supplied by the surroundings

6). Boiling point increases with increase pressure 6). Rate of evaporation decrease with increase in
pressure

7). Decrease with increase in altitude 7). No effects

B). Similarities

1). Both form vapour

2). Both take place in liquids

3) Both occur as a result of increase of k.e in the molecules

4) Latent heat of vapourisation is needed for both processes

8.10 QUESTIONS

1. A boy has been swimming in a pool. He comes out of the water onto hot sunshine but he feels cold until he
has dried himself. Why did he feel cold when he was still wet?

2. Table shows the melting points and boiling points of four substances. Which state are the substances in at
room temperature (say 15 °C)?

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 Substance Melting point / °C Boiling point / °C

A -73 -10
B -39 357
C 17 118
D 29 669

b) For which substance(s) would the state change on a warm day?

3. A large piece of ice is taken from a refrigerator has a temperature of -2 °C. Its temperature is measured as it
is warmed. Sketch a graph to show how its temperature changes with time until the water is boiling.

4. The diagram below is the outline of a heat pump system. A suitable refrigerating liquid or its vapour is
circulated round a loop of pipes. In one part of the loop (the compressor) the vapour condenses into liquid; in
another part (the expansion valve) the liquid evaporates. Explain what transfer of thermal energy (heat)
occurs (i) when a liquid evaporates and (ii) when a liquid condenses.

5. The graph shows how the temperature of a pure substance changes as it is heated.

(a) At what temperature does the substance boil?

(b) On the graph, mark with an X any point where the substance exists as both a liquid and gas at the same

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 time.

(c) i) All substances consists of particles. What happens to the average kinetic energy of these particles as
the substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
ii) Explain, in terms of particles, why energy must be given to a liquid if it is to change to a gas.

6. The graph below shows how the temperature of some liquid in a beaker changed as it was heated until it was
boiling.

(a) What was the boiling point of the liquid?

(b) State and explain what difference, if any, there would be in the final temperature if the liquid was heated
more strongly.

(c) State two differences between boiling and evaporation.

8.11.1 HEAT CAPACITY

Same amount of heat transferred to different objects does not cause the same temperature in each of them.

Experiments show that:

• The temperature change is inversely proportional to the mass of the object which is heated.

∆T α 1/m

• The temperature change differs from material to material. For any one material (e.g. water, iron,

mercury, copper, etc.) exists a constant, C. For objects of the same mass;

94
 ∆T α 1/C

The constant C is called heat capacity of an object. Heat capacity, C, is the quantity of heat which is required to
raise the temperature of an object by 1 °C or 1 K.

SI Unit is joule per celsius (J/°C or J °C-1) OR joule per kelvin (J/K or J K-1).

From the definition, mathematically heat capacity can be expressed as:-

C = Q/∆T

Which means that;

Q = C∆T -----------------------------------------> (1)

Where Q = amount of heat transferred/supplied to the object in joules (J)

∆T = change in temperature (final temp Tf - initial temp Ti) in °C or K

C = heat capacity in J/°C or J/K

8.11.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Specific heat capacity, c, of a material is the quantity of heat which must be supplied to a mass of 1 kg of that
material to raise its temperature by 1 °C or 1 K. Its SI unit is joule per kilogram per degree celsius( J/kg/°C or J kg-1
°C-1 or J/(kg °C)) OR joule per kilogram per kelvin (J kg-1 K-1)

Specific heat capacity is in fact heat capacity per unit mass, which means that

c = C/m ----------------------------------------> (2)

substituting eqn (1) above into the equation (2) we have

c= (Q/∆T)/m

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which follows that Q = mc∆T

where Q = amount of heat transferred or supplied in joules (J)

m = mass of the material in kg

c = specific heat capacity of the material in J kg-1 °C-1 or J kg-1 K-1

∆T = change in temperature

*Note that the symbol for the specific heat capacity is c, not C. C is the symbol for heat capacity.

∆T = |∆T|, this means ∆T should always be positive even if Tf is less than Ti

Problems

#1Find the specific heat capacity of the liquid given that:

• energy transferred = 12 209 J

• mass of liquid = 0.8 kg

• original temperature = 26.8 °C

• final temperature = 33.0 °C

Answ Data: Q = 12209 J, m = 0.8 kg, Ti = 26. 8 °C, Tf= 33.0 °C, c =?

Q = mc∆T

c = Q/m∆T

= 12209/(0.8(33.0 – 26.8))

= 301 600 J

#2. Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of brass from 10 °C to 90 °C. Specific heat
capacity of brass = 377 J kg-1 °C-1.

Answ:

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Data:- m = 10 kg, Ti= 10 °C, Tf = 90 °C, c = 377 J kg-1 °C-1, Q=?

Q = mc∆T

= 10 x 377 x (90 – 10)

= 301 600 J

#3 A kettle containing 1 kg of water (c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1) is placed on top of an electric heater of power 1000 W. It
takes 5 min for the water temperature to rise from 20 °C to 90 °C. Find:

• the energy released by the heater

• the energy absorbed by the water. Account for any losses in energy

Answ:

• Data:- P = 1000 W, t = 5 min = 300 s, Q=?

Q = E = Pt

= 1000 x 300

= 300 000 J

• Data:- m = 1 kg, c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1, Q = ?

Q = mc∆T

= 1 x 4200 x (90 – 20)

= 294 000 J

6000 J of energy are lost to the surroundings and cointainer by conduction, convection and radiation.

#4 If 2 kg of water cools from 70 °C to 20 °C, how much thermal energy does it lose?

Answ:

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DATA:- m = 2 kg, Ti = 70 °C, Tf= 20 °C, c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1, Q =?

Q = mc∆T

= 2 x 4200 x (70 – 20)

= 420 000 J.

#5 In an experiment, 920 000 J of energy is transferred to 2 kg of iron (c = 460 J kg-1 °C-1). The initial temperature of
iron is 25 °C. What is the final temperature of the iron?

Answ:

Data:- Q = 920 000 J, m = 2 kg, Ti = 25 °C, c = 460 J kg-1 °C-1

Q = mc(Tf – Ti)

Tf = (Q/mc) + Ti

= 920 000/(2 x 460) + 25

= 1000 + 25

= 1 025 °C

8.11.3 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

The specific latent heat of vaporization LV of a substance is the amount of heat needed to change mass of 1 kg of a
liquid to vapour without change its temperature. It measured in J/kg or J/g

Q = mLV where Q = energy supplied (J)

m = mass of the liquid (kg)

LV = sp. Lat. Heat of vaporization (J/kg)

8.11.4 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

It is the amount of heat needed to convert mass of 1 kg of a solid to liquid without temperature change. It is
measured in J/kg or J/g.

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 Q = mLf where Q = heat supplied (J)

m = mass of the solid (kg)

Lf = sp. Lat. Heat of fusion (J/kg)

8.12 QUESTIONS

1. A heater supplies 42 J of energy every second (its power is then 42 W). It is used to heat some water. The

temperature rises by 5 °C in 100 seconds. What is the heat capacity of the water? A boy says it would take

times as long to raise the temperature to 50 °C. Is he right? Explain ypur answer.

2. A beaker of oil and a beaker of water are heated on the same electric hot plate. The beaker of oil has a

lower thermal capacity than the beaker of water. What can you say about how the temperatures change?

3. The heat capacity of a thermocouple is mall. Give two advantages which result from this.

4. What is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance?

5. Calculate the energy lost by 2.5 kg of steam at 100 °C when it condenses, cools down to 0 °C and solidifies

at that temperature.

Specific latent heat of steam = 2 260 000 J/kg

Specific latent capacity of water = 4200 J/(kg °C)

Specific latent heat of water = 336 000 J/kg

6. A heater raises the temperature of 1.25 kg of water by 20 °C in 30 seconds. The specific heat capacity of

water is 4200 J/(kg °C). Calculate an approximate value for the power of the heater. Use this value for the

power to calculate M, the mass of water boiled away each second when the temperature reaches 100 °c.

Assume that the specific latent heat of vapourisation of water is 2.26 x 106 J/kg. Explain whether the actual

99
 rate at which water is boiled away is greater than or less than M

7. Explain why a drink is cooled more by ice than by the same mass of water at 0 °C.

8. It takes 80 000 J of heat to raise the temperature of 500 g of porridge from 20 °C to 50 °C. Calculate the

specific heat capacity of porridge.

9. An experiment was conducted to measure the specific latent of fusion. Ice was placed in a funnel and

heated for a fixed time. The water from the melted ice was collected in a beaker as shown in the diagram.

The mass of the empty beaker was 50 g.

A 100 W heater was used to heat the ice for 2 min. After the jeater was switched off the mass of the

beaker and the melted ice was 83 g. Use the results to calculate a value for L f, the specific latent heat of

fusion of ice. Explain why your answer is different from the accepted value of 340 J g -1.

8.13 HEAT TRANSFER/ TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

8.13.1 Heat/thermal energy is always transferred from place at a high temperature to place at a lower

temperature.

There are three common methods or ways by which heat can be transferred, viz:-

(i) conduction

(ii) Convection

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 (iii) radiation

8.13.2 Conduction

This is flow of heat through a substance from places of higher temperature to those of lower temperature without
any movement/flow of the substance (matter) as a whole. It is a main method of heat transfer in solids and heat
can be conducted in all directions.

1. Molecular explanation of conduction in a solid

When one end of a metal rod is heated, the particles (atoms/molecules) in portion nearest to the source of heat,
gain more kinetic energy and start to vibrate faster and more vigorously. These atoms collide with the neighbours
and pass on some of their energy during those collisions. The neighbours will also begin to vibrate faster and will in
turn transmit the energy to the surrounding atoms. The chain process continues until all the particles are affected
and the whole substance is heated even the farthest parts.

2. Good and bad conductors

Most solids are good conductors of heat. Liquids and gases are bad conductors. Bad conductors of heat are called
thermal insulators.

Experiment #1: To demonstrate that different metals conduct heat at different rates

101
Procedure:

• Stick a pin to each piece of metal with candle wax

• Pour boiling water into the pan.

Note: In the experiment the following should be done

• Length of all the metal rods should be the same

• All the metal rods have the same thickness (cross-sectional area)

• Pins attached at the ends of the metal rods should be identical and have equal weights

• Metals should be placed into the hot water to same length to ensure equal distribution of heat to all

the metals.

Observation:

The pin attached to the copper falls off first followed by that attached to the aluminium, then zinc and lastly iron.

Conclusion: copper conducts heat fastest and iron slowest.

All four metals can be listed in order of the rate of conduction as follows:- copper, aluminium, zinc, iron.

Experiment #2: To show that wood is a poor conductor of heat.

Apparatus are arranged as follows

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Observation

When the rod is passed through the flame several times, paper over the wood scorches (burns) but not that over
brass.

Explanation: The brass conducts heat away from the paper very quickly, and prevents it from reaching the
temperature at which it can burn. But the wood conducts heat away slowly and hence more heat builds on the
paper, enough to make it burn.

Note: Metal objects below body temperature feel colder to touch than those made of non-metals because metals
conduct heat away from the hand faster.

Experiment #3: To show that liquids are poor conductors of heat.

Procedure:

• Wrap an ice cube in a metal gauge and place it at the bottom of a boiling tube filled with water.

• Heat the water at the top using a low Bunsen flame.

Observation: The water starts to boil at the top before all the ice at the bottom has liquefied (melted).

Reason: Heat is slowly conducted from the top of the boiling tube to the bottom of the tube. Therefore the ice
melts very slowly. This shows that water is a poor conductor of heat.

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Note:

• Metals are good conductors of heat because they have a large number of free moving electrons.

As the electrons travel over the piece of metal, they take some heat with them. So in metals heat is

transferred by electrons and also by the vibrations of the atoms.

• On the other hand insulators conduct heat slowly because they have very few free moving electrons

and also their particles are less closely packed together and so they collide less frequently.

• Conduction of heat requires a medium and hence it cannot take place in a vacuum (therefore this

means a vacuum is the best insulator/worst thermal conductor)

3. Applications of conduction – uses of good and bad conductors.

Good conductors of heat are mostly metals. They are used where heat needs to be transferred very quickly. Good
conductors (metals) are often used to make:-

• Bases of cooking utensils (kettles, saucepans, pots, etc)

• Base of laundry irons

• Bits of soldering irons

• Branding irons

• Dehorning irons, etc.

Poor conductors of heat are mostly non-metals (e.g. air, wood, glass, water, etc). They are used where heat is to be
insulated. Poor conductors are used to make:-

• The handles of cooking utensils, soldering, soldering iron, laundry iron and many other heating

appliances

• Clothes – cloth is made up of fibres. The fibres trap small pockets of air. The trapped air helps to

reduce heat loss by conduction.

b). Other materials which trap air like fur, polystyrene, fibre glass, foam/sponge are used for lagging to insulate

water pipes, hot water cylinders, oven, refrigerators and also used in house roof insulation and cavity wall

insulation to prevent or reduce the rate of heat flow in our house. And air trapped between two window

panes is used in double glazing insulation method in our homes.

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8.13.3 Convection

It is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward movement of warmer, less dense parts of
fluid. This movement is actually caused by the difference in densities in different parts of the fluid.

When a fluid, (e.g. water or air) is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the colder surrounding fluid.
Therefore it floats or rises upwards and is replaced by colder dense fluid which sinks down to take its place. That
fluid will be heated too and in turn rises upwards. At the top, the warm fluid cools, becomes denser and begins to
sink down where it will be re-heated and rises again. Thus, a circulating movement sets up in the liquid until the
whole fluid is at the same temperature. These circulating parts of the fluid are called convection currents.

*Convection can also be used to cool a substance. When fluid is cooled, molecules contracts and becomes denser.
The cool, dense fluid sinks and is replaced by warmer fluid which will be cooled and sinks as well. And this
produces convection currents which cool the liquid.

Experiment #1: To demonstrate convection in liquids.

The two sets of apparatus can be used

Observation

Purplish stream of water is seen rising upwards to the top. At the top the stream changes its direction of motion
and now sinks to the bottom.

*This movement is represented by the arrows drawn on the diagrams above. The arrows also show the direction
of the convection current.

Discussion

The liquid nearest to the heat source expands. This lessens its density. The less dense liquid floats and rises up.
More dense, cold liquid moves in to take its place.

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Experiment #2: To show convection in air

The arrows on the diagram show the direction followed by the smoke.

Explanation:

The air around the candle flame becomes hot and expands. It becomes less dense and rises. Cool, denser air moves
over to the candle to take the place of the air that has risen up. This causes cool air from outside to enter the box
carrying the smoke with it.

Application of convection

• Water heating system (geyser)

• The cold water comes into the system at the bottom and is heated by the heat element

• Water expands, becomes less dense and rises up

• It is replaced by more cold water to heated and the convection current is set to heat all the water in
the tank.

• The hot water pipe is near the top because hot water would always be at the top.

106
 • If the water cools whilst at the top, it sinks to the bottom to be heated again.

• Overflow pipe is included to prevent build up of vapour which will increase pressure inside the tank
and cause some explosions or cause some airlocks inside the water pipes.

• The car cooling system

The arrows on the diagram show the flow of the water

• The petrol burns in the engine cylinders.

• Water surrounding the engine cylinders becomes hot.

• Hot water rises to the top of the radiator by convection

• Heat is passed from the water to the copper radiator by conduction.

• Heat is passed to the air from the radiator by conduction, convection and radiation.

• The cool water flows from the lower end of the radiator back into the engine and the whole re-start
and thus the convection currents are set.

• In electrical kettles, heating elements are placed at the bottom to allow for all the water to be heated by
convection or convection currents. Also to allow for a radiator or heater to warm up a house by
convection, it should be placed very low near the floor.

• But when an air conditioner is installed, it is placed up near to the roof so that when convection currents
are set would move down and cool the entire house and the same principle is used in refrigerators so that
its inside could be cooled by convection currents.

8.13.4 Radiation

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 This is a way of transferring heat in form of invisible heat waves. This is how heat travels from the sun to
the Earth. The heat waves (radiant heat) are called infrared radiation (E.M WAVES)

Note:

• Heat can be transferred by radiation through a vacuum or a transparent medium

• All objects give out some infrared radiation and the hot objects give out more radiation compare
to cool ones.

• Warm or hot objects (at higher temperature than the surrounding) will emit the radiation
whereas cool objects (at lower temperature) will usually absorb the radiation from the
surrounding.

Experiment #1: Investigating good and bad absorbers of radiant energy (infrared)

• The apparatus are set up as shown above with a pin attached to back each of the above two
objects (one with dark/black surface and the other with bright/shiny/silver surface). The candle
should be equidistant from both objects for equal radiation to either object.

Observation:

The pin attached to the dark surface fall off first showing that the dark or black surface absorbs
radiant heat from the candle more quickly than the bright surface.

Conclusion: Dark surfaces are good absorbers of radiation whilst bright (shiny, white or silvery)
surfaces are bad absorbers.

In fact the dull black surface is the best absorber while a white or silvery polished surface is the worst
absorber because it is a good reflector of radiation.

