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Collection Highlights

Roman Urbanism in Italy: Recent Discoveries and New

Directions (University of Cambridge Museum of Classical
Archaeology Monographs) Alessandro Launaro

Roman Error: Classical Reception and the Problem of Rome’s

Flaws Basil Dufallo

The Roman Emperor and His Court c. 30 BC-c. AD 300: Volume

2, A Sourcebook Benjamin Kelly

Senses, Cognition, and Ritual Experience in the Roman

World (Ancient Religion and Cognition) Blanka Misic
Representing the Dynasty in Flavian Rome: The Case of
Josephus' Jewish War (Oxford Classical Monographs) Dr
Jonathan Davies

Evangelical Worship : An American Mosaic Melanie C. Ross

Buildings, Faith, and Worship: The Liturgical Arrangement

of Anglican Churches 1600-1900 Yates

The Emperor of Evening Stars Laura Thalassa

The Emperor of Evening Stars Laura Thalassa

 PREFACE

The substantial revision and expansion to turn my 1995 thesis

into a book was in the main finished in early 1998. Later liter-
ature has only been taken into account in instances where it
affected my argument. As it happened, 1998 was a golden year
in the field of Roman religion, with the appearance of two truly
substantial works in the area: Religions of Rome I–II by
S. Price, M. Beard, and J. North, a treasure trove for anybody
interested in the subject; and a superb re-publication, by John
Scheid, of the Arval Acta (see Bibliography). Though Scheid’s
splendid tome has superseded the earlier publications of
Henzen and others, I have refrained from revising my refer-
ences to the Arval corpus for two reasons: the high cost of the
volume may prevent it from being accessible everywhere; and
readers with access to Scheid’s book will have no difficulty in
converting my references by use of its excellent indices and
concordances.
A practical note on my use of parentheses in quotes should
clarify matters for non-initiates in epigraphical conventions. In
source quotes, Greek or Latin, parenthetical text in the same
type (roman or italic) as the surrounding text marks either: (...):
expansion of abbreviated text in the original; or: [...]: restora-
tion of text which has not been preserved in the original; or:
<...>: letters inadvertently left out by the ancient scribe or
stonecutter in the original. Parenthetical text in different type
(roman or italic) from the surrounding text is my explanatory
interjection.
In English translations of sources in Greek or Latin, how-
ever, abbreviations in, or restorations of, the original text are
not noted, and [...] marks my explanatory interjection or para-
phrase. The sole exception is the Mamia inscription (p. 80),
where the translated restoration of a lacuna has similarly been
marked with [...]. Translations are my own unless otherwise
noted.
viii Preface
I owe great debts to more people than I can possibly enumer-
ate here. My supervisor Simon Price, whose book Rituals and
Power was the main reason I wanted to go to Oxford in the first
place, gave constant support and encouragement far beyond the
call of duty. Barbara Levick aided me tremendously with her
critical acumen, great kindness and infectious energy. In the
revision stage, I was also most fortunate in having the learned
and downright enjoyable assistance of John North. Warm
thanks are also due to Greg Rowe for inspiring criticism and
steadfast friendship throughout, and to Peter Brown of Trinity
College for much-appreciated help with Plautus and my
Chapter 2. I also benefited much and pleasurably from the
learning of the friendly staff at the Heberden Coin Room, in
particular Chris Howgego. My editors at OUP have kindly
guided me through the tortuous path of publication with dili-
gence and professionalism.
My teachers in archaeology at Aarhus, Niels Hannestad (to
whom I originally owe my interest in divine emperors) and
Lise Hannestad, have generously aided me throughout my
studies, professionally as well as personally. Per Bilde and his
wife, Pia Guldager Bilde, gave me kind encouragement at
various stages. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Kristian
Jeppesen, who first showed me how to use my eyes.
My work was made possible by financial assistance from
Aarhus University, who gave me a scholarship, by Forsker-
akademiet, who paid my Oxford fees, and by Statens
Humanistiske Forskningsråd, who enabled me to undertake the
substantial expansion of the thesis, which I judged necessary
for book publication to make sense. The Faculty of Literae
Humaniores kindly supplied a grant to cover the cost of the
illustrations.
I also extend my warm thanks to my parents for solid
encouragement and occasional peptalks. And lastly, my debt to
my wife Hanne is more than words can express: as a small token
of my appreciation I dedicate this book to her.

