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Lesson 3 Foundations OF Curriculum

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LESSON 3: FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Foundations of curriculum
When developing curriculum, experts dwell and draw much of the knowledge and principles on
the existing pillars. These pillars are the factors which provide background information on which
the curriculum developers depend to make the decisions. These pillars are the foundations of
curriculum.

Curriculum foundations therefore refer to the factors that influence the minds of curriculum
developers to make a decision on what to be included in the curriculum and its structure. They are
historical foundations, philosophical foundations, psychological foundation and sociological
and cultural foundation.

On one hand, it is true that the four foundations of curriculum have stood the test of time and
therefore knowledge must emanate from them, while on the other hand, the unshaken argument
over qualifying technology as a foundation of knowledge cannot escape that same status due to
its longevity, capacity, borderless, inclusivity and the influence it has over people and events
across the globe.

Historical foundations of curriculum

Historical foundations of curriculum are factors and issues from the past that influence
curriculum at present. For instance, the nature of the present curriculum in any school system of
education is influenced by the nature of the curriculum in the past.
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Definition
These refer to those influences on the curriculum that are derived from developments in
the past. They form the basis for decision making and systematic growth of the educa-
tion system.

Relevant aspects in discerning the Historical Foundations of Curriculum

i) Early Christian Education
ii) The Renaissance
iii) The Reformation
iv) The scientific movement
v) The progressive Education Movement

i. Early Christian Education

The values of early Christian education were a blend of Greek, Roman and Hebrew
ideals. The early Christian schools taught the liberal arts and also concerned them-
selves with inducting new believers into church membership.
The Curriculum of the early Christian schools comprised the teaching of discipline,
church, doctrine, moral standards, Christian theology, science, mathematics and astron-
omy.

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ii. The Renaissance

Following increased quest for knowledge and thirst for adventure ‘humanistic schools’
were established.
The curriculum of the ‘humanistic schools’ emphasized the study of man as a prerequi-
site to understanding man’s role and contribution to society.
Humanistic schools received inspiration from traditions in the Roman grammar schools.
The curriculum in ‘humanistic schools’ included good manners, morals, rhetoric compo-
sition, sports, games and dance.
Due to increased degree of enlightment during the renaissance period, there arose a
need for people with certain vocational skills related to international and national trade.
As a result the curriculum of the school started to have an increasing amount of voca-
tional studies in the form of book-keeping, business arithmetic, general correspondence
and the keeping of committee minutes and records.
The height of the Renaissance saw the development of the university in response to the
need for a higher cadre of professional people with special faculty specializations.
H.G.Good (1960) states that the university then developed faculties to cater for:
– Studies in liberal arts
– Law studies
– Medicine
– Theology

iii. The Scientific movement

The campaigns of Martin Luther, led to the publication of biblical and other materials in
the vernaculars so that every person should read for themselves and independently in-
terpret the bible.
The humanistic curriculum was enriched with the study of science, mathematics, history
and gymnastics.
Ignatius of Loyola developed an expanded and advanced curriculum as a counter
movement to the reformation in Jesuit schools.
The reformation contributed further to educational growth by inciting the church into
greater activity in elementary, secondary and higher education (cubberley 1968)

iv. The Progressive Movement in Education

Educators and philosophers of the sixteenth century were concerned more with obser-
vation regarding the working of the universes.
This was led by Francis Bacon among others. It led to the philosophy of realism which
has three district phases, with various implications of the curriculum.
These are Humanistic Realism, Social Realism and Sense Realism.

a. Humanistic Realism
Advocated student mastery of form and content of the old literature as a basis for im-
proving the present world.
The humanistic realist curriculum drew upon classical literature to cope with the prob-
lems and needs of the 19th Century.