Experiment #2: Investigating good and bad emitters of radiant heat.

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 • The two flasks in the diagram above with boiling water are allowed to cool.

• It is observed that temperature falls more rapidly for the thermometer in the flask with a dark
(black) surface and slower for the thermometer in a flask with a bright/shiny surface.

• This shows that blackened surface loses heat more quickly than the silvered or shiny one.

Conclusion: dark colours emit radiant heat more quickly than bright colours, i.e. dark surfaces are good
emitters of radiant heat whereas bright surface a bad emitters. The best emitter is a dull black surface
while a silvery polished surface is the worst. However, all surfaces emit more radiation as they get hotter.

*NB: Dark surfaces are both good absorbers and bad emitters of radiation. Generally good absorbers are
also good emitters whereas bad absorbers are bad emitters as well.

Applications of thermal Radiation

• Pots and kettles have shiny outer surfaces to prevent them from emitting radiant heat quickly
and make their contents cold.

• Houses in hot climates and petroleum tankers are often painted with bright paint to reduce
absorption of radiant. For the same reason white (or bright coloured) clothes are cooler to wear
in summer because they reflect much of the heat and dark coloured or black clothes are ideal for
cold weather to keep you warm.

• Curved surfaces on electric are made of shiny metal to reflect heat

• The cooling fins on the back of a refrigerator are black so that they lose heat more readily

• Marathon runners, at the end of a race, wrap themselves in shiny blankets to prevent them from
cooling down too quickly.

• The surface of a black bitumen road gets far hotter on a sunny day than the surface of a white
concrete one.

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8.13.5 SOME CONSEQUENCES OF HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURE

• Land and Sea Breezes

Diagram 1 Diagram 2

During a daytime the land gets hotter than the sea. The warm air rises upwards and is replaced by
cool air that blows from the sea towards the land. This sets up some convection currents known as
Sea Breezes (diagram 1).

But, at night the land loses heat faster than sea. Now the warmer air over the sea rises and then is
replaced by cool air that blows from the land to the sea and sets up convection currents that will be
called Land Breezes (diagram 2).

• Cyclones

• Usually air above warm parts of sea will be warmed as well.

• The warm air rises up carrying moisture high into the atmosphere.

• The rotation of Earth causes the airflow to spin.

• This huge spinning mass of moist air is called a cyclone.

• The cyclone causes wet cloudy weather with strong winds.

• If the winds become very strong (120 – 130 km/h) the storm is called a hurricane or a
typhoon.

• Greenhouse Effects

The Earth’s atmosphere contains a small amount of carbon dioxide gas. This has similar effect to the glass
in a greenhouse (read more on this), it allows short wavelength infrared from the Sun to pass through and
get absorbed by the Earth. The Earth becomes warm and now radiates long wavelength infrared
radiation. This radiation is absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapour in the atmosphere and causes
the atmosphere to become warmer. The atmosphere reflects some of the energy back to the Earth. This
process is called greenhouse effect and it helps to keep the Earth warmer.

But extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a result of burning of fossil fuels may add to this effect and
lead to global warming.

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 • Global warming

It results in the temperature of the atmosphere and sea (Earth). That increased temperature causes
melting of the polar ice-caps. This melting results in the rise of the seal level leading to flooding of coastal
areas. Global warming can also lead to some changes in the Earth climate which will cause the
disappearance of some species of plants and animals.

• Days and nights in a desert and desert Breezes

During the day the bare land in the desert absorbs much more heat. Therefore the desert sand
becomes hotter than areas covered by vegetation. Then the wind (breeze) blows from the forest
(area covered by the vegetation) to the desert.

But in nights in a desert are very cold because at night the desert loses heat faster. The warmer air
rises from the forest and a breeze develops from desert to the forest.

8.13.6 A VACUUM (THERMOS) FLASK

It is designed to keep liquids hot or cold by reducing

heat transfer to or from the liquid by the aid of the
following features:

Feature of Reduces transfer Explanation

flask of heat by
...........

Silvered radiation Silvered surfaces

inner and are bad
outer walls absorbers and
emitters of
radiated heat

Vacuum Conduction and Conduction and

between convection convection
walls cannot occur
through a
vacuum

Stopper or lid Convection and The stopper

evaporation traps a layer of
air above the
liquid,

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 Glass walls conduction

8.13.7 SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM

It has the following features:

(i) a solar panel containing a coiled copper tube/pipe and blackened layer on the background. Copper is used

because is a good conductor of heat and also it does not corrode. The tube is coiled to increase the surface

area to increase amount heat absorption. The black surface increases amount of radiation energy

absorbed from the sun as a black colour is a good absorber.

(ii) glass cover – to trap the radiation energy within the panel.

(iii) the pipe carrying heated water from the panel enters at the top of the storage tank. This allows
the heated water to circulate in the tank by convection.

8.13.8 QUESTIONS

1. The metal rod has one end placed in a fire. Explain how heat gradually travels along the rod to a
person’s hand at the other end.

- heated particles gain more k.e. and pass the energy to neighboring particles as they vibrate

2. Why does the door handle feel colder than the wooden door in a cold weather?

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3. The rods A and B are the same thickness but made of different metals. They are coated with wax and
fixed with their ends through the wall of a can. Hot water is poured into the can, and after a short time it
is found that the wax has melted as far as Y on rod B but only as far as X on rod A. Explain why the wax
melts further along B than along A.

4. Heat energy can be transferred from one place to another by the three processes; conduction,
convection and radiation.

(a). Which one of these processes is used to transfer energy by means of the infra-red part of the
electromagnetic spectrum?

(b). Which two processes cannot occur in a vacuum?

(c). Which two processes can occur in a solid?

(d). Which process can only occur in a liquid or in a gas?

5. In a double-glazed window, two panes of glass are separated by a few centimetres . Why does this
reduce the heat loss through the window?

6. Why are loosely knitted clothes likely to keep a person warmer during the cold months?

7. Explain how heat energy is transferred through a container of soup cooking on an electric stove.
When the soup has heated sufficiently, the stove is switched off and the soup cools. Explain how the
soup loses heat.

8. A person seating on a beach on a hot summer day feels a cool breeze blowing from the water (sea
breeze).

(a) Explain why there is a sea breeze.

(b) Late at night the same person feels a breeze blowing in the opposite direction (from land to the
sea). Explain why the direction of the breeze often reverses late at night.

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9.0 WAVE MOTION
9.1 General wave properties

A wave is a disturbance through a medium which transfers energy from one point to another without the transfer
of matter.
DESCRIPTION OF A PROGRESSIVE WAVE

Amplitude (a): height of the crest or the depth of the trough from the undisturbed position

Wavelength (λ): the distance between any two successive crests or troughs.

Period (T): time taken to produce one complete wave or cycle. SI unit: second (s).

Period = total time taken/no. of complete waves (cycles).

T=t/n

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Frequency (f): number of complete waves generated in one second. Its SI unit is hertz (Hz). If a source vibrates
such that it produces 2 waves in one second, we say that its frequency is 2 waves per second which is 2 Hz. The
frequency of wave is the same as that of the source.

Frequency = no. of complete waves (cycles)/total time taken

f=n/t

Then note that: f = 1/T or T = 1/f

Which means 1 Hz = 1/s

Wave speed/velocity (v): distance travelled by the crest or any point on the wave in one second.

Wave fronts: lines joining points on different waves produced by same source at the same time OR lines drawn to
represent the positions of the crests on a wave.

• A circular wavefronts are used to represent circular waves (ripples) and are concentric. Circular waves can
be produced by a single point source(e.g. a finger or vibrating dipper in a ripple tank)

• Straight wavefronts are used for straight water waves and are parallel. Straight waves can be produced
using a vibrating bar or a ruler.

*wavefronts are always perpendicular to the direction of the wave travel.

WAVE EQUATION

v = fλ
where v = wave speed in m/s
f = frequency in Hz
λ = wavelength in metres

PROBLEMS

#1 The speed of sound wave in air is 330 m/s. What is wavelength of a sound wave of frequency 170 Hz?

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Data : v = 330 m/s, f = 170 Hz, λ = ?

v = fλ
λ = v/f
= 330 m s-1/170 Hz = 1.94 m

#2 Determine the speed of a wave with a frequency of 1.0 kHz and wavelength of 0.2 m?

Data: f =1.0 kHz = 1000 Hz, λ = 0.2 m, v= ?

v = fλ
= 1000 Hz x 0.2 m
= 200 m/s

9.2 WAVE GRAPHS

There are two ways of representing waves; plotting

• a displacement- distance graph

• a displacement- time graph

displacement- distance graph

wavelength = 2.0 cm

amplitude = 5.0 cm
In a displacement – distance graph, one complete cyclerepresentone wavelength.

Displacement – time graph

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This graph can be used to find the period (T) of a wave. One complete cyclerepresent the period (T).

Period T = 2.0 s
Frequency f = 1/2.0 s =0.5 Hz
Amplitude a = 3.0 cm.

9.3 TYPES OF WAVES

• transverse wave

• longitudinal wave

Transverse wave: a wave in which the displacement or vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the
direction of the wave travel.

Examples of transverse

• waves on a spring or string

• water waves
• all electromagnetic waves (radio waves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma rays)

Longitudinal wave: a wave in which the displacement particles is parallel to the direction of the wave travel (in the
same direction as the direction of the wave travel).

Wavelength is equal to the distance from the centre of one compression (or rarefaction) to the centre of the next.

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Examples of longitudinal waves

• waves on the slinky springs

• sound waves

9.4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF WAVES

Reflection: waves can undergo reflection when they meet an obstacle (barrier).
This can be shown using a ripple tank (to demonstrate reflection of water waves)

• A flat/plane surface is placed a short distance from a vibrator. Waves are then produced. The straight
wavefronts are reflected from the boundary as shown below

The angle at which wavefronts bounce off the barrier is equal to the angle at which they meet the surface

The angle of incidence = the angle of reflection

Circular wavefronts are reflected as shown below. Notice that the reflected waves seem to be coming from an
imaginary source behind the boundary and the reflected waves are the mirror image of the incident waves.
The distance from the real source to the barrier is the same as from the imaginary source to the barrier.

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 Refraction: if a small glass is placed in the centre of ripple tank the depth of the water here is reduced. As the
water waves enter this region we can see that the wavelength changes because the speed changes but the
frequency remains the same. The wavelength will increase when the wave enters the deeper water again
indicating that the speed has increased.

The ratio of the speed (velocity) v1 of waves in deep water to the speed v2 water in shallow water is known as
refractive index.
Notice that if the boundary between shallow and deep water is at an angle to the direction in which water waves
are moving, the direction of the wave of travel will change. The wave is said to have been refracted or undergone
refraction.
The waves bend towards the normal as they enter shallow water and are slowed down. They bend away from the
normal as they leave shallow water and enter deep water.

9.5 DIFFRACTION
When waves enter/pass through an opening (gap), they often spread out even to regions that are not directly in
front of the entrance. When the waves spread through a gap or around an obstacle, this effect is called diffraction.

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When a wave is diffracted, its wavelength does not change. However, the size of its wavelength affects how much
it is diffracted.
Note: a) if wavelength is similar to the size of the gap, the waves are strongly diffracted.
b) If the wavelength is much smaller than the size of the gap, the waves are weakly diffracted.
c) If the gap is much wider, diffraction is also weaker (see diagram (a) above).

9.6 QUESTIONS

1. How is a wave produced? Give two examples of different ways of producing waves.

2. What is the difference between the longitudinal and transverse waves? Give two examples for
each.
3. What is meant by a compression and rarefaction in a spring?
4. What is the speed of a wave of frequency 400 kHz with wavelength 2.0 m?
5. Water waves are produced with a frequency of 4 Hz, by hitting the water surface with the tip of
a pencil. If the waves travel 20 m in 10 s, what is:-
• The speed of the wave?

b) The wavelength of the wave?

6. A sound wave of frequency of 300 Hz and wavelength 4 m is travelling in water. Calculate the
speed and period of the wave.
7. Fig 7.0 shows a transverse wave at a certain instant. The vertical arrows indicate the direction of
motion of some individual points on the wave at a particular instant.

Fig. 7.0
On the diagram use arrows to show:

• The direction of energy flow

• wavelength

• Amplitude
8. In the diagram on the below, waves are moving towards a harbour wall

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a) What will happen to waves striking the harbour wall at A?
b) What will happen to waves slowed by the submerged sandbank at B?
c) What will happen to waves passing through the harbour entrance at C?
d) If the harbour entrance were wider, what difference would this make?
9. The diagram below represents water waves travelling across a boundary between deep water
and shallow water. The waves in deep water have been drawn, but those in the shallow water
are missing. Waves travel more slowly in shallow water than in deep water. Copy the diagram
and complete it to show how the waves might behave in the shallow water.

10. The diagram below shows waves being produced in a ripple tank by a wave machine.

a) How many water waves are shown in the diagram?

b) If the above waves were produced in 2.5 s what is their frequency?

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 c) If the wavelength of the water waves is 5 cm calculate their speed.

10.0 REFLECTION OF LIGHT

10.1 Definition

Light travels in a straight line but when it encounters a medium (obstacle) it can be reflected, refracted or
absorbed.

When light rays strike shiny surface they will bounce back. This is known as Reflection of light. The ray that
moves towards the surface is the incident ray while the one that bounces back is called the reflected ray.

The following experiments can be performed to show the reflection of light.

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 #1) Ray method: light ray is sent towards a plane mirror from a ray box. Mark the incident ray and the position
of the mirror. Trace the reflected ray. A normal is drawn and the angle of incident i and the angle of reflection
r are measured.

#2) Pin method:

• place a plane mirror on a sheet of plain paper and mark its position.

• Insert two pins P1 and P2 in a line, at an angle to the mirror to represent the incident ray.

• Look through the mirror and place two other pins P3 and P4 such that they are in line with the images of P1
and P2.

• Remove the mirror and pins

• Join pin holes of P1 and P2 to produce an incident ray and those of P3 and P4 to trace a reflected ray. Draw
the normal and measure the angle of incidence and angle of reflection.

Both experiments can be repeated using different values of iincluding i = 0 (where the incident ray is along the
normal).

Laws of reflection

• The incident ray, normal and reflected ray all lie on the same plane (so they can be shown on the same
flat sheet of paper)
• The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r (i = r)
• A ray along the normal (where i = 0) will be reflected along its own path, i.e. back along the normal.

10.2 FORMATION OF IMAGES BY PLANE MIRRORS

One application of reflection is in locating the images formed by/on mirrors. When an object is placed in front of a
plane mirror, incident rays from the object to the mirror can be drawn. The reflected rays are also drawn and are
extended backwards to locate the image position. The image will be formed where the imaginary rays meet.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IMAGE
The image formed is:

• Virtual (cannot be formed on the screen)

• Same size as the object
• Upright/erect
• Literally inverted
• Same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror

The image formed will be along the same axis with the object. Therefore a line drawn joining to the object should
cut the mirror at the right angle.

10.3 CURVED/SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Two types:

• Concave mirror

• Convex mirror

• CONCAVE MIRROR

It curves inwards; the reflecting surface is inside

When parallel rays (beam) of light strike a concave mirror, the rays are reflected (with i = r) such that they
converge to cross at the point called a focus. If the point is on the principal axis is called the principal focus (F).

• CONVEX MIRROR

It curves outwards

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When parallel rays strike a convex mirror, the rays are reflected such that they diverge/spread out. If the reflected
rays are extended backwards, they cross at focus behind the mirror. This principal focus behind the mirror is said
to be virtual because they rays do not actually originate from or pass through the point, they only appear to
diverge from or pass through the point. (But for the concave mirror the principal focus is said to be real because
the rays actually pass through the point).

Definition of terms

Centre of curvature C: is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror appears to be part of. It is in front of a
concave mirror and behind for a convex mirror.

Radius of curvature r: the distance from the centre of curvature to the pole P (centre of the mirror)

Principal axis: is the line joining the pole P to the centre of curvature C

Focal length f: is the distance from the principal focus to the centre of the mirror P (distance FP in the diagram
above).

Focal length = half the radius of curvature

f = r/2

Following rays are needed to locate the images formed by curved mirrors

i). A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the principal focus.

ii). A ray through the centre of curvature strikes the mirror normally and is reflected back along its own path (NB:
radius of curvature is perpendicular to the surface where it meets the mirror).
iii). A ray through the principal focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis.

10.4 USES OF MIRRORS

a) Plane mirrors

Besides everyday use in our homes to look at oneself when dressing, doing make-ups or seeing through awkward
angles, plane mirror have other uses in a laboratory, e.g.
• Used to help to reduce parallax errors when reading pointer instruments.

• Used in making simple optical instruments e.g. a periscope

A SIMPLE PERISCOPE

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Periscope can be used to see over the top of an obstacle which otherwise blocks the direct view.

b) Curved mirrors

• concave mirrors are used as reflectors in headlamps of vehicles, hand torches, searchlights, etc.
Reflected rays from these parabolic (curved) surfaces can travel long distances without becoming
weak. But the bulb should be at the principal focus F of the mirror.