Ittai Gradel
Department of History
University of Copenhagen
April 2002
 LIST OF FIGURES

1.1. A standard state sacrifice in front of the temple of

Jupiter Optimus Maximum on the Capitol
2.1. Lararium from Pompeii, House of the Vettii
2.2. Another lararium painting from Pompeii, now in the
Museo Nazionale, Naples
4.1.A–B. The altar in the imperial temple in the Forum of
Pompeii
4.2.A–H. Marble altar from Abellinum, now in the Museo
Irpino, Avellino
4.3. The Forum of Pompeii (after Mau)
5.1. Two Augustan compital altars
5.2. Fresco relating to the pre-Augustan compital cult of
the Italic colony on Delos
5.3. The Sorrento base
5.4. As of Nero,  64–66; reverse: the Genius Augusti
(i.e. of Nero) sacrificing to himself
7.1.1. The ‘Frieze of the Vicomagistri’, arranged according
to Anderson’s reconstruction
7.1.2. The ‘Frieze of the Vicomagistri’, detail of left part
with a group of togate figures; the presumed emperor
is the headless figure fourth from left
7.1.3. The ‘Frieze of the Vicomagistri’, detail with young
Lar-carriers
7.1.4. The ‘Frieze of the Vicomagistri’, central part with
sacrificial victims (heifer, ox, hind part of bull)
7.1.5. The ‘Frieze of the Vicomagistri’, right end part with
victim (bull) and two togate figures heading the pro-
cession
7.1.6. The ‘Frieze of the Vicomagistri’, left-hand corner
with fragment of sacrificial attendant
7.1.7. The ‘Frieze of the Vicomagistri’, right-hand corner
with relief fragment (leg and foot of a throne?)
7.2. Sestertius of Caligula
7.3. A: Sestertius of Tiberius,  22–23, showing the
x List of Figures
statue of Divus Augustus by the theatre of Marcellus,
altar in front; B: As, c. 42, reverse: Diva Augusta
9.1. Altar from Nola
10.1. The Fasti Praenestini
11.1. The altar of C. Manlius
12.1. Tiberian coinage in honour of Divus Augustus
12.2. Relief panel depicting the apotheosis of the empress
Sabina (d.  136)
12.3. Examples of coins in honour of Divi
12.4. Relief on the base of a column erected in honour of
Antoninus Pius (d.  161)
12.5. Cameo cut in sardonyx showing the emperor
Claudius riding an eagle and being crowned by a
winged victory
12.6. Private funerary relief, second century 
.. Le Grand Camée de France, cut in sardonyx
between  14 and 29
12.8. Silver beaker from Herculaneum
12.9. Temple of Divus Antoninus and Diva Faustina
12.10. Map of the centre of Rome c.300, showing temples
and other monuments of the Divi
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AA Archäologischer Anzeiger
Abb. Abbildung/Figure
AE L’Année Épigraphique
AEHE Annuaire de l’École pratique des
Hautes Études
AJA American Journal of Archaeology
AJP American Journal of Philology
ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der
Römischen Welt
Anth. Graec. Anthologia Graeca
App. BC Appius, Bella civilia
ARID Analecta Romana Instituti Danici
Aristoph. Av. Aristophanes, Aves
Aristoph. Eq. Aristophanes, Equites
Arnob. Adv. Nat. Arnobius, Adversus Nationes
Artemidorus, On. Artemidorus Daldianus,
Onirocriticus
Ascon. Asconius (ed. A. C. Clark (1907): C)
Aur. Victor, Caes. Aurelius Victor, Caesares
BCAR Bollettino della Commissione