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b. Social Realism
Social Realism aimed at meeting the purposes of the contemporary world.
It was class conscious as a result it advocated an elicit education for the aristocracy.
It emphasized private tuition in the home, using paid tutors.
It aimed at producing a polished gentleman of high society.
c. Sense Realism
It was concerned with problems of the current real world and emphasis on an instruc-
tional approach based on sense perception

v. The Progressive movement in Education

The advocates of the progressive movement were reacting against the shortcomings in
the traditional school system.
The argued
i) The curriculum content of the traditional system included a great deal of meaningless
and needles content.
ii) The traditional curriculum did not give utility education. It mainly emphasized aca-
demics
iii) The traditional methods of teaching introduced the child to subject matter of no prac-
tical value
iv) The traditional curriculum was rigid and did not cater for the individual needs of par-
ticular students.
The progressive education curriculum instead emphasized five approaches to the
teaching/learning process.
i) Teacher- pupils planning of curricular activities
ii) Flexible curriculum and individualized instruction
iii) Non-formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas such as games and re-
lated hobbies.
iv) Learner centered methodology
v) Selection of study material in line with expressed interests and concerns of the
learner.
All these allowed children maximum self-direction and reduced teacher domination of
the teaching/learning process.

Both the content and pedagogical practices are outgrowths of specific historical conditions. Ad-
ditionally, the various historical movements in education influence the current curriculum to
some degree.

Some of the major forms of education in the past that are recognized globally in education in-
clude: Traditional Education, Ancient Education (Greek Education, Roman education and Chris-
tian Education), Early Modern Era, which includes: Renaissance, Reformation and Enlighten-
ment (Age of Reason), Modern Era including (Progressivism) Within the African context, educa-
tion systems and practices during the colonial era (for most of Africa) would have an influence
on current curriculum.

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History will tell the curriculum planner how to develop and modify the curriculum, with the
experiences of the past, what to teach and what should be the core material of the subjects, what
objectives they want to achieve through the curriculum.

The history of the curriculum also explains the teacher psychology at different times in history
and how to improve their teaching styles.
The history also provides a detail about the learner behavior at different times in history

It also provides information about the psychology of the students, how they learn and what they
want to learn.
In times curriculum changed its shapes and patterns from teacher center curriculum to learner
center curriculum due to the long history of the curriculum development process from Plato to
modern curriculum. the history of the curriculum also changed the teaching methods, now every
researcher are finding new ways to teach and it is also becoming the part of curriculum an
history.

Philosophical foundation curriculum

Philosophical or value foundations constitute the values and beliefs that make up the
philosophies of life and of education and have a permeating influence on the other foun-
dations.
Statements of educational philosophy point to methodical efforts by philosophers to:
i) Examine values in society
ii) Derive meanings from facts
iii) Organize experiences in a manner useful to educational practitioners and the pupils
in the school system.
iv) Justify one or some educational beliefs over others.
v) Develop new proposals of educational practice for translation into action.
In utilizing knowledge of philosophy in curriculum, the curriculum planner is seeking to
establish ideas and notions that will indicate a priority of values in selecting experiences
for the curriculum.
The value or philosophical orientations which the educational system is charged with
promoting form an integral part of the culture of a nation.
Philosophical Schools
They include:
i) Traditional school represented by perennialism and Essentialism
ii) The progressive school represented by progressivists
The three schools have advanced three theories of subject matter as shown below

The perennialists

They believe subject matter should be taught for its own sake.
They also believe that permanence of curriculum content and experiences is more im-
portant than change

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Subject matter has a value which is inherent in the subject being taught
It’s also their belief that educational system should be stable and its purposes steady.

Perennialists Approaches to subject matter

i) Emphasis is laid on the classical subjects. These are subjects valuable in their own
right and any educated person was expected to have had exposure to them.
ii) Emphasis is laid on the desire to make children literate and moral to enable them
earn a living as well as find a useful place in society.

Principles of perennialists

i) Human nature remains the same

ii) Man’s highest attribute is rationality
iii) Students should be taught certain basic subjects

The Essentialists

To the essentialists subject matter should be taught for use. They maintain that there
are certain essentials that each student in school ought to know.
The essentialists devote their time to:
i) Re-examining curricula matters
ii) Distinguishing the essential and the non-essentials in school programmes
iii) Re-establishing the authority of the teacher in the classroom
The essentialists and perennialists agree on certain fundamental principles such as:
i) Learning involves hard work often couple with unwilling application.
ii) The teacher’s role is to mediate between the adult world and the world of the child.
iii) The heart of the educational process is the assimilation of prescribed subject matter.
iv) The school should retain traditional methods of mental discipline.
.
The Progressivists

They believed that subject matter is a medium for teaching life processes and skills.
They take the pragmatist view that change, is the essence of reality.
Educators must be ready to modify methods and policies in light of new knowledge and
changes in the environment
To progressivists, a good school is not a place of compulsory instruction but a commu-
nity of old and young engaged in learning by co-operative experience.