• Concave mirror can be used by a dentist to see teeth inside the mouth and can also be used when
shaving and doing make-ups.
• Convex mirrors can be used as security mirrors in shops

• Convex mirror also used as rear view mirror in vehicles because they give wide field of view.

10.5 QUESTIONS

• For each of the following cases find the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection

• A ray of light strikes a mirror surface with angle of incidence of 60°. Draw a diagram to show the reflected
ray plus the normal to the surface. If the angle of incidence was 0°, what would the angle of reflection be?

• On the diagram below, draw two rays to locate the image of the object seen by the observer.

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 • A girl holding a ball of diameter 30 cm stands 1 m in front of a large flat mirror. Where and how large is
the image of the ball?

• A boy walks towards a plane mirror with a speed of 0.5 m/s. Does the boy’s image appear to move
towards or away from him? At what speed does the image move?

• Is the image formed by a periscope upright or inverted?

7 A photographer wishes to take picture without being noticed. He attaches two plane mirrors to his camera.

Which arrangement of mirrors will allow the photographer to take pictures of someone behind the camera?

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11.0 REFRACTION OF LIGHT
11.1 DEFINITION

The bending of light as it passes from one transparent medium to another (of different optical density). When a
light ray moves from one medium/material to the other one (of different optical density), its speed changes (as
well as the wavelength) and this cause a change in its direction of travel.

O – point of incidence
NN’ – normal (line)
AO – incident ray
OB – refracted ray
i – angle of incidence
r – angle of refraction

Some of examples of effects of refraction in everyday life

• A stick appears bent or broken at the interface when partly immersed in water.

• Landscape shimmers on a hot summer day.

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 • If you look into a swimming pool it appears to be shallower than it really is.

SOME FACTS ABOUT REFRACTION

• A ray moving from a less (optically) dense medium to a more (optically) medium ( e.g. air to glass) will
bend towards the normal.

• A ray moving from a more dense medium to a less dense medium will bend away from the normal.

• The ray along the normal is not refracted (i = r=0)

Experiments: To show refraction of light

Experiment #1: RAY METHOD

• Place a glass block above a plain sheet of paper and trace its outline.
• Direct a thin ray of light from the ray box towards the glass block.
• Trace the incident and emergent rays onto the plain paper.
• Remove the glass block and trace the refracted ray by joining the incident ray to the emergent ray where
they enter and leave the glass block.

Light refraction through:

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a) a rectangular glass block

b) semi-circular glass block

c) glass prism

Experiment #2: PIN METHOD

Apparatus: glass block, four optical pins, soft board, protractor, few sheets of A4 plain paper

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PROCEDURE:

• Place the glass block on the sheet of plain paper and draw its outline. Remove the glass block.
• Draw a normal at point O.
• Using a protractor draw a line AO such that the angle AON (i = angle of incidence) = 30°
• Place two pins P1 and P2 on the line AO.
• Replace the glass block onto the outline and view images of the pins P1 and P2 from the side BC. Then
place two others pins P3 and P4 such that they are in line with images of P1 and P2.
• Remove the glass block and join the pins P3 and P4 to meet the line BC at point D.
• Join O and D to make line OD and measure the angle MOD (r = angle of refraction).
• Calculate sini and sinr.
• Repeat the experiment for values of i = 40°, 50°, 60° and 70°.
• Plot a graph of sini against sinr and determine the refractive index of the glass by finding the gradient of
the graph line.

11.2 REFRACTIVE INDEX (n) AND SNELL’S LAW

Experiments show that:

- when the angle of incidence i increases so does the angle of refraction r but the two are not directly proportional
to each other.

- the graph of siniagainst sinris a straight line passing through the origin indicating that for any light ray passing
from one medium to another, the sine of angle of incidence is proportional to sine of angle of refraction.

i.e. sini α sinr

which follows that:

sini/sinr = a constant
sini/sinr = n
----------------------------->Snell’s Law

Where n is proportionality constant called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first
medium (or specific boundary between two media but when the first medium is air it is just called refractive
index of the second medium). The refractive index of a boundary can be simply defined as the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction for any ray that it refracts. It indicates the extent to
which the second medium will bend the light. In the graph of siniagainst sinr, refractive index is represented by the
gradient of the graph.

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Snell’s law states that:
“The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for a given pair of
media is a constant”
*NB: Refractive index can also de defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a
medium.

n = speed of light in a vacuum/speed of light in a medium

3.3 LAWS OF REFRACTION

• The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane
• Snell’s law: the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for a given pair of
media is a constant.

11.4 APPARENT AND REAL DEPTH

When light moves from water to air, it will bend away from the normal. Due to the refraction of light, an object at
the bottom of the pool of clean water (or just the bottom of the pool) will appear closer to the surface, i.e. the
light rays from the object will appear to be coming from a point much closer to the surface. The depth which the
object appears to be is called the APPARENT DEPTH while the actual depth of the pool is called the REAL DEPTH.

The ratio of the real depth to the apparent depth is equal to the refractive index n of water

n = Real depth/Apparent depth

11.5 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND CRITICAL ANGLE

When light strikes a transparent material, both reflection and refraction take place. When light ray moves from a
more dense medium like glass to a less dense medium like air, it will bend away from the normal. This makes the
angle of refraction r greater than angle of incidence i. When i increases so does r. r will eventually be equal to 90°.
The angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 90° is known as the critical angle (ic)

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 (a) (b) (c)

• When angle of incidence i is less than the critical angle (i<ic) the ray is refracted and there is also little
reflection at the surface.

• When angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle ( i = ic) both reflection and refraction take place with
the refracted ray running along the surface of the denser materials (glass), which means r = 90°.

• When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle ( i>ic) the ray is wholly/totally reflected into
the glass. No refracted ray is observed. When this happens, it is said that the light (ray) has undergone
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T.I.R)

*NB:- To find the critical;

Sinic = 1/n

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION IN PRISMS

Total internal reflection will occur in glass prism if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle of glass
which is about 42°

A right angled glass can be used as shown in (a) above to turn light thru 180° in a rear reflectors in bicycles or cars
as well as in cats eyes (roadside reflectors).

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Two right angled prisms can be used to turn light through 90° in a periscope.

• T.I.R also helps in focusing distant objects using a pair of a binoculars.

OPTICAL FIBRES
These are thin, flexible rods of glass (or transparent plastic). When light ray is shone into the fibre it bounces from
one edge (side) of the optical fibre to the other by total internal reflection. Light can be transported over large
distance with very little loss of light intensity.

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USES OF OPTICAL FIBRE

• Telecommunications:

Nowadays, telephone signals (messages) can be transmitted from one telephone to another by sending light
signals through optical fibres instead of using electricity carried through copper cables. Telephone systems that use
optical fibres instead cables are more efficient and much faster.

• Endoscope
Doctors can see inside patients’ bodies using optical fibres in an instrument called an endoscope. A very small
camera is attached to one end of an optical fibre. This end is pushed down the throat and into the stomach. The
other end is attached to a television near to the patient. The doctor can see pictures of the inside of the stomach
on the television screen.

MIRAGE

It is an optical illusion which results when air near ground or road surface is much warmer than the one high up. It
is caused by the progressive refraction of the light ray from sky as it passes through different layers of air. Near the
road surface, the light ray will meet the warmer air at an angle greater than the critical angle and suffers total
internal reflection. The reflection of light produces an image of the sky which will appear as pool of water on the
road to an observer driving along the road.

11.6 QUESTIONS

• A ray of light travels from air into water at an angle of incidence of 60°. Calculate the angle of refraction,
given that the refractive index of water is 1.33.
• A light ray travelling through air strikes water at an angle of 40° to the surface. Given that the refractive
index for water is 1.33, find a) the angle of refraction (b) the angle of deviation.
• Use a diagram to explain why a drinking straw appears bent when partially immersed in a glass of water.

• A pond of water of water (n = 1.33) is 2 m deep. What is the apparent depth of the pond when a person
looks vertically downwards from above?

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 • State two necessary conditions for light to be totally internally reflected.

• If the refractive index of water is 1.33, how deep will a pond really be if it appears to be 6 m when looking
vertically downwards?

• Draw a ray diagram to show how a right-angled prism can be used to turn a light ray through: (a)
90° (b) 180°

• Draw a diagram to show how two right-angled prisms can be used, in place of two mirrors, in a periscope.
Show the path of the light rays as accurately as you can.

• What advantages do optical fibre cables have over copper cables in communication systems?

• The diagram shows rays of light in semi-circular glass block.

a) Explain why the ray entering the glass at A is not bent

b) Explain why the ray AB is reflected at B and not refracted.

c) Ray CB does not stop at B. Copy the diagram and draw its approximate path after it leaves B.

12) Copy the diagrams below and complete the paths of the rays.

13). A ray of light is directed at a rectangular glass block (see Fig. 13.0 below). Copy the diagram and complete it by
drawing the ray which emerges at C. Name what is happening at A and at B.

14 The diagram shows a long block of glass over an object O. Light from O reaches the top surface of the glass

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 at X, Y and Z.

a) What is the name given to the bending of the light at X?

b) Fill in the two missing words in the following sentence.

At Z light is ..................... ........................... reflected.

c) What is the angle marked R called?

d) Why is light reflected as shown at Z?

12.0 LENSES
12.1 Introduction

Lenses are usually used in various optical instruments to produce images. A lens would bend or refract a light ray
to produce an image. They often have spherical surfaces. There are two types of lenses, namely

• Convex/converging lens

• Concave/diverging lens

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A converging lens is thicker at the middle and thinner at the edges and it bends light inwards.
On the other hand a concave is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges and it spread out light.

When a parallel beam of light passes through a convex lens the rays bend inwards and converge or meet at a point
known as a FOCUS. When the rays pass through a concave lens and are parallel to its axis, they are bend outwards
(spread out or diverge). The point from which the rays appear to diverge it is the principal focus of the lens.
*NB:- for a convex lens the rays actually converge at the principal focus so it is said to be real.

DEFINING TERMS
• Optical centre (c):-centre of the lens

• Principal axis:-a straight line through the optical centre at a right angle to the lens.

• Principal focus (F):-a point on the principal axis where parallel rays converge or a point where parallel rays
appear to diverge from for a concave lens. Rays can pass through the lens from either direction so there is
another principal focus F’ on the opposite side of the lens and is the same distance from the lens as F.
• Focal length (f):-distance from the principal focus to the optical centre.

MEASUREMENT OF THE FOCAL LENGTH.

A simple method of determining the focal length of a convex length is by focusing the image of an object which is
far away from the lens on a wall/screen. The distance from the lens to the screen on which the image is formed is
approximately the focal length of the lens.

• PLANE MIRROR METHOD

A more accurate method involves the use of a plane mirror which reflects rays from an illuminated object (cross-
wire) in front of the lens. The lens position is adjusted until a real image is formed next to the object.

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AN ACTION OF A THIN CONVEX LENS ON A RAY OF LIGHT
When a light ray strikes a thin convex lens it is refracted at both surfaces of that lens. When light ray strikes and
passes through the first surface it will bend towards the normal since it is moving from less dense to more dense
medium (air → glass). When it leaves the second surface it will bend away from the normal because the ray is now
moving from denser to less dense medium (glass → air).

12.2 FORMATION OF IMAGES BY A THIN CONVEX LENS

A converging lens can produce both real and virtual images. The properties of the image formed depend on the
position of the object from the lens in front of the lens. They can be obtained experimentally or graphically by
drawing ray diagrams. In constructing ray diagrams any two of the following standard rays maybe used:

• Ray I: A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the principal axis after leaving
the lens.

• Ray II: A ray through a principal focus F, when it leaves the lens , it is refracted parallel to the

principal axis.

• Ray III: A ray through the optical centre passes straight through the lens undeviated (not
refracted).

EXAMPLES

Case I: Object beyond 2F’

Image is:-real, Diminished/reduced, invertedand between F and 2F.

Case II: Object at 2F’

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Image is:-real, inverted, same size as the object and at 2F.

Case III: Object between 2F’ and F’

Image is:-real, inverted, magnified/enlarged and beyond 2F.

Case IV: Object at F

Image is at infinity.

Case V: Object between F and the lens

Image is:-virtual, enlarged, erect (upright) and behind the object

12.3 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

1) MAGNIFYING GLASS
A convex lens can be used as a magnifying glass if the object is placed between the lens and the principal focus.
The images will be enlarged, virtual, erect and on the same side of the lens as the object. (See case V above)

2) CAMERA
A convex lens used in a camera to form a small inverted, real image on a piece of film.

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 • The Lens:-focuses the image of the object on a light sensitive photographic film placed at the back of the
camera. The lens is moved in or out to make focusing adjustment.

• The Shutter:- opens and shuts quickly to let a small amount of light into the camera.

• The film: is kept in darkness until the shutter opens. It is coated with light sensitive chemicals which are
changed by different shades and colours in the image. When the film is processed, the changes are fixed
and a negative is developed. The negative is later used to print the photographs.

• The diaphragm:- is a set of sliding plates between the lens and the film. It controls the aperture
(diameter) of the hole through which light passes. In bright scenes, a narrow aperture is used but in dark a
wider aperture is necessary.

*NB: i) For closer object, the lens must be moved further away from the film.
ii) For very distant object, the film needs to be at F.

3) SLIDE PROJECTOR
A slide projector uses a convex lens to form a large, inverted, real image on the screen. The object is a brightly lit
piece of transparency (slide) with a picture/information on it.

• The projection lens: forms the image on the screen. To get a large image the lens has to be a long way
from the screen. The focusing adjustments are made by moving the lens backward and forward in its
holder.

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 • The transparency or slide: must be upside down to get an upright picture (image) on the screen. The slide
must be positioned just outside the principal focus F of the lens in order to obtain an enlarged image on
the screen.

• The condenser lens system: a special convex lenses arrangement which helps to concentrates the light on
the slide so that it is very bright and evenly lit.

• The lamp: produces light that illuminates the object (slide) in order to produce a bright/sharp image on
the screen.

• Concave mirror: reflects light to the condenser lens system.

4) PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGER
-Uses the same principles as the slide projector. The only difference is that with the photographic enlarger the
screen is a film which is coated with light sensitive chemicals e.g. silver salts.

12.4 LENS EQUATION

For any diagram there is a relationship between image distance, the object distance and the focal length of the
lens and is given by:-

1/f = 1/u + 1/v

Where u = object distance from the lens

v = image distance from lens
f = focal length of lens

12.5 LINEAR MAGNIFICATION

This is the ratio of the linear dimensions of the image to the linear dimensions of the object.

M = height of image/height of object

= HI/HO
OR

M= distance of image from the lens/distance of object from the lens

M = v/u

12.6 QUESTIONS

1. Fig. 1.0 shows three parallel rays of light reaching the front surface of a converging lens. Copy the diagram
and continue the rays to show what happens to them as they pass through the lens and into the air on the
other side.

2. Where must the object be placed for the image formed by a convex lens to be

• Real, inverted and smaller than the object,

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 • Real, inverted and same size as the object,

• Real, inverted and larger than the object,

• Virtual, upright and larger than the object?

3. A lens has a focal length of 4 cm. An object 2 cm high is placed 8 cm from the centre of the lens. Where is

the image formed? Describe the image: is it real or virtual, upside-down or upright, enlarged, same size or

smaller? What happens to the size and position of the image if the object is moved further away from the

lens?

4. The diagram shows an object O in front of a converging lens. The points marked F are focal
points of the lens.

• Draw two rays from the top of the object in order to locate the position of the image.

• The image is upright. State two other characteristics of the image.

5. Lenses are used in many optical devices. Copy and complete the table below about the images
formed by some optical devices.

Optical device Nature of image Size of image Position of image

Projector Magnified
Magnifying glass Behind the object
camera Real

6. An object is placed closer to a converging lens than its principal focus. The figure shows an
incomplete ray diagram for the formation of the image.

Copy and complete the ray diagram and draw the image formed.

7. The diagram shows a converging lens forming a real image of an illuminated object. State two

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 things that happen to the image when the object is moved towards F.

8. a) An object 1 cm high is placed 3 cm from a thin converging lens with a focal length of 5 cm.
Draw a ray diagram to find the position of the image.

b) What is meant by magnification? How is the magnification in (a) above?

c) Name one application of a converging lens used in this way.

13.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Electromagnetic spectrum is a family or an array of electromagnetic waves arranged according to their
wavelengths or frequencies in the ascending or descending order.

13.2 COMMON PROPERTIES OF E.M WAVES

• They can all travel through a vacuum.

• They all travel at the same speed in space which is the speed of light in a vacuum (c = 3 x 108 m/s)
• They are all transverse waves.
• They obey the wave equation
C= fλ
• They carry energy from one place to another.
*NB: The space occupied by each type of wave in the E.M spectrum is called a BAND.