Archeologica Communale in Roma
BdA Bollettino d’arte del Ministero per i
beni culturali ed ambientali
BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical
Studies of the University of London
BJb Bonner Jahrbücher
BMC Mattingly and Carson, British
Museum Catalogue of Coins of the
Roman Empire (1923– )
BMC Grueber British Museum Catalogue of
Republican Coins (1910)
BMGP Bolletino dei monumenti, musei e
gallerie pontificie
C see Ascon.
xii List of Abbreviations
CAH The Cambridge Ancient History (1st
edn., 1923–39, 2nd edn. 1961– )
Censorinus, De Die Nat. Censorinus, De Die Natali
Cic. Ad Att. Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum
Cic. Caec. Cicero, Pro Caecina
Cic. Inv. Rhet. Cicero, De Inventione Rhetorica
Cic. Leg. Cicero, De legibus
Cic. Nat. Deor. Cicero, De natura deorum
Cic. Off. Cicero, De officiis
Cic. Phil. Cicero, Orationes Philippicae
Cic. Planc. Cicero, Pro Plancio
Cic. Rep. Cicero, De Republica
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
Cod. lust. Codex lustinianus
Cons. ad Liviam see Ps.-Ov.
cos. consul
CQ Classical Quarterly
CR Classical Review
CRAI Comptes rendus de l’Académie des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Dig. Digesta
Dio (Exc. Val.) The Excerpta Valesiana of Dio
Cassius
Dio (Xiph.) Xiphilinus’ epitome of Dio Cassius
Dion. Hal. Ant. Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
Antiquitates Romanae
DNMQE devotus/-i/-a numini maiestatique
eius/eorum
Ep. Corneliae Epistula Corneliae Matris
Gracchorum
Eph. Epigr. Ephemeris Epigraphica
EPRO Études préliminaires aux religions
orientales dan l’empire romain
Expl. Arch. de Delos Exploration archéologique de Délos
Fasti Ant. Mai. Fasti Antiates maiores
Fasti Praen. Fasti Praenestini
Fest. Sextus Pompeius Festus (ed. W. M.
Lindsay (1913): L)
Flor. Epit. Florus, Epitome bellorum
fr. fragment
 List of Abbreviations xiii
Front. Ep. ad M. Caes. Fronto, Epistulae ad Marcum
Caesarem
Gaius, Inst. Gaius, Institutiones
Gell. Gellius, Noctes Atticae
Germ. Arat. Germanicus, Aratea
HA Al. Sev. Historia Augusta, Alexander
Severus
HA Ant. Pius Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius
HA Carac. Historia Augusta, Caracalla
HA Com. Historia Augusta, Commodus
HA Elag. Historia Augusta, Elagabalus
HA Get. Historia Augusta, Geta
HA Hadr. Historia Augusta, Hadrian
HA M. Ant. Phil. Historia Augusta, M. Antoninus
Philosophus (= Marcus Aurelius)
HA Sev. Al. Historia Augusta, Severus
Alexander
HA Tac. Historia Augusta, Tacitus
Herod. Herodian
Hesiod, Op. Hesiod, Opera et Dies
Hor. Carm. Horace, Carmina
Hor. Epist. Horace, Epistulae
HTR Harvard Theological Review
ILLRP Inscriptiones Latinae Liberae Rei
Publicae, ed. A. Degrassi
ILS H. Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae
Selectae
JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies
JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology
JRS Journal of Roman Studies
Justin Mart. Ap. Justin Martyr, Apologiae
Juv. Juvenal
L see Fest.
l. line
ll. lines
Lact. Div. Inst. Lactantius, Divinae Institutiones
Ling. Lat. De Lingua Latina
Liv. Livy
MAAR Memoirs of the American Academy
in Rome
xiv List of Abbreviations

