Elective IV: Internet of Things and Machine Learning

Question Bank
Unit I
Q: What are the applications of IoT
Ans:
The applications of IoT span various real-world domains, where interconnected devices
enhance efficiency, automation, monitoring, and control. Based on your IoT course
notes, key application areas include:
1. Smart Cities
• Smart lighting systems that adjust brightness based on occupancy and daylight
• Smart parking with sensors detecting available slots
• Waste management using bins with fill-level sensors to optimize routes
• Traffic monitoring with real-time vehicle flow detection and dynamic traffic lights
• Pollution monitoring through air quality sensors providing live updates
• Smart water management detecting leaks and monitoring usage
2. Healthcare and e-Health
• Wearables like smartwatches and ECG monitors collecting vital signs
• Smart beds for patient movement and fall detection
• Asset tracking with RFID/BLE tags for medical equipment
• Telemedicine utilizing sensors for remote patient monitoring
• Emergency alert systems for critical health events (heart attack, falls)
3. Agriculture and Precision Farming
• Soil moisture and pH sensors for precision irrigation
• Weather monitoring stations for crop decision-making
• Automated smart irrigation systems
• Drones equipped with sensors for aerial crop health surveys and pest detection
• Livestock tracking with GPS and health sensors
• Cold chain monitoring of perishable goods during transport and storage
4. Industrial IoT (IIoT) and Industry 4.0
• Predictive maintenance with vibration sensors detecting possible equipment faults
• Energy management optimizing load using smart meters
• Factory automation and machine coordination using sensors and PLCs
• Digital twins creating virtual replicas for machine testing and optimization
 • Real-time inventory tracking through RFID tags
• Worker safety with smart helmets and wearable gas or stress detectors
5. Robotics and Automation
• Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) moving materials in warehouses
• Surveillance drones streaming live video feed
• Collaborative robots assisting humans safely in manufacturing
• Remote robot monitoring via sensors transmitting performance data
• Self-healing systems with diagnostics and automatic recovery
• Cloud-connected robot control and feedback loops
6. Indian Context Projects
• Pune, Bhopal, Surat using IoT in smart city initiatives for lighting, waste, and water
• Precision farming projects in Maharashtra, Punjab, and Karnataka leveraging
LoRaWAN
• Health pilots using Aarogya Setu app and IoT wearables in AIIMS
• Real-time GPS and sensor monitoring in Indian railways freight wagons
• National Smart Manufacturing initiatives under Samarth Udyog Bharat 4.0
• ISRO's NavIC GPS integration for location-based IoT
7. Emerging and Future Applications
• Smart schools monitoring attendance and air quality
• Smart retail with shelf monitoring and real-time stock alerts
• Smart grids implementing two-way metering and demand forecasting
• Connected vehicles communicating with infrastructure and other vehicles (V2X)
• Energy harvesting IoT devices using solar or kinetic power in remote areas
Q: Describe an example of an IoT system in which information and knowledge are
inferred from data
Ans:
An example of an IoT system where information and knowledge are inferred from data
is Smart Home Intelligent Lighting.
In this system:
Data Collection: Sensors installed throughout the house collect real-time
environmental data, such as daylight levels, movements, sounds, and even the presence
or behavior patterns of inhabitants.
Data Storage: All raw sensor data—like temperature, ambient light, and motion
detection—is sent to a central cloud data lake. Structured (historical) data gets stored in
a big data warehouse for further analysis.
Data Processing and Inference:
Basic rules (e.g., "turn on lights if room is dark and someone is present") are
supplemented by intelligent, data-driven methods.
Machine learning models analyze the historical data, discovering patterns in when and
where people normally use lights (for example, always turning on porch lights at sunset
or switching bedroom lights on before bedtime).
These models are updated regularly and can predict user needs—such as preemptively
turning lights on just before the house owner usually arrives.
The system distinguishes between relevant events (human movements, voices) and
background noise (pets, street sounds), inferring whether it should act or ignore the
signal.
Knowledge Application:
Information is transformed into knowledge when, for example, the system "knows" the
typical behavior of the inhabitants and automatically controls lighting not only for energy
efficiency, but also for security (switching lights randomly when the residents are on
vacation to deter intruders).
If anomalies (like lights being switched on/off immediately after automation) are
detected, analytics can reveal possible faults or gaps in the models, prompting further
system improvements.
Feedback and User Control: Users have access to a mobile or web app, allowing them
to override automation, monitor system status, and even provide feedback to refine the
machine-learning algorithms.
Q: What is the role of things and Internet in IoT?
Ans:
Role of "Things" in IoT
Definition: In IoT, a "thing" refers to any physical object embedded with sensors,
actuators, software, and connectivity features. These devices can sense their
environment, collect data, and interact with other devices and users, either directly or
via networks.
Examples:
Consumer: Smartwatches, refrigerators, home thermostats
Industrial: Sensors on machines, smart meters, robotic arms
Living beings: Animals with GPS tags, patients with medical implants
Functions:
Sensing: "Things" continuously monitor physical parameters such as temperature,
motion, light, humidity, heart rate, etc.
Action: Through actuators, things can perform real-world actions—like turning a motor,
opening a valve, switching lights on/off, or sounding an alarm.
Data Generation: Devices create vast, continuous streams of data that are crucial for
analytics and automated decision-making.
Autonomy: Smart things can act independently within set rules or through data-driven
(ML) logic, enabling scenarios like intelligent lighting or automatic irrigation.
Importance: Things are the foundational elements of IoT—they bridge the physical and
digital worlds by turning real-world phenomena into actionable, digital data.
Role of the Internet in IoT
Definition: The Internet provides the global communication infrastructure that
interconnects things, systems, and users.
Functions:
Connectivity: The Internet allows things to communicate—device-to-device (D2D),
device-to-cloud, and device-to-user—regardless of location. It enables data exchange
over wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi, 4G/5G, LoRa, ZigBee) networks.
Remote Access: Through the Internet, users can monitor and control devices from
anywhere. For example, a farmer can access data from field sensors via mobile phone,
or a user can adjust home thermostats remotely.
Scalability: The Internet makes it possible to connect billions of devices worldwide,
supporting massive-scale applications like smart cities or global logistics.
Integration with Cloud & Services: Data from things is sent over the Internet to cloud
servers for storage, analysis, and advanced applications (e.g., AI/ML). The Internet thus
supports both real-time and historical data processing.
Interoperability: Through universal protocols and standards (e.g., TCP/IP, MQTT), the
Internet ensures devices from various manufacturers can communicate and work
together seamlessly.
"Things" are the data sources and actors; they interact with the physical world.
The "Internet" is the medium and enabler, providing connectivity, interoperability, and
scalability—unlocking the potential of distributed, intelligent systems rather than
individual, isolated smart devices.