13.3 COMPONENTS OF E.M SPECTRUM (E.M WAVES)

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• GAMMA RAYS
Source: nuclei of radioactive elements (e.g. cobalt-60) and cosmic rays
Wavelength: 10-12 m
Detectors: photographic film, cloud chamber, Geiger Muller tube
Properties: - very penetrating
-transmit more energy than x-rays
- ionize gases
Uses: -used in radiotherapy to treat cancer cells and destroy tumours inside the body
-used to find flaws in metals
-used to sterilize medical equipment & dressings
- used to irradiate food to kill germs in them
Side effects: - harmful to humans in excess; damage body cells(cause mutation and cancer) and can cause
sterility.

• X-RAYS
Source: produced when high energy electrons are fired at a metal in x-ray tube.

Wavelength: 10-10 m

Detectors: photographic film, fluorescent screen

Properties:- very penetrating (but less than gamma rays)

-have high energy

- ionize gases

Uses: -used in radiography (to take x-ray pictures)

-used to kill cancer cells (cancer cells absorbs x-ray more readily than normal healthy cells) and treat skin
disorders.

Side efffects: - causes cancer

• ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Sources: - sun (U.V is the sun rays that gives suntan)
-Mercury vapour lamps – created by passing the current through mercury vapour in fluorescent
tubes
Wavelength: 10-8 m

Detectors: photographic film, fluorescent chemicals, photocells

Properties: -absorbed by glass

-causes suntan

-causes chemicals to fluorescence/glow

Uses: -kills bacteria

-produce vitamin D and melanin in the skin
-used to detect forgeries

Side effects: -causes sunburn or even skin cancer if in excess

-harmful to eyes

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• VISIBLE LIGHT/WHITE LIGHT
Sources: -sun, lamps and all luminous objects
Wavelength: 10-6 m
Properties: -is a mixture of different colours and can be split by a prism into the visible spectrum.
- occupies a small part of the spectrum but is the only component that can be detected by
human eyes
Detectors: eye, photographic film, photocells
Uses: useful for vision/sight
Used for photography
Useful in some chemical reactions, e.g. photosynthesis.
Side effects: too more exposure may lead to skin tan

• INFRARED
Sources: sun, warm and hot objects (e.g. heters, grills, etc.), remote controllers
Wavelength: 10-4 m
Detectors: special photographic film, phototransistor, sensitive thermometer, thermopile
Properties: All objects give out infrared radiation; the hotter the object is the more radiation it gives out.
-causes heating when absorbed by matter
Uses: - used for heating and cooking
- used for photography through haze and fog and in dark
- used in remote controls
- night vision
- detecting warm and cool skin and tracing infection.

• RADIO WAVES
Sources: microwave oven (microwaves)
-Tv and radio transmitters using electronic circuits and aerials
Wavelength: 1 cm – 1 km
Detectors: aerials connected to radio and tv sets, mobile (cellular) phones, satellite dishes, radar
Properties: -They have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies.
Uses:
• Microwaves: are high frequency radio waves (but have shortest wavelength amongst radio waves). They
are used in RADAR (Radio Detecting AndRanging) to find the position of aeroplanes. Microwaves are also
used for cooking- water particles in food absorb the energy carried by microwaves.
• UHF (Ultra High Frequency) and VHF (Very High Frequency) waves

UHF- used in tv transmissions

VHF- used in local radio transmissions

• Short, Medium and long radio waves:
Medium and long waves are used to transmit over long distances because their wavelengths allow them
to diffract around obstacles such as buildings, hills, etc.
Communication satellites above Earth receive signals carried by high frequency short waves.
These signals are amplified and re-transmitted to other parts of the world.

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13.4 QUESTIONS

1) This is a list of types of waves:

gamma infrared microwaves radio ultraviolet visible x-rays

choose from the list the type of wave that best fits each of these descriptions.

a) stimulates the sensitive cells at the back of a human eye.

b) necessary for a suntan.
c) used for rapid cooking in an oven.
d) used to take a photograph of the bones in a broken arm.
e) emitted by a video remote control unit.
2) Gamma rays are part of electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays are useful to us but can also be very
dangerous.

a) Explain how the properties of gamma rays make them useful to us.
b) Explain why gamma rays can cause damage to people.
c) Give one difference between microwaves and gamma rays.
d) Microwaves travel at 300 000 000 m/s. what speed do gamma rays travel at?

3) Write down the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing wavelength.

4) The spectrum of electromagnetic waves can be divided into several regions, in order of increasing
frequency, the diagram below shows this. Name the regions represented by the letters A and B. What
common properties are shared by the waves from each region?

14.0 SOUND
14.1 INTRODUCTION

Sound is produced by vibrating objects such as turning forks. As the object vibrates back and forth, the particles
around it are compressed (squashed) and rarefacted (stretched). The series of compressions and rarefactions form
a sound wave.

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In a compression, particles are squashed together and hence this is a region of high pressure whilst in a rarefaction
particles are further apart, stretched over relatively larger space and therefore this is a low pressure region.

Sound waves are longitudinal i.e. the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the direction of the wave travel.

Definition;

a) Wavelength (λ) of a sound wave:- the distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions.

b) Speed (v) of a sound wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second.

c) Frequency (f) of a sound wave:- number of complete waves produced in a second or number of complete
oscillations (vibrations) made by the source in one second.

* The sound waves obey the wave equation; v = fλ

14.2 SPEED OF SOUND

There are two ways to find the speed of sound in air

i)Experiment 1: Echo method

|<---------------------------------- d --------------------------- >|

Two people stand a distance d from a high hard wall. One produces sound by banging two pieces of metals
together and the other holds a stopwatch and records the time taken for the sound to go to the hard wall and back

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To find the speed of the sound, divide the total distance travelled by the time taken recorded by the stopwatch

S = 2d/t

ii) Experiment 2: Pistol method

A<------------------- 100 m ------------------------->B

Two students stand distance d (let say s = 100 m) apart. Student A has a gun and student B has a stopwatch.
Student A fires the gun. Student B starts the watch when he sees the smoke from the gun and stops the watch
when she hears the bang. The speed of sound is calculated by dividing the distance travelled (100 m) by the time
taken, recorded by the stopwatch.

s= d/t

Speed of sound in solids, liquids and gases:

Sound travels at different speeds in different materials. It travels fastest in solids, then liquids and slowest in gases.

Fastest -------------------------------------------------------->slowest
Solids liquids gases
(6000 m/s in steel) (1500 m/s in water) (330 m/s in air and this is far less speed of light)

Sound waves consist of vibrating particles. Therefore if there are no particles, sound waves cannot exist. This
means that it is impossible for sound to travel through a vacuum. This is usually demonstrated using a bell jar, a
bell and a vacuum pump.

The sound of the bell fades when the air is removed from the jar. If the jar is completely evacuated, no sound is
heard even when the hammer continues to hit the gong. The sound returns when air is let back into the jar.

14.3 TYPES OF SOUND WAVES

Different sounds have different frequencies.

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Infrasonic waves | audible sound waves | ultrasonic waves/ultrasound
20 Hz 20 kHz

i) Infrasonic waves(infrasound):- have frequencies below 20 Hz e.g. earthquake/seismic waves and can be
detected by dogs.

ii) Audible sound (waves) – sound that can be detected by human ears. Their frequency ranges from 20 Hz to 20
kHz.
iii) Ultrasonic waves (ultrasounds) - have frequencies higher than 20 000 Hz (20 kHz). They can be detected by
bats. A bat emits and receives ultrasonic waves and this helps them to navigate at night and judge the distance of
obstacles ahead.

Uses of Ultrasound

a) Used in spectacles for the blind

b) Used in echo sounding or sonar (sound navigation and ranging) in ships to determine the depth of the sea or
shoal of fish.

c) Used in ultrasound scanning in hospitals. They also have lower energy than X-rays and so are less hazardous to
human cells.
Ultrasound scans are especially useful for obtaining pictures of unborn babies in the womb.
d) Used to clean delicate machinery or street light covers – machinery is put in a tank of liquid which has an
ultrasonic vibrator in the base.

e) used to break up kidney stones and gall stones without

patients needing surgery.

d) Used to detect flaws (tiny gaps) in metals using the idea of echo-sounding.

14.4 MUSICAL NOTES(properties of sound)

a) pitch
b) loudness
c) quality/timbre

a) Pitch
Pitch of a musical note depends on the frequency of the sound wave. Sound with high frequency is heard as high
note and is said to be high-pitched. Low notes have low frequencies and said to be low-pitched.

Sound A has a higher pitch than sound B because has higher frequency. With a higher frequencymore waves are
produced and the waves are closer together.

NOTE: i) A high-pitched sound also has a short wavelength while a low-pitched sound has a longer wavelength.

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ii) Musical notes are said to be octave apart if the frequency of one is twice that of the other.

b) Loudness
The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the sound wave. Quiet sounds (notes) have small
amplitude, loud sounds have larger amplitude. The loudness of sound is measured in decibels (dB).

Sound B is louder than sound A because the wave has a larger amplitude.
*The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.

c) Timbre/quality
The timbre of a sound describes the purity or quality of sound. Pure note (e.g. one emitted by a turning fork) has
only one frequency but other notes consist of a main or fundamental frequency with others, called overtones
(which are usually weaker and with frequencies which are exact multiples of the fundamental frequency). The
number and strength of the overtones decides the quality of a note.

Sound B is a pure note from a turning fork. Sound A is produced from a piano. The two sounds have almost the
same pitch (main frequency) and loudness but differ in quality.Note:

The frequency (pitch) of a note produced by a vibrating material (e.g. string) depends on:

i) length of the material; short strings produce high notes and therefore halving the length doubles the frequency
ii) tension in material: tight wires produce high notes
iii) mass per unit length; thin strings give high notes.

14.5 ECHO AND REVERBERATIONS

14.5.1 ECHO
Sound is reflected when it meets some kind of obstruction such as a wall, high cliff or the bottom of an ocean. The
reflected sound (wave) is called an echo. In ships, echo can be used to find how deep the ocean is or to detect the
shoals of fish.
Example:
A sound pulse is transmitted from the boat, and 10 s later an echo is received. How deep is the ocean? (The speed
of sound in water is 1500 m/s).

Data: v = 1500 m/s, t = 10 s, d = depth of sea = ?, total distance travelled by pulse = 2d

v = 2d/t
d = (v x t)/2

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 = (1500 x 10)/2
= 7500 m

14.5.2 Reverberations
When playing a musical instrument, e.g. piano, in an enclosed area (e.g. inside a hall), some of the sound of the
piano will be reflected off the walls of the hall. You will hear the direct sound first, then early reflections and then
multiple reflections all in a very short time and this will cause the sound to die off gradually over some time. This
effect is called reverberation. A reverberation can also be obtained when a sound is reflected from a surface which
is nearer than 15 m, here the echo joins the original sound and then the sound seems to be elongated or
prolonged.

14.6 NOISE POLLUTION

Unpleasant sound which may be even harmful to people is called noise. Sound is unpleasant if it is very loud or has
a very high frequency.

sources of noise:

Effects of noise

• can damage the ears

• cause loss of concentration

• if very loud result in sickness

• temporary deafness.

Ways of reducing unwanted noise (noise pollution)

• Designing quieter engines and better exhaust systems.

• Using sound-insulating materials such as carpets, curtains and double-glazed windows in our houses
• Tractor drivers, factory workers and other people regularly exposed to noise often have to wear ear
protectors.
• Where practical keep as much greater distance away from the source of the noise as possible.

14.7 PROBLEMS

Q1. A ship searching for fish emits sound waves which are reflected from the sea bed. If the speed of sound in
is known and the time that elapses before the echo is heard is measured, it is possible to calculate how
deep the water is at that point.

a) What will the operator hear if a shoal of fish swims under the ship? How could the operator very roughly
assess how deep the shoal is?

b) Suggest one way in which the detector might be receiving a false signal (i.e. there are no fish below).

c) If sound waves travel through water at 1500 m/s,

i) how deep is the sea-bed if echo is heard after 1 s?
ii) how quickly is an echo heard if a shoal of fish swims 250 below the ship?

Q2. A microphone is connected to an oscilloscope (CRO). When three different sounds A, B and C are made in
front of the microphone, these are the waveforms seen on the screen.

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 a) Comparing sounds A and B, how would they sound different?
b) Comparing sounds A and C, how would they sound different?
c) Which sound has the highest amplitude?
d) Which sound has the highest frequency?
e) Sound A has a frequency of 220 Hz. If the speed of sound is 330 m/s, what is the wavelength of sound A?
f) What is the frequency of sound C?

Q3. The diagram below shows the oscilloscope traces of two different sounds A and B. The oscilloscope setting
is the same in both cases.

a) A and B sound different.

Write down two differences in the way they sound. Explain your answers as fully as you can.

Q4. A man standing on a beach 340 m from a tall cliff hears his echo after 2 s.

a) What is an echo?
b) Explain how echoes can be used to discover the depth of water under boat.
c) Using the information above calculate the speed of sound in air
d) What are ultrasonic waves?
e) Give at least two uses of ultrasonic waves.

Q5. Sound X: frequency 10 000 Hz.

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 Sound Y: frequency 30 000 Hz.
Upper limit of human hearing: 20 000 Hz.
a) (i). What is the upper limit of human hearing in kHz?]
(ii). Which of the above sounds is an example of ultrasound?

b) Ultrasound can travel through some human tissues and can be reflected by different layers in the body.
(i). Describe one example of how ultrasound is used in hospitals.
(ii). For producing medical images, why does doctors prefer to use ultrasound if they can, rather than X-
rays?
(iii). Describe one example of the industrial use of ultrasound.

Q6. (a) Draw a diagram of a wave. Label both its amplitude and its wavelength.
(b) Your diagram represents a sound wave. What would you hear if;
i. the wavelength got shorter?
ii. the amplitude got larger?

Q7. The diagram below shows a travelling sound wave.

a) Draw a second sound wave which is the same loudness as the first but a higher frequency and label it A.

b) Draw a third wave which has the same pitch as the first but represents a quieter sound and label it B.
c) The sound wave in the above diagram was created in 1/10 s. What is the frequency of this sound?

15.0 MAGNETISM
Magnetis an object that attracts certain objects which are made from magnetic materials.

Magnetic materials: are materials attracted by a magnet e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel and alloys such as steel.. Magnetic
materials are also called ferromagnets.

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Non-magnetic materials: substances that cannot be attracted by a magnet. These include copper, brass, zinc, tin
and non metals (e.g wood, glass, etc)

15.1 PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS

a) Magnets attract magnetic materials only.

b) Magnets have magnetic poles. These are areas in a magnet where magnetism (magnetic force) seems to be
concentrated. To determine the magnetic poles dip a magnet into iron filings.
c) North and south poles
If a bar magnet is suspended so that it can swing freely it will always come to rest in approximately N-S
direction. The end pointing to the earth geographical north is called the North seeking pole or North pole (N)
and the end pointing to the geographical south is called the South seeking pole or South pole (S).

d) Law of magnetic poles

unlike poles attract and like poles repel

*Likes poles repel, unlike poles attract.

15.2 INDUCED MAGNETISM

This is the magnetism that appears or develops in a magnetic material due to bringing the material near or in
contact with a permanent magnet. The inducing pole of the magnet will always induce an opposite pole to nearer
end of the material.

15.3 METHODS OF MAGNETISATION- MAKING A MAGNET

1) Stroking

a) single stroking/touch
- stroke the magnetic material (steel rod) from end to end with the
same pole of a magnet.
- lift the magnet high above the rod and repeat the stroke several times (always in

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 one direction).
- the end where stroking ends will have an opposite polarity to the stroking pole

b) Double stroking (Divided touch)

- use opposite poles of two magnets to stroke the rod from the centre outwards at
the same time.
- repeat several times

2) Electrical method:
The magnetic material is placed inside a solenoid (a long coil of insulated copper wire) through which D.C
(direct current) is passed. When the material is removed it would be found to be magnetized. (The coil should
be placed in the N-S direction)

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To determine the polarity, the right hand grip rule is used. The fingers are placed such that they follow the
direction of current around the coil and thumb will point to the North pole.

15.4 METHODS OF DEMAGNETISATION

i) Electrical Method :- a bar magnet is placed inside a solenoid through which A.C (alternating current) is
passed. The bar is slowly withdrawn from the solenoid whilst the current is still on. The solenoid should be
placed in the E-W direction.

ii) Magnets can be demagnetized by heating or hitting them strongly and then leave them to cool placed in the E-
W direction)

15.5 MAGNETIC SATURATION

Magnetic materials such as iron and steel have individual atoms which act like atomic magnets or magnetic
dipoles. The neighbouring atoms set themselves with their magnetic axis parallel. The grouping of atomic magnets
or atomic dipoles with parallel axes is called magnetic domain.
In an unmagnetised material, the magnetic domains will point in different directions and hence the material as a
whole will show no polarity. When a magnetic material is magnetized, the domains are re-aligned such that most
of them have their axes pointing in the same direction. There is a maximum level of the magnetization which is
called magnetic saturation. This happens when the atomic dipoles in all magnetic domains have been re-aligned
and their magnetic axes are parallel and pointing in the same direction.