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Progressivists’ principles

i) Education should be life itself not a preparation for living

ii) Learning should be directly related to the interests of the child
iii) Learning through problem solving should take precedence over the inculcating of
subject matter
iv) Teachers have to advise not direct pupils
v) The school should encourage co-operation as opposed to competition

Philosophical positions

The three prominent philosophical positions that are closely related to perenialism and
progressivism are Idealism, Realism and Pragmatism.

Idealism

It is largely a traditionalist view which is a carry over from Plato’s writings

Idealism uses deductive reasoning in its quest for answers to current day problems.
They believe in the independence of truth from the individual or the society.
There is over emphasis on the intellectual aspects.
Idealism stresses the role of education in the transmission of the cultural heritage as
handed through the ages from the past. Hence it is a preserving function.
It allows the concurrent study of liberal and vocational education, as a means to living
completely through understanding life.

Realism

The realist believes in the existence of a real world, divorced from the imaginations of
the perceiver.
To the realist, the real world is the physical world of the physical matter of man and has
a specific role to play in daily routine and actions.
Here, the problems of man in life are approached through the inductive method by
which data is gathered to form a basis for new principles and generalizations.
Realism accepts God as the motive cause of all existence.
Realism argues that education should induct learners into their culture and help them to
adjust to the natural order of things in order to live in harmony with the universe.
Teachers act as guides: making children aware of the true nature of real world.
Realists advocate a study of physical and social sciences which are instrumental to ex-

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plaining natural phenomena.

Mathematics is also encouraged.
Advocates of realism include John Amos Comenius, John Locke and John Herbart.

Pragmatism

It is a progressivist position that sees reality as being in a state of flux or constant

change.
Pragmatists employ the realist approach in gathering information and facts, and idealist
approach in generalizing about the facts gathered.
Pragmatism seeks meaning in the immediate situation
According to pragmatists, education
– Should enable the learner to experience situations in practice
– Is a means for recreating, controlling and redirecting, experience.
– Should help learners to solve their problems and is to be considered an integral part
of life.
Systematic sequencing of learning experiences is emphasized by pragmatists.
Teachers should provide an atmosphere in which learners identify the problems and
seek solutions to them.
Teachers should also arrange an environment that provides experience for learners.
The curriculum should be organized on the basis of the learners’ interests and the sub-
ject matter selected should help the learner to solve problems.

Philosophy involves an inquiry into the nature and meaning of life including ideas about the na-
ture of human beings, social values and purpose of education. One's perception of Philosophy
largely influences one's view of learners and of various learning activities.

The philosophical foundation of curriculum helps determine the driving purpose of education, as
well as the roles of the various participants.

While all foundations propose to set goals of curriculum, philosophy presents the manner of
thinking from which those goals are created.

Curriculum makers, must have espoused a philosophy or philosophies deemed necessary for
planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum.

The philosophy they have embraced will help them achieve the following:
1. define the school’s purpose
2. identify the essential subjects to be taught
3. design the kind of learning students must have
4. develop approaches or methodologies on how students can acquire the necessary knowl-
edge, skills, and attitude
5. produce the instructional materials
6. identify the methods and strategies to be used, and
7. determine how teachers will evaluate students.
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Likewise, philosophy offers solutions to problems by helping the administrators, curriculum

planners, and teachers make sound decisions.

A person’s philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and economic background, shared
beliefs, and education.
(Refer to the Unit: Philosophy of Education)

Psychological foundation of curriculum

Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology play a vital role in the teaching learning
process it is the foundation for all type of educational related programmed.
Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning process.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
These are insights gained from psychology which have a bearing on the learning
process.
Psychologists believe that learning experiences have to be introduced to the learner
when such exposure is most effective and most beneficial to him.
The following issues should be taken into account when dealing with learning experi-
ences in the curriculum.
– Capability of the learner
– Maturational level of the learner
– Students’ rate of learning as well as how they learn
Psychology as a discipline helps the curriculum designer and the teacher to reach deci-
sions in relation to:
– Sequence – in the stages of development
– Organization – grouping of learning experiences for optimal effect.
– Methodology – dealing with the question of what methods and approaches are likely
to promote and guiding learning most effectively.
Psychology also contributes to:
– Formulation of appropriate educational goals
– Decisions regarding the scope of curriculum
Theoretical Branches of psychology
i) Behavioral Psychologists
They have contributed to decision making in curriculum through their findings and theo-
ries regard.