Manil. Astr. Manilius, Astronomica

Mart. Martial
Mart. Pion. Martyrium Pionii
MEFR Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire
de l’École française de Rome
Min. Fel. Minucius Felix
NC The Numismatic Chronicle
NSc Notizie degli scavi di antichità
Ov. Ex Ponto Ovid, Epistulae ex Ponto
Ov. Fast. Ovid, Fasti
Ov. Met. Ovid, Metamorphoses
Ov. Trist. Ovid, Tristia
PBSR Papers of the British School at
Rome
Pers. Persius
Phaed. Phaedrus
Philo, Leg. Philo Judaeus, Legatio ad Gaium
PIR Prosopographia Imperii Romani
Plaut. Asin. Plautus, Asinaria
Plaut. Capt. Plautus, Captivi
Plaut. Pers. Plautus, Persa
Plaut. Pseud. Plautus, Pseudolus
Plaut. Rud. Plautus, Rudens
Plin. Ep. Pliny, Epistulae
Plin. Nat. Hist. Pliny, Naturalis Historia
Plin. Pan. Pliny, Panegyricus
Plut. Ant. Plutarch, Vitae Parallellae:
Antonius
Plut. Mar. Plutarch, Vitae Parallellae: Marius
Plut. Quaest. Rom. Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae
Plut. Rom. Plutarch, Vitae Parallellae:
Romulus
Plut. Sulla Plutarch, Vitae Parallellae: Sulla
Polyb. Polybius
p. R. populus Romana
P. Red. Quir. post reditum Quiritibus ad populum
Ps.-Ov. Cons. ad Liviam Pseudo-Ovid, Consolatio ad Liviam
or Epicedium Drusi
Quint. Quintilian
RAL Rendiconti della Classe di Scienze
 List of Abbreviations xv

morali, storiche e filologiche

dell’Academia dei Lincei
RE Pauly, Wissowa, and Kroll, Real-
Encyclopedie der klassischen
Altertumswissenschaft (1893– )
REA Revue des études anciennes
reg. region/regio
REL Revue des Études Latines
Rhein. Mus. Rheinisches Museum
RIC Mattingley, Sydenham et al.,
Roman Imperial Coinage (1923–67)
RG Augustus, Res Gestae
RM Mitteilungen des deutschen
archäologischen Instituts: Römische
Abteilung
SC de Cn. Pisone patre Senatusconsultum de Gnaeo Pisone
Patre
Schol. Pers. Scholia ad Persium
Schweiz. Münzbl. Schweizische Münzblätter
SEG Supplementum epigraphicum
Graecum (1923– )
Sen. Ap. Seneca, Apocolocyntosis
Sen. Clem. Seneca, De Clementia
Sen. De Const. Sap. Seneca, De Constantia Sapientis
Sen. De Ira Seneca, De Ira
Sen. Tranq. Seneca, De Tranquillitate Animi
Serv. Ad Aen. Servius, Ad Aeneidem
Serv. Ad Buc. Servius, Ad Bucolica/Eclogas
Stat. Silv. Statius, Silvae
Suet. Aug. Suetonius, Augustus
Suet. Caes. Suetonius, Caesar
Suet. Cal. Suetonius, Caligula
Suet. Claud. Suetonius, Claudius
Suet. Dom. Suetonius, Domitianus
Suet. Galb. Suetonius, Galba
Suet. Gramm. Suetonius, De Grammaticis
Suet. Ner. Suetonius, Nero
Suet. Tib. Suetonius, Tiberius
Suet. Vesp. Suetonius, Vespasianus
Suet Vit. Seutonius, Vitellius
xvi List of Abbreviations

Tab. Heb. Tabula Hebana

Tab. Siar. Tabula Siarensis
Tac. Ann. Tacitus, Annales
Tac. Hist. Tacitus, Historiae
TAPA Transactions of the American
Philological Association
Tert. Ap. Tertullian, Apologeticus
Val. Max. Valerius Maximus
Varro ARD Varro, Antiquitates Rerum
Divinarum (fragments, ed.
B. Cardauns (1976) )
Varro, Ling. Lat. Varro, De Lingua Latina
Varro, Rust. Varro, De Re Rustica
Vell. Velleius Paterculus
Villa dei Mist. Villa dei Misteri
Vitr. Vitruvius
YCS Yale Classical Studies
ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und
Epigraphik
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Illustration sources (unless noted in captions): Cover, 5.4:

Royal Coin Collection, National Museum, Copenhagen; 1.1,
12.2, 12.5, 12.7: Dept. of Classical Archaeology, University of
Aarhus; 2.1, 2.2: Dept. of History, University of Copenhagen;
4.1–2, 5.1, 5.3, 7.1.2–7, 11.1: DAI, Rome; 7.1.1: drawing by
Anders J. B. Jørgensen; 7.2–3, 12.1, 12.3: Heberden Coin
Room, Ashmolean Museum; 12.4: photographer Niels
Hannestad; 12.6: Dept. of Classical Antiquities, National
Museum, Copenhagen.
 1
Introduction