15.6 MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetic field is a region around a magnet where the magnetic force is experienced or felt.
The magnetic field around a magnet can be detected by using iron filings or a plotting compass.

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i) iron filings:- place a sheet of paper over the magnet. Sprinkle iron filings onto the paper and tap the paper a
bit. The iron fillings turns around in the direction of the magnetic lines of force. They form a pattern showing
magnetic field lines around the magnet.

ii) plotting compass: the bar magnet is placed on top of a sheet of paper. Place the plotting compass at the
end of the bar magnet. When the compass has settled mark on the paper the ends of the needles of the
compass. Move the compass to a new position so that its other end is over the last mark previously made.
Mark another dot where the needle is pointing. Repeat the procedure until the compass reaches the other
end of the magnet (expt. Pg 223 GCSE). Join the dots to form a single line from one end of the magnet to
the other.

PATTERNS OF MAGNETIC FIELD

• Field lines around a single magnet

Field lines always move from north to south. They never cross each other. And where the lines are closer
together shows areas with stronger magnetism (magnetic force).

• field lines between like poles and unlike poles

There is a neutral point X between the poles where the field cancel out each other.

15.7 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND IRON

Both iron and steel can be induced to form magnets.

EXPERIMENT 1

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Each pin or clip magnetises the one below it by induction and unlike poles so formed will attract. When the chain
of iron nails is removed from the magnet, it will collapse. When the chain of the steel paper clips is removed from
the magnet, the clips will remain attached to each other. These indicate that magnetism induced in iron is
temporary while magnetism induced in steel is permanent

Conclusion: steel is a hard magnetic material i.e. it is very hard to magnetize steel but once magnetized steel will
not lose its magnetism easily.

Iron is a soft magnetic material i.e. iron can be magnetized easily but it will lose its magnetism easily.
EXPERIMENT 2
Attach a strip of soft iron and a strip of steel to the N pole of a magnet.
Dip the free ends of the strips in iron filings

More filings stick to the soft iron. So the induced magnetism in the iron is slightly greater. When the strips are
detached from the magnet, most of the filings fall from the soft iron but few fall from the steel. This shows that the
induced magnetism in soft iron is temporary but magnetism induced in steel is permanent.

15.8 USES OF MAGNETS

1). Permanent magnets

They are used in construction of electric motors, bicycle dynamos, generators, loudspeakers, electricity meters,
microphones and can also be used as door catches.

2). ELECTROMAGNET
This is a temporary magnet made by winding a coil of wire around a soft iron.

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The soft iron will only be magnetized when current flows through the coil. When there is no current flowing, the
soft iron will lose its magnetism. Steel is not suitable to be used as a core since it is a hard magnetic material. With
steel the electromagnet will keep its magnetism even when the current is switched off.

*NOTE:
• Without the iron core, an electromagnet would be much weaker. The core concentrates the magnetic
field into a small volume of space and hence producing a stronger electromagnet.
• The strength of the electromagnet can be increased by:
• Increasing the current
• Increasing the turns in the coil
• Using an U-shaped core so that the poles of the electromagnet would be close to each other.

Uses of Electromagnet

• Large electromagnets are used for lifting heavy magnetic materials in scrap-yards. A crane moves the
material to its new place and when the current is turned off, the material is released from the
electromagnet.
• Electric bell
It consists of an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself on and off very quickly.

When the press-button switch is pressed, the current flows through the electromagnet, which pulls the
springy metal together with the hammer so that it hits the gong and the sound is made. This movement, at the
same time, separates the contacts and switches off the circuit. The hammer goes back, the contacts close again,
the current flows once more and the electromagnet pulls the hammer across again, this goes on and produces
continuous sound until the circuit is switched off.

• The magnetic relay

4). Reed switch

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 • The telephone earpiece

15.9 MAGNETIC SHIELDING OR SCREENING

Besides being used as core for electromagnets or making permanents magnet, magnetic materials can be used for
magnetic screening where an iron ring will act as a magnetic shield for anything inside it.

Iron is said to be more permeable to magnetic field than air is. Therefore magnetic field lines appear to be drawn
into the iron and concentrated through it and none through the air inside the iron. Then anything inside the iron
ring would be shielded or screened from magnetic field. This effect is known as magnetic screening or shielding.

15.10 QUESTIONS

• A student has a piece of metal that he thinks is a magnet. He holds it near another magnet and it is
attracted. The student says this proves that his metal is a magnet. Explain why the student is wrong.

• A, B, C and D are small blocks of different materials. The table below shows what happens when two of
the blocks are placed near one another.

Use one of the phrases below to complete the sentences that follow. Each word may be used once, more
than once or not at all.

A MAGNET A MAGNETIC MATERIAL A NON-MAGNETIC MATERIAL

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 • Block A is ......................

• Block B is .......................

• Block C is ......................

• Block D is ......................

• What is the diference between a magnetically hard material and a magnetically soft material? Give an
example of each.

• a) What is a magnetic material? Give three examples of magnetic materials.

b) Name three non-magnetic metals.

5. Study the magnets in the diagram below. What would happen in each case?

6. What is meant by a magnetic field?

7. a) Circle the names of two materials which are attracted to magnets

aluminium brass copper iron steel tungsten

b) The diagram shows a pattern of lines around a magnet.

Give the name/s of:

• this type of magnet ..................................

• the points marked • ...................................

• lines ..............................................

c). Two magnets, like the magnet shown above, were used to get the pattern of the lines
shown below.

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 Describe what you would do with the two magnets so that you got this pattern.

9. An electromagnet is made by winding wire around an iron core.

The diagram shows an electromagnet connected to a circuit.

• State two ways of making the strength of the electromagnet weaker.

• Explain why the core is made of iron instead of steel.

10. a) Given a bar magnet, how would you find out which pole of the magnet is its north
pole

b). How would you magnetized a steel needle and how would you tell that it is magnetized?

c) How can this magnetized needle be effectively demagnetized?

• Is it possible to make a magnet with a single pole?

• If you cut a magnetized steel in half. You will find out that each half is a bar magnet. What will
happen if you cut one of the halves in two? Does this produce a magnet with a single pole?

11. A current is passed through a solenoid (coil) as shown below

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 • The solenoid in the diagram above behaves like bar magnet. Mark its polarity.

• An iron rod is placed in the solenoid. What happens to it when the current is

• Switched on
• Switched off

• How would your answers in (i) and (ii) above change if the rod were made of steel?

• What is purpose of the core in the electromagnet?

• Give one use of an electromagnet.

12. The figure below shows a circuit that includes an electrical relay, used to switch on a motor
M.

Explain in details, how closing switch S causes the motor M to start.

16.0 ELECTRICITY
Electrostatics:
*Static electricity/electrostatics – charges at rest/ not moving.
Electrostatic charges can be induced and easily detected in insulators (non-metals) because these kinds of
materials do not allow charges to flow through them. Metals are generally good conductors so it is difficult to
induce electrostatic charges in them.
16.1.1 Electrostatic charging by friction/ charging by rubbing

One object will gain extra electrons and become negatively charged. And the other one will become positively
since it would have lost some electrons and remained with excess positive charges.

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 A B
A polythene strip will be negatively charged and the cloth will be positively charged

B.cellolose acetate strip will be positively charged and the cloth will be negatively charged.

Explanation: when polythene is rubbed, electrons from the cloth are transferred to the polythene making the
polythene negatively charged and the cloth will be positive because there will be a deficit of electrons.

On the other hand when perspex (cellulose acetate) is rubbed with the cloth it loses some electrons to the cloth
and remains short of electrons and with more unbalanced protons and as a result the Perspex rod becomes
positively charged.

16.1.2 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGES

There are two types of charges, namely positive(+) and negative (-).

Positively charged object negatively charged object

Experiment: positive and negative charges

• Rub a piece of polythene strip with a cloth

• Hang it up as shown in the diagram

• Rub another polythene strip and bring it near the first one.

Observation: repulsion occurs

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Now bring a piece of rubbed polythene close to the hanging cellulose acetate strip.

Observation: attraction occurs

Conclusion: “like charges repel and unlike charges attract”

16.1.3 INDUCED CHARGES

A charge can be build up on an uncharged object by holding a charged object close to it as shown below.
These charges that would appear on an uncharged object are called induced charges.

A metal sphere is being charged by induction and ends up with an opposite charge to that on the rod. Note
the two never actually touched.

16.1.4 GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

An instrument used for detecting the presence of an electric charge. It consists of a metal rod on top of which
there is a metal cap (plate). The rod is insulated from the case. A thin gold leaf is attached to the bottom of the
rod.

• Detecting an electric charge

A gold leaf electroscope can be used to detect small charges

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When a positively charged rod is brought near the top plate, the leaf rises. This so because the positively charged
rod attracts free electrons in the brass rod (stem) upwards so that the plate has an excess of negative charges. The
lower rod and the leaf are left with an excess of positive charges. The leaf diverges from the stem because they are
both positively charged. On removal of the charged, the leaf falls as the extra electrons in the top plate move back
down the stem.
The leaf also rises if a negatively charged rod is brought near the top plate. This time, the rise of the leaf occurs
because free electrons in the top plate are pushed downwards (repelled) by the negatively charged rod.

• Charging an electroscope

• Charging by contact
An electroscope can be charged by rubbing (pressing) a charged insulator firmly across the edge of the top
plate. The charge on the rod is shared with the electroscope.

• Charging by induction

* A positively charged rod is brought near the top plate. This attracts electrons upwards, leaving a positive
charge on the leaf and the stem.

* When the top plate is touched with a finger, the electrons on the plate remain because they are held
there by the attraction of the positively rod.

* The electrons flow in from Earth to replace the missing electrons on the leaf. The charge on the leaf is
neutralised. The leaf collapses.

* The finger is removed, followed by the rod. This leaves a net negative. The leaf rises as the finger is
removed.

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 *an electroscope can be discharged by touching it with a finger or connecting it to the earth. This earths
the electroscope. Earthing is a process of sharing charges with the Earth.

16.1.5 Unit of electric charge

The SI unit of electric charge is a coulomb.

The symbol for electric charge is Q and the symbol for the coulomb is C.

PROBLEMS.

In a chemical reaction, a copper atom loses two electrons to become a copper ion. a) calculate the charge on this
ion.
Answ: charge on one electron = 1.6 x10-19 c

Charge on two electrons = 2(1.6 x10-19 C) = 3.2 X 10-19 C

b) How many electrons are there in a charge of 1.28 x 10-18 C?

Answ: number of electrons = (1.28 x10-18 C) ÷ (1.6 X 10-19 C) = 8

Discharging and lightning conductor

Friction between particles rubbing against each other in a large cloud can build up a large charge on the cloud.
When the charge becomes very large it may discharge through the air to the earth or to the neighbouring clouds
and this would be in a form of flash of lightning, therefore lightning is an electric discharge between the Earth and
a highly charged clouds.

Lightning conductors

A lightning conductor is a thick copper strip fixed to the outer wall of a building or a tall pole near the building. The
top of the rod ends are sharp spikes. At the bottom of the strip there is a copper plate buried in the ground.

Thunderclouds contain a large quantity of negative charge on their underside and positive charge on their tops.
When pass over a building it induces a positive charge on the roof (electrons repelled to the bottom). If the electric

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field (voltage) between the opposite charges is strong enough, there may be a spark of lightning as the charges
flow through the air towards each other.
Positive charge on spikes attract some negatives from the air above it, leaving a positively charged air stream
which rises up to neutralise some of the nagative charge on the cloud, making it less likely that the lightning will
strike. However, if a flash does occur it is less violent and the conductor gives it (negative charge) an easy path to
the ground.

(the sharp spikes at the top reduce the chance of a lightning strike. By effect of action at points, the conductor let
charges on the building leak away before a spark can occur)

16.1.7 ELECTRIC FIELD

Q. What is an electric field?

A. A region around an electric charge where the electric force can be felt by a charged object.

The field lines have both the magnitude and direction. They always move away from the positive charges and
move towards negative charges.

PATTERNS OF FIELD LINES

• A field around an isolated electric charge

• Field lines around unlike charges

• Around like charges

16.1.8 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION

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The process of electrically charging an insulated conductor using the force due to a charged object to separate the
charges in the conductor.

• Separation of charge

• Earthing

Charges separated by bringing a charged rod close to the sphere.

While the rod is still kept at its position, the sphere is earthed by touching with hand -
electrons flow out to earth.

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Charges are evenly distributed around the sphere when the rod and the earth (hand) are removed.

16.1.9 INSULATORS AND CONDUCTORS

Insulators or bad conductors- they can hold charge on their surfaces. The charge does not move through
insulators.
Examples:- plastics (e.g. PVC, polythene, Perspex, etc.), glass, rubber, dry air, sulphur and oil.
Conductors – metals are good conductors of electricity since they have free electrons in their outermost shells. A
conductor cannot be charged as the charge will flow easily through it.
Examples:- most metals (e.g. silver, copper, aluminium), carbon, graphite, acid solutions, salt solutions
Semi-conductors:- are in-between materials. They are poor conductors when cold but much better conductors
when warm, e.g. silicon, germanium
Water, human body, earth and air are called poor conductors – they conduct very slowly

16.1.10 APPLICATIONS AND DANGERS OF ELECTROSTATICS

• Usually electric charges build up on the surface of the car as it moves through air along the road that is
why a passenger may get an electric shock when getting into or out of the car. Therefore if charges are
allowed to build up on trucks carrying flammable goods (e.g. petrol) a very small spark can cause a fire or
explosion. It is then important that such trucks are earthed by attaching a conducting strip that will be
dragged behind the truck or run on conductive rubber tyres.
• Paint spraying – the paint becomes charged due to friction as it is forced out of the nozzle of the spray
gun. If the object to be painted is given the opposite charge the paint will stick to it very well. This
technique is used by farmers when crop spraying and also used to coat cars with paint.
• Dust and ash precipitator - ash in factory chimneys and power stations can be removed by electrostatic
precipitation. Wires inside the chimneys are negatively charged and give a similar charge to the ash
particles. The negatively charged ash particles are attracted to positively charged metal plates inside the
chimney walls. The ash particles are then removed by washing
• In electrostatic photocopying machines – inside the photocopier, there is a light-sensitive plate that would
be given a negative. The image of the document to be copied is projected onto the drum. The bright areas
on the drum lose their because of reflected light from the corresponding white parts on the document
paper but the dark areas on the plate keep their charge. The powdered ink (toner) is attracted to the
charged (dark) areas. A blank sheet of paper is pressed against the plate and picks up the toner. The paper
is heated so that the powered ink melts and sticks to it. The result is a copy of the original document.

16.1.11 QUESTIONS

Q1.a) Name two types of electric charge.

b) A student wants to charge his plastic comb. Describe one way he could charge the comb.
c) the student then holds his charged comb near some small pieces of paper.

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 Suggest what might happen to the paper.

Q2. When a balloon is rubbed in your hair, the balloon becomes negatively charged.
• Explain how the balloon becomes negatively charged.

• the negatively charged balloon is brought up to the surface of a ceiling. The balloon sticks to the
ceiling. Explain how and why this happens.

Q3. Say whether the following attract or repel

• two negative charges

• a negative charge and a positive charge

• two positive charges

Q4. In an atom, what kind of charge is carried by i) protons ii) electrons c) neutrons

Q5. a) Why is it easy to charge polythene by rubbing, but not copper?

b) What makes copper a better electrical conductor than polythene?
c) name one non-metal that is a good conductor.

Q6. When one pulls a plastic comb through their hair, the comb becomes negatively charged.

• Which ends up with more electrons than normal, the comb or the hair?

• Why does the hair become positively charged?

Q7. a) Give an example of where electrostatic charge might be a hazard.

• How can the build-up of electrostatic charge be prevented?

Q8. In the diagram below, a charged rod is held close to a metal can. The can is on an insulated stand.

• Draw in any induced charges on the can.

• Why is the can attracted to the rod even though the net charge on the can is zero?

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 • If you touch the can with your finger, electrons flow through it. In which direction is the flow?

• What type of charge is left on the can after it has been touched?

Q9. Static electricity is useful in spraying paint.

• Write down two uses of static electricity.

• Explain how static electricity works in spray painting. What is the advantage of this technique?

• The paint spreads out as it emerges from the spray gun, why?

Q9. Two charged balls are hung side by side. They settle as shown. What can you say about the charges on the
balls?

Q10. a). A girl rubs a Perspex ruler on her sleeve. She holds it near water flowing from a tap. The water moves
towards the ruler. Explain?

b). What difference would it make if the ruler were made of polythene?

Q11. Use words from the list below to complete the following sentences. You can use them more than once.

attract(s) duster electrons insulators like negatively opposite positively protons

repel rod unlike

A polythene rod is rubbed with a duster. ____________ leave the ____________ and move to the
______________. The polythene becomes ______________ charged and the duster ____________ charged.

Conductors allow ______________ to travel through them but __________ do not.