ii) Connectionist Psychologists

The work of connectionists like E.L. Thorndike (1931) has established the phenomenon
of the relationship between environmental stimulus in a learning situation and the re-
sponse to such stimulus and that repeated connection of pairing of the environmental
stimulus and the response embeds skills so learnt in the learner’s mind.

iii) Gestalt and Organsmic Psychologists

Also called Field Theory psychologists.
They stress the understanding of the relationship between the physical world and the
world of experience.

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They believe learning takes place more efficiently when the learner is given the opportu-
nity to view a complete learning situation from which he/she proceeds to make response
choices as opposed to the piecemeal presentation of isolated elements in the problem
situation.

iv) Mental Health Practioners

psycho analysts and other mental health practitioner have helped to explain many is-
sues regarding human behavior especially that which is related to stress condition their
findings, educational authorities are now in a better position to deal with crisis situations
that come up now and then in a school setting and which have an effect on the learners
level of concentration at the tasks provided by the learning environment.
An understanding of certain basic psychological principles will enhance the effective-
ness of planning design and development of the curriculum in a number of ways.
a. The physical, health and physiological status of the learner in the classroom has a
bearing on the rate at which he will learn.
b. The learner’s nervous condition also has an effect on his mental readiness
c. Curriculum should be planned in accordance to different age groups corresponding to
different age- grade levels.
d. Different age groups have unique problems which require that curriculum is planned
according to such.
e. Like adults, learners have their own interests and aspirations and this should deter-
mine curriculum structure.
f. Effects of rewards and punishments on the process of learning should be considered.

Psychology provides an indispensable base for identifying the types of curricular arrangement
that will most benefit the learner's growth and development.

By providing a basis for understanding the teaching/learning process, educational psychology

deals with how people learn.

The methods of teaching, the selection of content of subjects, the methods and theories of
learning, the overall development of the students and to inculcate the norms of the society in the
students.

It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum will be organized to achieve students’ learning at
the optimum level and what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various
contents of the curriculum.

The following are some psychological theories in learning that serve as major foundations of cur-
riculum development:

Learning theories and curriculum

Behaviorism

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The behaviourist school, which represents traditional psychology, is rooted in a corresponding

philosophical speculation about the nature of learning. It has particularly dominated psychology
in the first half of the twentieth century.

Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism where the mastery of the subject
matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of
drills and repetition are common.

For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it as mechanical and routine. Though
many are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the influences it had on our educational sys-
tem.

Cognitivism
Today most psychologists explain the phenomenon of human growth and development in cogni-
tive, social, psychological and physical terms.

They also note that learning is primarily cognitive in nature. Growth and development refer to
changes in the structure and function of human characteristics.

Most cognitivists believe that growth and development occur in progressive stages. One example
is Piaget's (Piaget, 1950) description of cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to
maturity.

Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their
thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:
 How do learners process and store information?
 How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
 How much information can they absorb?

With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and
popularize reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, and oth-
ers.

Humanism
Humanism is taken from Gestalt’s theory, Abraham Maslow’s theory, and Carl Rogers’ theory.
This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of human potential.

In this theory, the curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal needs, not
on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and environmental situations. In
short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are human beings who are af-
fected by their biology, culture, and environment.

They are neither machines nor animals. Along this line, curriculum developers must craft a more
advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human potential. Teachers don’t only
educate the minds, but the hearts as well.

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Phenomenology and curriculum

Phenomenologists point out that the way we look at ourselves is crucial for understanding our
behaviour and that we respond to an organisation or pattern of stimuli and not to an isolated stim-
ulus. It emphasizes that learning must be explained in terms of the "wholeness" of the problem.

Here you can draw a parallel with cognitivism. But what differentiates phenomenology from
cognitivism is that the former stresses the affective and the latter the cognitive aspects of learn-
ing. Because each individual has specific needs and interests related to his or her self-fulfillment
and self-realisations, there can't be a generally prescribed humanistic curriculum.