The proconsul [Quintilian] said: ‘Offer sacrifice.’ ‘No’,

[Pionius] answered. ‘My prayers only must be offered to
God.’ But [Quintilian] said: ‘We reverence all the gods, we
reverence the heavens and all the gods that are in heaven.
What then, do you attend to the air? Then sacrifice to the
air!’ ‘I do not attend to the air’, answered Pionius, ‘but to
him who made the air, the heavens, and all that is in
them.’ The proconsul said: ‘Tell me, who did make
them?’ Pionius answered: ‘I cannot tell you.’ The pro-
consul said: ‘Surely it was the god, that is Zeus, who is in
heaven; for he is the king of all the gods.’1

The owl of Minerva flies only at dusk: basic mental notions

will typically find explicit expression only when challenged or
under pressure from outside. The early Acts of the Christian
Martyrs present several fascinating illustrations of this: in their
dialogues with Christian defendants presenting fundamentally
different views on God and theology, Roman officials could be
called on to verbalize and rationalize customs and values so
basic, so much taken for granted, that they were hardly ever
stated without such provocative prompting. The governor who
heard the case of Pionius in Smyrna in the days of the Decian
persecution,  250, furnishes an example. What he and other
governors trying Christian defendants demanded of them was
not any specific belief, cosmology, reasoning, or philosophy,
but simply an action: sacrifice. Dragged, however, into a dog-
matic discussion in the context of the traditional pagan rite,
sacrifice of wine and incense to the gods, the governor comes
out with his own ad hoc cosmology: Zeus had made the world,
for he was king of the gods.
Where did he get this answer? No school of philosophy had
1
Mart. Pion. 19.9–13, Musurillo (1972, 160 ff .), id. tr. (adapted); Robert et
al. (1994); Lane Fox (1986, 460 ff .).
2 Introduction
presented such a cosmology, and none of the stories of myth-
ology told this tale. Apparently the governor himself made up
this answer on the spot. What is revealing in the story is that
he did not employ any of the readily available answers from
philosophy or mythology to legitimize the rite demanded of
Pionius. That rite, sacrifice, in this case a bloodless one, did not
need to be pinned onto a dogmatic or philosophical system to
be defended. With impressive tradition behind it, it had always,
or so it must have seemed, been the natural way to honour the
vastly superior powers of the gods: sacrifice was the core
element in divine worship.
The account of Pionius before the governor was penned by
a Christian writer, and the governor’s dialogue was put in his
mouth for the benefit of a Christian audience. It is not to be
taken literally as a faithful transcript of the exchange. But its
imagery of pagan arguments should not be summarily dis-
missed for that reason. The didactic message of the text is
obvious: each member of the Christian audience savouring
Pionius’ cruel martyrdom had to be prepared for the same
situation. The text was meant to encourage them to display the
same nerve, the same unflinching resolve as that of Pionius, a
presbyter whose constancy was not even shaken by the fact that
his own bishop had lapsed and performed the sacrifice. Recent
examinations have upheld the text of Pionius’ martyrdom as
contemporary and faithful in its details, whenever these can be
subjected to control. But whether factual, elaborated, or simply
invented, the dialogue is not a mere mythical construct, nor
is the pagan adversary portrayed as a madman or a raving
disciple of Satan: Christians knew their opponents, knew what
to expect from a governor attempting to make them forsake
their principles; they had to know in order to prepare for their
moment of glory. The governor’s insistence on demanding the
rite itself without any dogmatic underpinning was indeed
telling and typical. It faithfully reflected the edict of Decius
where the emperor demanded of his non-Jewish subjects that
they should sacrifice, plain and simple, without requesting
from them any specific beliefs or theology or recognition of any
named gods.
The story of Pionius and Quintilian the governor is one of
many that could be quoted to illustrate the fallacies of inter-
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Note: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 37: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Chapter 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 41: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 42: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 46: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 47: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 48: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 49: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Abstract 6: Case studies and real-world applications
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 51: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 52: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 54: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 56: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 57: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 7: Key terms and definitions
Practice Problem 60: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 64: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 65: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 68: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 69: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 70: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Results 8: Critical analysis and evaluation
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 74: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 76: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 77: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 79: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 9: Interdisciplinary approaches
Practice Problem 80: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 81: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 82: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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