A positively charged object attracts tiny pieces of paper to it. It __________ electrons in the paper. This leaves the
surface of the paper _____________ charged. They stick together because ________ charges ___________.

Q12. Fig. 12.1 shows two positively charged conducting spheres mounted on rods made of a good electrical
insulator.

Fig. 12.2 shows a section through oppositely charged parallel plates.

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 • Draw the electric field pattern on each diagram.

• Give an example of a suitable for i) the spheres and ii) rods in fig 12.1.

Q13. Three hollow copper spheres are placed near each other in air. The large sphere carries a positive charge

and the two small spheres touch each other, as shown in Fig. 13.1.

Fig. 13.1

The two small spheres are pulled apart, using their insulated handles, and then taken well away from the large
sphere, as shown in Fig. 13.2.

Fig. 13.2

• The charge on the large sphere has been drawn in for you. On Fig. 13.1 and fig. 13.2 draw in the
charges, if any, on each of the smaller spheres.

• Explain why energy is needed to separate the two small spheres.

Q14. An electrically charged sphere C brought near a small uncharged conducting sphere S suspended as
shown in Fig. 14.1. S is attracted towards C until it touches the surface of C and then repelled to the
position shown in Fig.14.2

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 • i. Explain carefully why S is first attracted towards C.

ii. Explain why S is repelled after touching the surface.

• On Fig. 141.2 mark and label each force acting on S.

• When a Bunsen flame is passed beneath S, the sphere falls back towards C. Suggest why this happens?

16.2.0 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

16.2.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT: The amount of charge passing through a given point in a conductor per unit time
OR
The rate of flow of charge in a circuit.
Current = charge/time
I = Q/t

Q = It
------------------------->Coulomb’s law

SI unit : ampere/amp (A)

Other units: milliamps (mA), microampere (μA), kiloampere (kA)
Current is measured using an ammeter. Small quantities of current can be measured using a milli-ammeter. When
the ammeter is used, it should be connected in series with the component through which the current is to be
measured.

16.2.2 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F)

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A cell is a source of electric current. The cell drives the charge around the electric circuit. In doing this energy is
used up.
Electromotive force is the measure of the energy dissipated (used) by a source to drive a unit charge around a
complete circuit. Energy dissipated can also be described as work done.
e.m.f = work done per unit charge
e.m.f = W/Q
The SI unit of e.m.f is a volt (V). A battery with an e.m.f of 1 volt (1 V) gives 1 J of energy to a coulomb of charge
which it drives around a circuit.
1 V = joule/coulomb
1 V = J/C
USING A VOLTMETER TO MEASURE E.M.F
To measure the e.m.f of a cell or a battery of cells, connect a voltmeter in parallel with the cells without any other
components in the circuit. This kind of connection is known as open circuit. The red (+) terminal of the voltmeter is
connected to the +ve of the battery and the black (-) terminal of the voltmeter to the –ve terminal of the battery.

16.2.3 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (P.D)/VOLTAGE

• The work done in moving a unit charge between two points of different electric potential in the external
circuit
OR
• The amount of the electrical energy being transferred to other forms when a charge flows through a
component in the external circuit.
Potential difference is also known as voltage.
Potential difference (p.d) = work done/charge = energy transferred/charge

V = W/Q or V = E/Q

P.D is also measured in volts (V)

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In an electric circuit, chemical energy in the battery is converted into electrical energy in the electrons. Some of
this energy is used up in passing through the lamp. Therefore there is p.d across the lamp.

The p.d is measured with a voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the components of the circuit
where we want to measure the potential difference.

16.2.4 RESISTANCE

• Is the measure of the ability of a conductor to oppose the flow of current/ electrons.
• Current can pass easily through components with a low resistance but it cannot flow easily through
components with a high resistance (very good conductors have almost no resistance and insulators have
extremely high resistance)
• All electrical components have a certain amount of resistance.
• Resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω), kilohms (kΩ), megaohms (MΩ)

FIXED RESISTORS

• Are special components (materials) designed to have a certain resistances. They are used to control the
amount of current in a circuit.

RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

Resistors are colour coded to show their resistance. This consists of three or four coloured bands around the
resistor. The first three bands indicate the value of the resistance in ohms. Bands 1 and 2 are the digits of the
value, and band 3 represents the number of zeroes following the first two digits. The fourth band on the resistor
shows the tolerance of the stated value.

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*NOTE:

• To decide which is the first, remember that the fourth band, if present, will either be gold or silver (or on
rare occasions pink)
• The following may help you to recall the colour codes and their values;
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(Black Birds Roaming OnYour Garden Bring Very Great Woes)

VARIABLE RESISTORS/RHEOSTAT

The resistance of a variable resistor is not fixed. It can be changed or set to different values. They are used in
circuits when the current through the circuit needs to be varied.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

The resistance of a conductor can be found using a voltmeter and an ammeter. A conductor of unknown resistance
is connected in series with an ammeter and a rheostat which is used as a variable resistor. The voltmeter is
connected across the ends of the conductor.
The rheostat is altered to give a series of different values of I and corresponding values of voltage.

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 VOLTMETER READING V(V) AMMETER READING I (A) V/I (V/A)

1.6 0.12 13.3

1.7 0.14 12.1
1.9 0.16 11.9
2.2 0.18 12.2
2.6 0.20 13.0

GRAPH OF VOLTAGE V (V) AGAINST CURRENT I (A)

The graph is straight line passing through the origin (0,0). This indicates that the voltage and current are directly
proportional to each other. The gradient of graph is constant and it represent the resistance of the conductor.
The ratio V/I = a constant. The value of the constant is equal to the resistance of the conductor.

Gradient = R = ∆V/∆I
R = V2 – V1/ I2 – I1
R = V/I ---------------------> OHM’S LAW

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law defines the relationship between the voltage across a component, the current flowing through the
component and the resistance of the component.
The ohm’s law states that;
“the amount of electric current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to potential difference
provided the temperature and other physical quantities remain the same”
V α I ; R = a constant

V = IR -------------------------------------------> ohm’s law

It can also be expressed as:
I = V/R OR R = V/I
RESISTANCE, LENGTH AND CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
area. This means when the length is doubled, the conductor will double its resistance but when its cross-section is
doubled its resistance will be halved.

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Therefore;
• Short and thick conductors have low resistance
• Long and thin conductors have high resistance
Mathematically;
Rαl and R α 1/A
→ R α l/A
→ R = ρl/A where R = resistance in Ω
ρ= resistivity in Ωm
l = length in metres (m)
A = cross-section area in m2
Examples
#1. Find the resistance of an aluminium conductor 200 m long with a cross-section area of 4 mm2 (ρ for Al is
2.83 x 10-8Ωm)
Answ;
Data
l = 200 m A = 4 mm2 = 4 x 10-6 m2 ρ = 2.83 x 10-8Ωm R=?
R = ρl/A
= (2.83 x 10-8 X 200 m)/4 x 10-6
= 1.42 Ω

#2. A wire of length 0.40 m and a diameter 0.60 mm has a resistance of 1.5 Ω. Find the resistivity of the
material it is made of.

DATA
l = 0.40 m d = 0.60 mm = 0.0006 m R = 1.5 Ωρ= ?

R = pl/A
ρ = RA/l A = πr2 = π(d2/4) = π(0.0006 m)2/4 = 2.8 x 10-7 m2
= 1.5(2.8 x 10-7)/0.40
= 1.06 x 10-6Ωm

PROBLEMS

#1. A cell of unknown e.m.f (E) and internal resistance of 2 Ω is connected to a 5 Ω resistor. If the terminal p.d
(V) is 1.0 V, Calculate the e.m.f of the cell?

Data
R=5Ω r=2Ω V = 1.0 V I=? E=?
I = V/R
= 1.0 V/5 Ω
= 0.2 A
THEN E = I(R + r)
= 0.2 A(5 Ω + 2 Ω)
= 1.4 Ω

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#2. A battery of e.m.f 4.0 V and internal resistance of 5 Ω is connected to a resistor of 1.5 Ω. Calculate the
terminal p.d.
Answ
Data
E = 4.0 V r=5Ω R = 1.5 Ω V=?

I = E/(R + r) = 4.0/(1.5 + 5) = 0.6 A

V = E – Ir
= 4.0 – 0.6(5)
= 1.0

16.2.5 I/V GRAPHS – Graphs showing the relationship of current and voltage drop across a
conductor.
• Ohmic conductors
The current through the conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the ends of the conductor
provided the temperature and other physical properties are constant – OHM’S LAW

The graph is a straight line.

The inverse of the graph here is equal to the resistance of the conductor.

• Non – ohmic conductors

They are conductors which do not obey the ohm’s law

• Diode
Voltage is not proportional to current

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 Curve getting steeper- therefore the resistance decrease with increase in current.
Note: if the voltage is increased in the other direction, the current will be almost zero since a diode
allows the current to flow only in one direction. This means a diode has a small resistance when
connected in one way but a very large resistance when the voltage is reversed.
• Filament lamp
Filament lamps or light bulbs are designed to produce light and therefore heat. Any current passing
through the filament will make it hot and increase its resistance. A light bulb is therefore non-ohmic
for the whole range of possible currents

The graph bends over as V and I increase. Then this means the gradient (I/V) decrease and hence the
resistance (V/I) increases and makes the filament hotter.

• Thermistor
A thermistor is an electrical component which is used in temperature-operated circuits such as the
circuits used to control air conditioning units. It is a non-ohmic resistor, its resistance decreases as the
current increases.

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The graph bends up, this means the inverse of the resistance (I/V) increase and therefore the resistance (V/I)
decreases.

LIMITATIONS OF THE OHM’S LAW

Under normal working conditions a resistor is ohmic, its resistance does not depend on the current or voltage
applied to it. If too much current flows through the resistor, it will become hot and its resistance will start to
increase. This resistor has become non-ohmic

Therefore, in general, when the temperature increase the resistance of metals will also increase. The resistance of
some conductors will also change when they are bent or placed under pressure.

16.2.6 QUESTIONS
a). What is the resistance of its element?
b) Why does the element need to have resistance?

Q4. A 6 V supply is applied to 1000 Ω resistor. What current will flow?

Q5. Use ohm’s law to calculate the following:

• The voltage required to produce a current of 2 A in a 12 Ω resistor.

• The voltage required to produce a current of 0.1 A in a 200 Ω resistor.

• The current produced when a voltage of 12 V is applied to a 100 Ω.

• The current produced when a voltage of 230 V is applied to a 10 Ω resistor.

• The resistance of a wire which under a potential difference of 6 V allows a current of 0.1 A to flow.

• The resistance of a heater which under a potential difference of 230 V allows a current of 10 A to flow.

Q6. Explain clearly the difference between electromotive force of a cell and potential difference across a lamp.

Q7.a) If the current through a floodlamp is 5 A, what charge passes in i) 1 s ii) 10 s iii) 5 minutes?

b) What is the current in a circuit if the charge passing in each point is i) 10 C in 2 s, ii) 20 C in 40 s iii) 200 C
in 2 minutes?

Q8. The p.d across the lamp is 12 V. How many joules of electrical energy are changed into light and heat
when:

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i). A charge of 1 C passes through it
ii). A charge of 5 C passes through it
iii). A current of 2 A flows through it for 10 s?

16.2.7 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Some circuit symbols used for different components:

Series circuit
Components are in series when they are connected into a continuous line, end to end such that the same current
flows through each component

• The current that flows through components in series is the same and equal at each and every
point.
• All the components will share the e.m.f. according to their resistances. The largest voltage drop
will be across a component with the largest resistance. The sum of the potential difference in series
circuit is equal to the terminal potential difference across the source.

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 VE = V1 + V2 + V3........ ------------> (1)

V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 VE = IRTOTAL

• Resistance in series

From ohm’s law: V =IR

Then equation (1) above can be modified:
VE = V1 + V2 + V3
IRT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IRT = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
Divide by I
IRT/I = I(R1 + R2 + R3)/I
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 ---------------> Total/combined/effective resistance for resistors in series
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Components are in parallel when they are displayed side by side and their corresponding ends joined.

• The branches will share the main current I according to the resistance of each branch. The largest
current will flow through a branch with the smallest resistance. The sum of the current through the
branches is equal to the main current.
I = I1 + I2 + ........ ----------> (2)
• The potential difference across the components connected in parallel is equal and also the same
as the terminal difference across the source.

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 • Resistance in parallel resistors

Equation can be modified:

I = I1 + I2 + I3
From ohm’s law
VE/RT = V1/R1 + V2/R2 + V3/R3; Remember: V E = V1 = V 2 = V 3
V/RT = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
Factorise and then divide by V
V/RT = V(1/R1 +1/R2 + 1/R3)
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
-------> effective/total/combined resistance for parallel resistors
*For two parallel resistors:
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2
1/RT = R1 + R2/R1R2
RT = R1R2/R1 + R2

RT = Product of resistance/sum of resistance

16.2.8 ELECTRICAL ENERGY

When electrons flow through any component, some of their stored electrical energy is released in (converted to)
different forms:
e.g
• light bulb: electrical energy ------------> light and heat
• kettle: electrical energy --------> heat
• resistor: electrical energy -------> heat
How to calculate the amount electrical energy converted to other forms (or consumed) by an electrical
appliance:
Recall: The amount of electrical energy being transferred to other form(s) when a unit charge flows through a
component (appliance) in a circuit is called the potential difference (voltage).
From the definition it follows;
Voltage (p.d) = Energy transferred/Charge
Energy = Voltage x Charge
E=VxQ

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Remember that Q = It ----------> ohm’s law

Then

E = VIt

SI unit of electrical energy: joule (J)

Other equations;
• E = I2Rt
• E = (V2/R)t
• E = Pt
16.2.9 ELECTRICAL POWER
The amount of electrical energy a component converts into other forms every second is called its (electrical)
power
Or
Electrical power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms.
Power = Energy converted/time taken
P = E/t
P = VIt/t
P =VI

SI unit of electrical power: watt (W)

1 W = 1 J/s
Other equations that can be used to calculate electrical power:
Recall the ohm’s law; V = IR
• I = V/R ii) V = IR
THEN P = V(V/R) We can have P = (IR)R
P = V2/R P = I2R
Examples
#1: A 240 V, 5 A kettle takes 5 minutes to boil 1 L of water.
• What energy change occurs in the kettle?
• What is the electrical power of the kettle?
• How much electrical energy is converted into heat by the kettle in 5 minutes?
ANS:
• Electrical energy --------> heat energy
• Data; V = 240 V, I =5 A, P=?

P =VI
= 240 V x 5 A
= 1200 W
• Data; V = 240 V, I = 5 A, t = 5 minutes =300 s, P = 1200 W, E =?
E = VIt E = Pt
= 240 V x 5 A x 300 s OR = 1200 W x 300 s

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 = 360 000 J = 360 000 J
#2: A 220 V, 10 A electric motor takes 20 seconds to lift aload of bricks to the top of a building 15 m above the
ground. Each brick has a mass 0f 1.5 kg.
• What energy changes occur as the bricks are lifted?
• How much electrical energy is supplied to the motor in 20 seconds?
• Assuming the motor is 100 % efficient, how many bricks can be lifted in a single load?
Ans:
• Electrical energy ----------> gravitational potential energy
• Data; E =?, I = 10 A, V = 220 V, t = 20 s
E = VIt
= 220 V x 10 A x 20 s
= 44 000 J
• Total electrical energy converted = total GPE
44 000 J = mgh
44 000 J = 15 m x 10 N/kg x total mass m of bricks
m = 44 000 J/15 m x 10 N/kg
m = 293 kg
number of bricks = m/mass of a single brick = 293 kg/1.5 kg
= 195 bricks

16.2.9 DOMESTIC ELECTRICITY

Electricity available in household circuits originates from a generator in a power station. Electricity is supplied to
our homes through two cables (wires); Live and neutral. The current flowing through these cables is alternating
current (a.c) with a frequency of 50 Hz. This means that the current in which the current flows reverses 50 times
every second. The electricity cables are connected to the terminals in wall sockets.
• Live wire (brown or red) – carries the alternating current to the appliance. It supplies electricity at a
voltage 240 V. Since the supply is a.c. at 50 Hz, the voltage varies between positive and negative (+240 V
and -240 V) 50 times a second. This causes the current to flow to and fro through the circuit.

• Neutral wire (blue or black)- completes the circuit by providing the return path to the supply (or mains).
The neutral wire is earthed at the electricity substation, therefore it is at 0 V
*Although the neutral wire carries electric charge there is no danger of electric shock if it is touched
since it is at the same potential as a person who stands on the floor.

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 3. Earth wire (green and yellow) or (green)- this wire is for safety purposes. One end of the Earth wire is
connected to the metal case of the appliance. The other end is connected via the wall sockets and metal pipe
to Earth box outside the house.

The earth wire provides a path of almost zero resistance from the case of the appliance to the earth. If the live
wire accidentally touches the metal case of the appliance, a large current will flow through the earth wire and
the fuse melts, isolating the appliance.

Without an earth wire, the case would become live anyone touching it would receive a dangerous shock.