Humanistic learning may enhance the mental health of the learners, harmonise personal feelings
among students and teachers, and improve various aspects of human awareness among students,
teachers, and curriculum specialists, yet its processes rely mainly on personal experiences and
subjective interpretations that leave them open to criticism. Therefore, there is a great need to ex-
amine and understand what is relevant in humanistic curricula.

Sociological foundation of curriculum

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
The social foundations encompass the systematic study of groups and institutions in the
culture with reference to their contribution to the process and growth of the educational
system as well as the established practices in the school system.

In the sociological Foundations, the curriculum designer is actually dealing with cultural
values, societal needs and the learners’ backgrounds.
The institutions and forces which make up the culture and related analytical techniques
determine the curriculum or programme of education schools will follow.
The curriculum should be able to examine and clarify obstacles prevalent in society
which make change in positive direction difficult.
In designing a curriculum based on social foundation the following distinct levels should
be considered
i) Purpose of the curriculum
ii) Pressure influencing the curriculum
iii) Characteristics of the students experiencing the curriculum
iv) Role and contribution of other social institutions such as the family and religious insti-
tutions.

The sociological foundation emphasizes the influence of society to education. It is founded on

the belief that there is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum
because it exists within the societal context.

Any discussion of curriculum should consider the social setting and its influence on curricular
decisions. A study of sociology provides, among other things, necessary clues about the charac-
teristics of contemporary life and the future in which the learners will lead the rest of their lives.
These clues help to make a curriculum socially relevant.

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Social pressures influence the characteristics of students who experience the curriculum in the
educational institutions which are established and maintained by society.

Students live in a world larger than the college/school and learn a great deal from experiences in
that part of their lives. What a learner acquires in the college/school and outside may be comple-
mentary or conflicting to each other.

The latter case gives rise to the complaint that what is learned in college/school has little to do
with the real world. But, in the former case the college/school may be a major factor in the im-
provement of society by helping young people to develop the capacity to respond intelligently to
social problems.

In this way, the curriculum serves not only the needs of the learner, but also the needs of society.
For these reasons, in developing curricular plans, we must consider the characteristics of contem-
porary society as well as those that are expected to emerge in the future. Of course, curriculum
planning and course content basically depends on an analysis of the nature of society (Kelly,
1989)

Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, other units of society educate or
influence the way people think, such as families and friends, and communities.

Since society is dynamic, many developments are difficult to cope with and adjust to.
But the schools are made to address and understand the changes not only in one’s country but in
the world as well.

Society is dynamic, with the changing popularity of a particular philosophy mirroring factors
such as environmental and economic needs: war or peace time, recession or time of abundance,
changing technology, and so on. For example, if a nation is at war, greater emphasis will be
placed on sacrificing for the greater good, moralistic principles, and adhering to group norms.

Therefore, schools must be relevant by making their curriculum more innovative and interdisci-
plinary. A curriculum that can address global learners’ diversities, the explosion of knowledge
through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies.

During such times, however, there will be dissention based on counter philosophical ideas; the
strength of one’s philosophical convictions will determine one’s perception of the current events,
including those impacting education.

Society influences curriculum in the following ways:

Society and education

Most of us regard education as synonymous with schooling. But, in actual fact even a society
that has no formal colleges/schools still educates its young through ceremonies, rituals, stories,
observation and emulation of parents, elders, etc.

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The norms of society govern interpersonal relations and produce a model personality-the
attitudes, feelings and behaviour patterns most members of a society share.

It also assigns specific roles to each of its members and expects them to conform to certain
established behavioural patterns.

Clearly, global aspects of human growth and development are accomplished partly by the
structured curriculum in use in colleges/schools and partly by society. Does this mean that a
curriculum should mirror current social forces?

A curriculum while reflecting contemporary social forces should also be able to respond to the
dynamics of change. By implication, the curriculum should not only reflect society but also help
to shape it.

Social change and the curriculum

Contemporary society is changing so swiftly that we have difficulty coping with it, adjusting
ourselves to the present and preparing for the future.
Contrary to this fact, our colleges/schools appear to be conservative institutions that usually lag
behind the change.