FUSES (& CIRCUIT BREAKERS)

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Function: to prevent excessive current to flow through an appliance. Too high current may cause some electric fire
or accident.
Fuse is a wire made from a metal with a low melting point. If a fuse is part of a circuit, it will eventually melt if the
current is too excessive and the circuit will break. But excessive current may flow through an appliance even if a
fuse there if a short circuit is present.
*Fuses must be connected into the live wire. This ensures that when the fuse melts, the appliance is no longer
“live”.

Fusing Rating
Fuses are rated according to the amount of current required to melt/blow it. E.g. 1 A fuse will melt if a current of 1
A flows through it, a 5 A fuse will melt if a current of 5 A flows through it, etc. Fuse rating are always whole number
integers. The plugs are usually fitted with either 3 A, 5 A or 13 A.
It is vital that the correct fuse is installed into an appliance. The fuse rating should be greater than the normal
operating current of appliance, but as close to it as possible- so that the fuse will be blown as soon as the current
gets too high.
Example
An electrical kettle is labelled 230 V 2300 W. Work out whether a 3 A, 5 A or 13 A fuse is needed.
Ans: First, calculate the normal operating current
P = 2300 W V = 230 V I=?
P = VI
I =2300 W/230 V
= 10 A
If the normal operating current is 10 A, a 13 A fuse should be fitted.
#2 DVD PLAYER: 100 W, 240 V

I = 100 W/240 V
= 0.4 A
So a 3 A fuse is ideal.
*Note: 1) The DVD player would still work with a fuse of 13 A. But if a fault develops, the current will continue
to flow without the fuse blowing and this might cause the appliance to overheat and catch fire.

2) For currents higher than 13 A, circuit breakers are used instead of fuses. Circuit breakers operate
electromagnetically and can be reset by flicking a switch (they do not have to be replaced like fuses)

THREE-PIN PLUG

Three-pin plug power point/socket

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The three wires in an electrical cable of appliances are connected to a three-pin electrical plug. In such plugs the
live wire from the cable is connected to the live pin, the neutral wire is connected to the neutral pin and the earth
wire is connected to the earth pin. When the plug is inserted into a power, each pin on the plug connects with the
corresponding wire in the power point.
*It is important to ensure that wires are correctly connected in both plugs and the sockets. The power point
switch is placed in the live side of the circuit
*The sheath of the cable (not the wires themselves) is clamped to keep the connections safe (intact) if ever the
cable is pulled or tugged.
*The fuse is chosen to suit the circuit which it protects.

DOUBLE INSULATION
Some household appliances, e.g. radios, have plastic cases and their cables do not have an earth wire. They have
only the live and neutral wires. There is no risk getting an electrical shock from a plastic case since plastic is an
electrical insulator. This is described as double insulation because:
• The live and neutral wires are covered in an insulated sheath,
• The appliance itself is covered by an insulated case.
FEATURES OF A HOUSE CIRCUIT

• PARALLEL CIRCUITS:- House circuits e.g. lights are connected in parallel so that appliances receive the full
mains supply of 240 V and also that they can operate independently (e.g each bulb can have its own
switch and also if one bulb breaks, the others will remain on unlike in a series circuit where all would turn
off).
• SWITCHES AND FUSES:- are always connected in the live wire. If they were connected in the neutral wire,
the appliance would remain ‘live’ even when the switch is off or the fuse is blown
• STAIRCASE CIRCUIT:- The light is controlled from two places by the two-way switches.
• RING MAIN CIRCUIT:- the wiring system in which the live and neutral wires run in two complete
rings/loops round the house and the power sockets each rated at 13 A, are tapped off from them
USES OF ELECRICITY
• Lighting
• Filament lamp – has a small coil of tungsten wire which becomes hot when current flows through
it.
• Fluorescent lamp – current is passed through mercury vapour which emits ultraviolet light which
in turn makes the powder on the glass give out visible light.

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 • Heating:- heating elements are made from nichrome wire which has a high resistance. Heating elements
are used in electric fires, kettles, irons, cookers, ovens, etc.
• Machines:- electric machines such as drills, saws, lawn-mowers, cassette recorders, fans, washing
machines, etc all use electric motor which is operated by electricity.
• Communications:- there are various electric powered communication devices, e.g. telephone, cell-phone,
fax, radio, television, telex, computer, etc.
• Security: many security systems such as smoke sensors, automatic gates, remote controlled locks, burglar
alarm, etc operate on electricity.
COST OF ELECTRICITY
Electrical metres (joule-meter) are included in our houses to measure the amount of electrical energy consumed
by the household. The household is charged for the electrical energy they consumed. Electricity supply companies
(e.g. B.P.C) measure electrical energy consumed in kilowatt-hours (kWh) or simply ‘units’.
1 kWh = 1 unit
1 kWh is the measure of the amount of the electrical energy consumed for 1 hour (3600 s) at the rate of 1 kW
(1000 W) or the energy used by an appliance rated 1 kW in 1 hour.
i.e. 1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s
= 1000 J/s x 3600 s
= 3 600 000 J
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ

Then;

cost of electricity = total electrical energy consumed in kWh x cost per kWh

Example:
• How much energy is used by a 3 500 W heater which is on for 30 minutes
• How much will it cost to run the heater if one unit of electricity costs 5 thebe
Ans:
• P = 3500 W (3.5 kW), t = 30 minutes (1/2 h), E=?
E = Pt
= 3.5 kW x ½ h
= 1.75 kW or 1.75 units
• E = 1.75 kW, cost per kW = 5 thebe
Total cost = E x cost per kW
= 1.75 kW x 5 thebe/kW
= 8.75 thebe
= P0.09
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND DANGERS
• DAMP CONDITIONS: Water can conduct current. And also our bodies’ resistance is lower if it is wet and
hence a great amount of current will flow through it. Therefore if electrical equipment gets wet or
touched with wet hands, there is a risk someone being electrocuted (getting an electric shock).

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 • OLD, FRAYED WIRING AND DAMAGED INSULATION:- broken strands mean a wire will have a higher
resistance at one point. When current flows through it, there might be more heat produced, enough to
melt the insulation and cause a fire.
Damaged insulation can cause ;i) an electrical shock to a person touching the exposed ‘live’ wire, and ii) a
short circuit if the bare wires touch.
SHORT CIRCUIT: results if the ‘Live’ wire touches the neutral wire. The current by-passes the appliance
and the current can increase to such a high value that it can cause an electric fire especially if there is no
fuse.

To prevent this, always inspect your cords more frequently and replace worn or damaged cables.
• OVERHEATING OF CABLES: caused by passing a high current on a wire designed for a low current.
Overheating can cause the insulation to melt or burn and can cause fires.
• OVERLOADING OF SOCKETS: connecting many appliances in one socket can lead to overheating of cables
and hence cause electric fires.
FINDING A FAULT
When an appliance stops working it may be due to a fault that is easy to rectify. Before calling a technician it is
wise to try to diagnose the fault.
You may follow the steps below;
• Check that the appliance is switched on.
• Check that the power is on. Do other appliances work?
• Check the fuse. If it is blown, replace it. If the new fuse blows, check for a short circuit.
• Check that the plug is correctly connected, with no loose wires or untidy strands of wire sticking out.
• Check that the cable connection to the appliance is firm.
• Check that the insulation is in good condition. If it looks worn or torn replace it with a similar cable.
*NB:- If after checking all the above, the appliance is still not working, engage a trained technician.
16.2.11 QUESTIONS

Q1. What is meant by the statement ‘the e.m.f. of a battery is 12 V’? When the battery is in use, the
p.d. between the terminals is found to be 11.5 V. What reasons might there be for that?

Q2. An electric heater has a label attached to it, as shown below.

Explain the meaning of the following terms used on the label; (i) 240 V (ii) 50 Hz (iii) power: 2 kW.

Q3. You have a selection of fuses available: 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 7 A, 10 A, 13 A. Which would be the most suitable
fuse for (i) a TV set labelled 230 V, 140 W, (ii) an electric fire labelled 230 V, 2 kW, (iii) a kettle labelled V,
750 W?

Q4. An electric motor is raising a load of weight 5000 N at a steady speed of 0.5 m/s. The motor works from a
250 V supply. How much work is done in 1 second?

Q5. A 720 W kettle boils some water in 10 minutes. How much will this cost if 1 unit of electricity is charged at

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 10 thebe? How long will a 60 W lamp run for the same cost?

Q6. a)Why should wires with damaged insulation be replaced?

b) Often, the plug used to connect an appliance to a wall socket has a fuse fitted inside it. Explain the
reason for this.

c) An appliance which has metal parts, for example an electric kettle, should be earthed. Explain why this
should be done.

d) In some countries it is illegal to have power sockets in a bathroom, to stop you using hairdryers. Why
would it be foolish to use a hairdryer near to a washbasin?

Q7. The diagram below shows the inside of a three-pin plug.

a). What is the name of pin A?

b) What is the name of pin B?
c) What is the colour of the wire connected to the Earth pin?
d)What is D?

Q8. If electrical energy costs 7 thebe per kWh, calculate the cost of the following:

• a 3 kW fire turned on for 6 hours

• a 1.2 kW hair drier for 30 mins
• a 100 W bulb for 10 hours.

Q9. A student using the circuit shown below investigates the relationship between the current flowing through
a resistor and the p.d. across it.

• What is A?
• What is B?
• What is C?
• What is D?

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 The student’s results are shown in the table below.

p.d./V 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

current/A 0 0.25 0.50 0.80 1.00 1.25 1.50

• Plot a graph of p.d. against current.

• Which result appears to have been measured incorrectly?
• What is the resistance of the resistor R?

Q10. A number of 8 Ω resistors are available. Draw diagrams to show how you could connect a suitable
number of these resistors to give an effective resistance of (a) 24 Ω (b) 4 Ω (c) 18 Ω

Q11. An electric lamp is marked 250 V, 100 W and an immersion heater is marked 250 V, 2 kW.

• Calculate the current in each device when operating normally.

• Explain why the filament of the lamp is made to have a larger resistance than the heating element of the
immersion heater.
• Suggest a reason why the filament is made of a metal with a much higher melting point than that of the
element.
• The heat capacity of the filament of the lamp is very small. State one reason why this is an advantage.
• Explain why the wire connecting the immersion heater to the supply remains cool even when the heater
has been in use for some time.

16.3.0 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Electricity can be produced in two ways:
• Chemical reactions: produce flow of electricity from batteries and cells. The current of the electricity
produced in this way is quite small.
• Electromagnetic induction: this is a process of producing electricity in generators and dynamos using
magnetic fields.
16.3.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
Current is created in a wire when:
• The wire is moved through a magnetic field (cutting the field lines)
• The magnetic field is moved past the wire
• The magnetic field around the wire changes strength.
The current created in this way is said to be induced current.
1). Moving wire and a U-shaped magnet

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When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, an E.M.F is induced between the ends of the wire. One end of the
wire becomes positively charged and the other end becomes negatively charged. If the wire forms part of a
complete circuit, the EMF makes (induced) current flow.
In the above diagram, first the wire is held at rest between the poles of the magnet and the galvanometer
observed. The wire is then moved in each of the six directions shown
Observations:
• There is deflection on the galvanometer only when the wire is moving upwards (direction 1) or
downwards (direction 2) indicating flow of current in the circuit.
• No deflection on the galvanometer when the wire is moving in other directions (3, 4, 5 & 6), showing that
there is no current induced in those cases.

• Explanation of observations
• An EMF is induced in a conductor (e.g. wire) only when it crosses (cuts) magnetic field lines and this cause
a current to flow if the conductor is part of a complete circuit.
• There is no induced EMF or current when the wire is not moving or is moving parallel to the lines.
Direction of induced current
The direction in which the current flows through the wire depends on the following factors
• The direction of motion of the wire
• The magnetic field direction.
Therefore reversing the direction of motion or polarity will reverse the current direction.
The direction can be predicted using fleming’s right hand rule

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 *Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand at the right angles to each other. Then according to
the fleming’s right hand rule the First finger points in the direction of the magnetic Field, the thuMb points in the
direction of the Motion and then the seCond finger shows the direction of the Current.
The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:
• Moving the wire faster
• Using a stronger magnet
• Increasing the length of wire in the magnetic field, e.g by looping or coiling the wire through the several
times.
The above facts are summed up by Faraday’s Law. The law states that:
‘The size of induced EMF (or current) is directly proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts the
magnetic field lines’
2). Bar magnet and coil
An EMF can also be induced in the conductor when a bar magnet is pushed in and out of a coil. If the coil is part of
a complete circuit the induced EMF (VOLTAGE) drives a current round the circuit.

When the N pole is moved into the coil, the galvanometer register current, its needle is seen to be deflected to the
right.

When the magnet is held still inside the coil, the needle returns to its zero position. This shows that no current is
flowing because there is no movement therefore no magnetic field lines are being cut.

When the bar is pulled out of the coil, the needle is deflected to the left. This shows that moving the magnet in the
opposite direction reverses the current direction.
*NB:- 1) the similar results as the above can be obtained by moving a coil of wire over a stationary magnet.

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 2) But if the S pole of a magnet, rather than the N pole, is used the direction of the current also reverses
and opposite results will be obtained for diagrams (a) and (b) above.
The size of the induced EMF (and hence of current) can be increased by:-
• moving the coil or magnet faster
• using a stronger magnet
• increasing the number of turns on the coil (this increase the length of wire cutting through the
magnetic field).

LENZ’S LAW
The direction of the induced current through the coil can be found by using the Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s law states that:
‘The direction of the induced current is in such direction as to oppose the change producing it’.

According to the Lenz’s law, in (a) the induced current should flow in a direction which makes the coil behaves like
a magnet with its top as a N pole. Then the incoming magnet is repelled and the downward motion is opposed.
But when the magnet is removed, the top of the coil should be a S pole so that the removal of the magnet will be
opposed as the N pole is attracted and the current will thus flow in the opposite direction to that when the magnet
is pushed in.

16.3.2 A simple a.c. generator (alternator)

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a). In a simple a.c. generator (alternator) the coil is rotated by the shaft.
b). the slip rings rotate with the coil. When the coil is rotated, it cuts magnetic field lines so a voltage is
generated. This makes a current flow. As the coil rotates, each side travels upwards, downwards,
upwards.... and so on through the field. So the current flows backwards, forwards..... etc. Therefore it is a.c.
c). the current passes to the outside circuit via carbon brushes which press against the side of each slip ring.
A typical graph that shows how voltage (or current) varies over one complete rotation

Note: . a). The current is greatest when the coil is horizontal because it will be cutting field lines most rapidly.
But current is zero when the coil is vertical since it will be along the field lines and no cutting
happens. Also the current will change the direction when in a vertical position.
b). increasing the speed of rotation increases the frequency of an a.c. generated. Frequency of an a.c. is
the number of complete cycles it makes in each second. For the mains supply a.c.’s frequency is 50
Hz.
The voltage (or current) from the generator can be increased by:
a). using a stronger magnet
b). increasing the number of turns in the coil.
c). winding the coil on a soft-iron armature and using a bigger coil
d). rotating the coil at a higher speed.

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16.3.3 A simple d.c. generator (dynamo)

An a.c. generator becomes a direct current one if the slip rings are replaced by a commutator (which contains two
half-rings known as split rings). The carbon brushes are arranged such that as the coil goes through the vertical,
changeover of contact occurs from one half of the split ring of the commutator to the other and the commutator
reverses the voltage induced and so one brush is always positive and the other negative. And this ensures that
current to the outside circuit always flows in the same direction.
Just like in an a.c. generator, when the coil rotates, a current is produced by electromagnetic induction and the
current passes to the external circuit through the brushes in contact with the commutator. Although the induced is
d.c. it varies in value unlike the d.c from the battery.

The current is maximum when the coil is horizontal and minimum (or zero) when the coil is vertical.
Bicycle dynamo

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It uses the principles of electromagnetic induction to generate electricity in bicycles. The driving wheel of the
dynamo presses against the tyre of the bicycle. When the tyre rotates, it turns the driving wheel of the dynamo
and causes a cylindrical permanent magnet to turn as well. The turning permanent magnet reverses the
magnetism through the soft-iron core every time the coil is rotated by 180°. This change in the magnetic field
through the core induces an a.c. in the coil wire (stator coil). The size of the current produced can be increased by
increasing the speed of the bicycle.
16.3.4 MUTUAL INDUCTION
This involves the induction of current in one circuit, whenever it cuts a magnetic field produced by another circuit
i.e current induced in a circuit due to the changing magnetic field of another circuit.

Observation:- when switch S is closed, the galvanometer needle deflects and returns to zero. When opening the
switch the needle deflects to the opposite direction and back to zero.
Explanation:- when closing the switch, the current in the primary coil (coil A)sets up a magnetic field which is
linked up to the secondary coil, inducing the current in it. The needle returns to zero as the current reaches a
constant value and the magnetic field is not changing. When opening the switch current is turned off. The
magnetic field changes as the magnetic field lines cutting coil B die, this induces current in B. A soft iron core can
be placed between the coils. It will trap the magnetic field lines so that all of them cut the coil B.
16.3.5 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device which makes use of mutual induction to change voltages (and is frequently used in home
to step down the mains voltage of 230 V to 6 V or 12 V). It consists of two coils of insulated wire wounded on an
iron core. The coil connected to the a.c. input is called the primary coil and the coil that provides the a.c. output is
called secondary coil.

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Q. Describe how alternating voltage is produced/induced in the secondary coil [4]
- alternating voltage in the primary coil,
- produces a changing field in the core.
- this changing magnetic field induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil.
*Note:- 1). The purpose of the iron core is to ensure that all the magnetic field lines generated in the primary
coil is made to pass through all the turns of the secondary coil.
2). A transformer can only operate on a varying voltage. A D.C. voltage in the primary coil will not
produce any change in the magnetic field so with D.C. no current is induced in the secondary coil.
Two types of transformers
1). Step-down transformer
2). Step-up transformer

1).Step-down transformer- has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil. Therefore it
produces a smaller voltage in the secondary coil(less output voltage).

2). Step-up transformers- have more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil, so their
output/secondary voltage is greater than the input voltage.

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The relationship between the number of turns and voltage in the secondary and primary coils can be given by the
equation:-
Primary coil voltage/secondary coil voltage = number of primary turns/number of secondary turns
VP/VS = NP/NS

TRANSFORMER EQUATION
If no energy is wasted in a transformer, the power (energy per second) delivered by the output coil will be the
same as the power supplied to the input.
Then, since P =VI, we can have the transformer equation as;
Input voltage x input current = output voltage x output current
VpIp = VsIs

Note: V α 1/I
This follows that a transformer which increases the voltage will reduce the current in the same propotion, and vice
versa.
ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
All transformers waste some energy because of the following factors
1). Resistance of the copper coils.
Copper coils are not perfect electrical conductors. Whenever some current flow through them, some
electrical power/energy is used to overcome their resistance and this energy will then be given out as
useless heat to the surrounding. Therefore, their resistance need to be kept low.

Reducing energy loss due to resistance in copper coil

-use thick copper wire

2). Eddy currents

The core is itself a conductor, so the changing field induces current called eddy current in it. The eddy
currents also cause heating effects.

Reducing energy loss due to eddy currents

- use laminated iron core
i.e. it is made of thin sheets of iron (or
mumetal) instead of a solid block, which are insulated from each other to have a high resistance.

3). Leakage of field lines

All the lines produced by the primary coil may not cut the secondary coil, especially if the core has an air
gap or badly designed.
Q. Name a liquid used as a coolant in transformers
A. Oil
*Large transformers have to be oil-cooled to prevent overheating.

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TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL POWER
1). Power for the a.c. mains is generated in power stations and then transmitted through long –distance
cables. A network of overhead cables, supported on pylons, which connect power station/s to consumers is
called a National Grid. Power from the grid is distributed by a series of substations. These contain step-
down transformers which reduce voltage in stages to level needed by consumers.
Q. What is the name of giant structures that support overhead cables in a national grid system?
A. Pylons
2). A.C or D.C?
Electric power is generally transmitted as a.c. Why? This is because a.c. can be easily and cheaply stepped up or
down using a transformer. A transformer does not work with D.C.

3). High or Low voltage?

Transmission cables have significant resistance, especially when they are hundreds of kilometres long. This
means energy is wasted because of the heating effect of the current.

e.g. What is the power wasted in the cable when 10 kW is transmitted through a cable of resistance 0.5 Ω
at a) 200 V b) 200 000 V
NOTE:- Power loss, P = I2R
a). at 200 V
I = P/V = 10000/200 = 50 A
Then Power loss P = I2R = 502(0.5) = 1250 W
b). at 200 000 V
I = P/V = 10000/200000 = 0.05 A
THEN, P = I2R = 0.052(0.5) = 0.00125 W

From the calculations, it is demonstrated that less energy/power is wasted from a cable if power is transmitted
at high voltage. Then a transformer can be used to increase the voltage, and reduce the current and this
means thinner, lighter and cheap cables can be used.

4). Overhead or underground?

Overhead cables are cheapest way of sending power long distances. Underground cables are more
expensive to lay. However, they are used in areas of outstanding natural beauty, where pylons would spoil
the landscape.

16.4.6 QUESTIONS
Q1. Give three examples of actions that cause an induced e.m.f to be set up in a coil of wire.

Q2. Fig. 2.1. shows a magnet being pushed into a coil of wire, which is connected to a galvanometer. Which of
the following statements is/are correct?

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 Fig. 2.1

• The induced current will flow from A to B through the coil.

• The induced current will flow from B to A through the coil.
• No induced current will flow.
• End B will become a north pole.

Q3. A magnet is used to induce a current in a coil of wire. List three things that could be done to increase the
current produced.

Q4. Fig. 4.1 shows a conductor AB in a magnetic field. Mark in the direction of the magnetic field. Which
direction will current be induced in the conductor AB when it is moved:

• Into the page

• Out of the page?

Fig. 4.1.

Q5. i) The diagram below shows a bar magnet, and a coil of wire connected to a sensitive ammeter.

As the magnet was pushed slowly into the coil the ammeter pointer moved 10 divisions to the right.

What would you expected to happen

• If the magnet is pulled slowly out of the coil?

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 • The magnet is held stationary inside the coil?
• The magnet is turned around so that its north pole is nearer the coil. The magnet is then pushed quickly
into the coil?
• Explain in your own words why the ammeter deflects.

ii) The diagram shows the direction in which a galvanometer needle is deflected when a magnet is moved
towards a coil. The size of the arrow represents the speed at which the magnet is moved.

Show the position of the galvanometer needle in each of the following cases:

Q6. Fig. 6.1. shows a structural diagram of bicycle dynamo. Study the diagram and answer the following
questions:

• What turns the driving wheel of the dynamo?

• What is connected to the output of the dynamo?
• Briefly explain how the dynamo produces current.

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 • How could the output of the dynamo be increased?

Q7. Draw a sketch graph to show how the EMF of a simple a.c. generator varies with time over two full
revolutions. Relate the positions of the coil to the values shown on your graph.

b) draw a second sketch graph showing what you would expect if the speed of rotation of the coil were
doubled.

c) i. Describe the main difference in the construction between a d.c dynamo and an a.c dynamo.
ii. Sketch a graph to show how the current generated by a d.c dynamo varies with time. How would the
output change if a coil with twice as many turns were used?

Q8. The filament of table lamp is connected to a 250 V, 50 Hz mains supply by two wires. One wire is the live
wire and the other is the neutral.

• Use the axes in Fig. 8.1 to sketch a graph which shows the variation with time of the voltage of the live
wire during one cycle. The zero of the voltage scale is earth voltage.

Fig. 8.1

• On the axes in Fig. 8.2 show the corresponding variation of voltage of the neutral wire.

Fig. 8.2
Q9. Fig. 9.1 shows the essential parts of a moving-iron ammeter.

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 Fig. 9.1

• Explain why the needle deflects when a steady current passes through the coil.
• Explain why the direction of the deflection is unchanged when the direction of the current is reversed.
• State and explain what would be observed when the steady current is replaced by an alternating current
with a frequency of 50 Hz.

The coil of an ammeter has a resistance of 0.5 Ω. A resistor of resistance 0.25 Ω is connected between the
terminals of the ammeter, and a current of 2 A passes as shown in fig. 9.2

Fig. 9.2

• Calculate the effective resistance of the coil and the resistor when connected as shown in f.g. 9.2.
• Calculate the potential difference between the points A and B.
• Calculate the current in the coil of the ammeter.

17.0 ATOMIC PHYSICS

17.1.1 RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactive decay can be defined as a process in which a heavy nuclides (radioisotopes) spontaneously break
down/disintegrates to smaller more stable nuclides.

Some materials (isotopes) contain atoms with unstable nuclei and these isotopes are said to be radioactive. The
nuclei can become stable by emitting tiny particles, energy or both. These particles and energy from the nucleus
are called radioactive emissions/radioactivity/nuclear radiation and the breaking-up process is called radioactive
decay.

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Define radioactivity

It spontaneous breakdown of nucleus of an atom.

There are three main types of radioactive emissions, namely:-

• Alpha radiation (α- radiation)

• Beta radiation (β-radiation)
• Gamma radiation (γ-radiation)

Summary of main properties of the alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Type of radiation Alpha particle (α) Beta particle(β) Gamma rays (γ)
Nature nucleus of helium An electron Electromagnetic waves
Charge +2 -1 0
Mass High(heavy) Low(light) None
Ionizing effect strong weak Very weak
Penetrating effect can be stopped by a stopped by a thin sheet Stopped by lead and thick
sheet of paper. of aluminium concrete
Effects of fields Deflected by magnetic Deflected by magnetic Not deflected by magnetic or
and electric fields and electric fields electric fields

*Ionization occurs when a radioactive emission such alpha particle knocks electrons out of the surrounding
molecules or atoms leaving them as charged ions. Alpha particle is the most ionizing radiation because it has the
greatest size and mass.

*Penetration power: all the three radioactive emissions can penetrate materials because their sizes are much
smaller than the spaces separating the atoms in materials, even in solids. Beta particles are more penetrating than
alpha particles because they are much smaller. Gamma radiation is the mostpenetrating because it is an
electromagnetic wave without mass or size.

*Deflection in electric and magnetic field

Alpha and beta particles are deflected by electric fields because they are electrically charged. Alpha particles are
least deflected because of their larger mass and inertia.

• Alpha particles will be attracted towards negatively charged plates because they are positively charged.
• Beta particles are attracted towards positively charged plates because they are negatively charged.

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 • Gamma radiation has no charge and is unaffected by charged plates.

17.1.4 Uses of radioactivity

• Thickness gauges: Radioactive isotopes help manufacturers to check and carefully control the thickness of
product like duplicating machines paper.

• a radioactive isotope is placed on one side of the material and a detector on the other side.
• The amount of particles (radiation) reaching the detector is monitored closely by the machine
operator or control unit. If the thickness of the material (paper) increases, fewer particles will
reach the detector and visa versa
*The isotope has to be chosen to suit the requirements of the manufacturer. For example, an alpha
emitting isotope would be suitable choice for a paper factory and a beta source would be more
suitable for a steel mill. Gamma sources are not suitable since gamma is a very penetrating radiation.

2. Sterilization of surgical equipment: Surgical equipment is placed in sealed bags and then exposed to short
bursts of gamma radiation. The gamma rays kill any microbes inside the bag and the contents will remain
sterile until the bag is opened.

• Penetrating gamma rays from cobalt-60 are used to kill cancer cells in the body.

3. Long-life fruits and vegetables: Many fruits are also exposed to short bursts of gamma radiation. The
gamma rays kill any micro-organisms which may be inside the fruit, reducing the chances of the fruit rotting
whilst on the shop shelves.

4. Medical tracers- some isotopes are used as tracers to see the performance of specific organs in the body
such as kidneys or the thyroid gland. The patient will be given a liquid containing iodine-123, a gamma
emitter and a detector would then be used to measure the activity of the tracer to find out how quickly
iodine becomes concentrated in the gland.

5. Radioactive isotopes can be used as tracers to detect leaks in underground pipes for gas, water and sewage.
A small amount of gamma radiation source is injected into the pipe and the leak can later be detected with
Geiger-Muller tube.

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6. In Agriculture isotopes can be used:-i) as tracers to find how fertilisers and other nutrients are used in
plants. ii) to alter genes in seeds to produce genetically modified plants with superior qualities to natural
plants.

7. Carbon dating: this technique is used by historians and archaeologists to estimate age of historic artefacts
and also it is used by geologists to estimate the age of rocks and fossils.

17.1.5 Dangers of Radiation

• The danger from alpha particles is slight.

• Large doses of beta and gamma rays can cause radiation burn
• Gamma rays can penetrate deep into the body and destroy cells inside the body or cause cells to multiply
uncontrollably forming cancer or damage chromosomes causing genetic defects (mutation).

17.1.6 Safety handling and storage of radioactive isotopes

Even when a radioactive material emits low levels of radiation, (e.g. materials used in school laboratories), it must
be handed with extreme care.

Handling:

• Always handle isotopes using forceps or special gloves

• Keep away from eyes. Do not point the source towards any person.
• Always wash hands after handling.

Storage

• Keep the samples in special boxes lined with lead

• Store the boxes in a locked cupboard

Disposal of radioactive waste

• Burn low-level waste or bury it in the ground or release it into the sea
• High-level waste in steel drums are buried in disused mines or granite caves or bedded in concrete and
dumped in deep oceans. Or stored at special factories for re-processing.

17.1.7 Background Radiation

It is low level radiation that is always present around, mainly because of radioactive materials in the ground and
air. Every person on Earth is exposed to this form of radiation. Major sources are:

• Rocks
• Soils and underground water

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 • Cosmic and solar rays
• Food and drinks
• Man-made radiation
• Buildings

17.1.8 DETECTING ALPHA, BETA PARTICLES AND GAMMA RAYS BY INVRESTIGATING

PENETRATING ABILITY - EXAMPLE

The source is a piece of radium which emits all the three types of radiation.
X Y

• Switch on the meter and record the background radiation.

• Set the source at position X and take a reading all the three radiation.
• Put a sheet of paper at Y (between the source and the G. M tube)and take a reading for beta gamma rays.
• Put a 3 mm sheet of aluminium at Y and take the reading for gamma rays only.
• In each case subtract the background radiation from the meter reading
A typical set of results is shown below on the table

Material at Y Meter reading Background Radiation detected Reading - background

None 186 6 α, β, γ 180

Paper 126 6 Β, γ 120

Aluminium (3 mm) 87 6 γ 81

Using these results:

The alpha radiation is 180 – 120 = 60

The beta radiation is 120 – 81 = 39
The gamma radiation is = 81

17.2.0 NUCLEAR REACTION

17.2.1 Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus (such as U-235) by hitting it with a neutron into two nearly equal
smaller nuclei and two or three neutrons. The lost mass appears as energy.

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A beam of neutrons is directed at the uranium atom. If a neutron strikes a nucleus of U-235, this splits into two
roughly equal parts, and shoots out two or three neutrons as well. If these neutrons hit other U-235 nuclei, they
make them split and give out more neutrons. And so on. This process is known as a chain reaction.
235
92 U + 01n ------->56144Ba + 3690Kr + 2 01n

If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, huge numbers of nuclei are split in a very short time. The heat builds up so
rapidly that the material bursts apart into an explosion. This happens in a nuclear (atomic) bomb. If the chain
reaction is controlled, there is a steady output of heat. This happens in a nuclear reactor.

A NUCLEAR REACTOR

In nuclear reactors, fission is carried out in a controlled way. Reactors use naturally occurring uranium, U-235 and
U-238 but only U-235 undergoes fission with slow neutrons. Neutrons from the fuel rods go into graphite core,
where they collide with graphite atoms and lose K.E. The graphite is called a moderator because it slows down the
neutrons. The neutrons then pass into fuel rod (which consists of uranium) and cause fission. The boron steel rods
control the rate of fission by absorbing some neutrons. The heat generated by nuclear fission warms a coolant fluid
which circulates through the moderator. The coolant may be water or gas CO 2 . The heat is used to turn water into
steam. The steam drives the turbines and generates electricity.

17.2.2 Nuclear fusion

In fission a heavy nucleus split in two to release energy. On the other hand in nuclear fusion the opposite is done
to produce large amounts of energy.
Nuclear fusion is the combination of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, e.g. two nuclei of hydrogen-2
(deuterium) can be combined to form a nucleus of helium-3.

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 2 2
1 H + 1 H -------------->23He + 1
0 n

For two nuclei to fuse, they must be brought sufficiently close to each other. But it is difficult to do this as they
repel each other with large electrical force. To overcome this repulsion, the nuclei have to be heated to high
temperature (e.g. 108 K) so that they gain enough K.E.

• The sun obtains its energy from nuclear fusion. In the sun the temperature is about 10 million °C and the
hydrogen-2 atoms have enough energy to fuse.
• Uncontrolled fusion on Earth can result with hydrogen bomb. Initial high temperature required is
obtained by using an atomic (nuclear) bomb to trigger off fusion. A hydrogen bomb releases much more
energy than an atomic bomb.

17.2.3 Nuclear energy

In radioactive changes (or nuclear reaction), a little bit of mass disappears (this is called mass defect), and
equivalent amount of energy appears as kinetic energy of the formed particles.
The relationship between these mass and energy can be given by the following equation (formulated by Albert
Einstein)

E = mc2
where c2 = speed of light, 3 x 10 m/s

E.G:- When radium decays into radon, about 1/40 000 0f the mass of each decaying atom disappears. Calculate
the energy released from 1 g (1/1000 kg) when it decays to radon.

Data: m = mass disappearing = (1/400 000) x (1/1000 kg) = 1/(4 x 10 7) = 2.5 x 10-8 kg
c = 3 x 108 m/s

E = mc2
= 2.5 x 10-8 x (3 x 108)2
= 2.25 x 109 J

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