To make education respond to social changes, a curriculum should be framed keeping in mind,
among other things, the following:
i) growth of technology;
ii) structure of the family; and
iii) cultural diversity. What we mean by each of these is discussed below:

Growth of technology
Today, the young are growing up in a world that is very different from that of a generation or two
ago. Connected with this is the fact that ours is a society based on information. In addition to the
creation of new kinds of jobs, this new information society will influence all the other aspects of
the workplace.

At one level, such influence will motivate societies to use computers and other information-
processing devices to replace manual workers, at another, the locale of the workplace will also be
affected. In agricultural and industrial phases, workers have had to be brought to a central
location where goods are/were produced.

Given the availability of communications technology, this kind of centralization will no longer
be necessary for every activity. One can simply work at home using microcomputers. And,
increased value will be placed upon persons who can network their credentials to fill the
emerging needs of the information society.

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Underlying all this is a serious challenge to the ethics of work that has pervaded our society and
schools/colleges. Among the values the schools/colleges have promoted are those related to the
productive industrial worker-punctuality, loyalty, acceptance, appearance etc.

In the decentralised information-society, workers will find themselves largely working alone,
setting flexible work patterns, working hours and servicing more than one employer.
Furthermore, having been replaced by new technology, many will have difficulty finding new
jobs because they lack certain skills. Thus, the combination of the growth of technology and of
the information society may lead to a serious review of the traditional ethics of work and its
place in our society. Obviously, I curriculum will have to undergo a change in order to match
with and capture social changes.

Structures of family
The family has been viewed as the basis of the complex social fabric. The picture of the family
consisting of both natural parents and their children is steadily fading, replaced by a much more
complicated diversity of family structures.

For example, separation, divorce and childbirth without marriage have given rise to the
phenomenon of single parent homes. Geographical mobility is weakening the bonds of the
centrally located, extended family of grandparents, aunts, uncles and other relatives.

Traditionally, while men used to go out to work, women managed the home. Now we find
increasing number of families in which both the father and the mother work.

How does this influence educational institutions?

The school/college as we know it today evolved in the context of the traditional family structure.
Mothers were expected to provide a stable and predictable environment for young people.

When children had problems in school/colleges, parents could be called upon to devote time and
energy to support the values and efforts of the school/college.

Today, these expectations are no longer certain. As the structure of family has changed, so has its
role and function in relation to the school/college. Traditionally our lives have been focussed on
common social features of life and even conformity.

Today, however, people have begun to seek more diversity in life styles, seeking new pathways
and alternative routes. Among the many institutions that are affected by the new wave of
individualism and diversity is the school/college.

The reason is that schools/colleges have served as major sources for promoting common I values
among youth. This new trend in life patterns and values poses serious questions in curriculum
planning.

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Symptoms of the breakdown in sex-role stereotypes are clearly visible in many areas of life. As
women assume new roles and demonstrate excellence and ability in them, some disgust or
resentment on the part of those who continue to cling to old stereotypes cannot be avoided. The
changing perception and reality of sex roles and this opposition to such changes will also have a
tremendous impact on curriculum development.

Cultural diversity
As we are moving away from "a melting-pot" society to a "salad bowl" one, the increasing trend
away from a homogeneous culture towards one of diversity/plurality is quite conspicuous. This
shift of movement can be attributed to the following phenomena: diversity in values and life-
styles (being different is now a socially sanctioned idea); renewed interest in ethno-history
(people have developed a new interest in their own histories and personal heritage); and
development in telecommunications (people have been reminded of their links with cultures in
other parts of the world).

Traditionally, an educational institution has been viewed as the major social agent in the
"melting-pot" process. Now it is caught in an ambiguous position between its traditional role and
the emerging trend towards diversity. The question as to how the curriculum should portray
cultural values, then gains importance in curriculum development today.

Having reviewed the social changes and pointed to their impact on curriculum planning, we
might say that the human society is, in general, in transition from an industrial to post-industrial
phase of our history, though at different stages of advancement.

Identifying the general direction that the new phase will take is particularly challenging since
there is no historical precedent for post-industrialism. As long as a society is dynamic, the debate
over the aims of education will stir up changes. Perhaps this is good, perhaps this is what makes
society viable and able to resist decay.

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