Q: What is the difference between wired and wireless communication?

Ans:

Feature Wired Communication Wireless Communication

Connects devices using Connects devices using radio waves, IR, or
Definition physical cables (e.g., Ethernet, other wireless means (e.g., Wi-Fi, ZigBee,
USB, RS-232). Bluetooth).
Copper wires, optical fibers,
Medium Air (using RF, IR, etc.).
coaxial cables.
More complex, costly (cable Easier and faster to deploy; ideal for
Installation
laying required); less flexible. mobile/remote locations.
Generally higher data rates Varies; typically lower (<1 Mbps to several
Data Rate
(up to Gbps); stable. Mbps); affected by interference.
Limited by cable length Short (BLE: ~10m), Medium (Wi-Fi: ~100m),
Range
(meters to a few km). Long (LoRa: ~10-15km).
Can carry both power and data Wireless units often battery powered,
Power
(e.g., PoE). require low power operation.
High, less prone to Susceptible to interference (radio,
Reliability
interference and breakdown. obstacles).
Restricted (physical High flexibility and mobility; supports
Mobility
connection required). moving devices.
May require physical repair or
Maintenance Easier, as there are no cables to maintain.
cable replacement.
More secure; physical access Needs strong encryption/authentication as
Security
needed to tap data. data can be intercepted.
Industrial automation, data
Smart homes, wearables, sensor networks,
Typical Uses centers, where reliability is
large geographic spread.
critical.
More expensive to scale Cost-effective for wide-area or dynamic
Cost
(cabling, maintenance). deployments.
Often star or bus (wired Supports mesh, star, tree, or hybrid
Topology
network setups). networks.
Q: What is the function of communication functional block in an IoT system?
Ans:
The communication functional block in an IoT system plays a crucial role in enabling
seamless data exchange between the various components involved. Based on the IoT
course notes you provided, its main functions are:
1. Data Transmission: It transmits the data collected from sensors ("things") to
processing units like gateways, edge devices, or cloud servers. Likewise, it carries
control commands from the cloud or applications back to actuators in the field.
2. Connectivity Enabler: It provides the physical and logical infrastructure (wired or
wireless communication technologies and protocols) that allows devices to connect
and communicate regardless of their locations.
3. Protocol Support and Interoperability: The communication block implements IoT
communication protocols (e.g., MQTT, CoAP, HTTP, ZigBee, LoRa) that ensure
devices from different vendors and with varied capabilities can exchange data
reliably and securely.
4. Network Management: It manages network topology, routing, and addressing to
support scalable and reliable communication in the IoT ecosystem, including
dealing with constraints like limited power and intermittent connectivity.
5. Data Integrity and Security: The communication block includes mechanisms for
securing data during transmission, ensuring authentication, encryption, and
protection against unauthorized access or tampering.
6. Latency and Bandwidth Optimization: It optimizes data exchange for IoT-specific
requirements such as low latency in real-time control and minimal bandwidth
consumption in resource-constrained networks.
The communication functional block acts as the nervous system of the IoT architecture,
connecting the sensing layer with processing, storage, and application layers,
facilitating the reliable, secure, and efficient flow of data and control commands across
the IoT system.
Q: Describe an example of IoT service that uses Publish-subscribe communication
model.
Ans:
An example of an IoT service that uses the Publish-Subscribe communication
model is a Smart Home Temperature Monitoring System.
Description:
• Publish-Subscribe Model: This model involves three main entities—
✓ Publisher: The IoT device (sensor) that sends data,
✓ Broker: The intermediary server that manages message topics and routes messages,
✓ Subscriber: The clients or applications interested in receiving the data.
Example: Smart Home Temperature Monitoring
1. Publishers:
• Temperature sensors installed in different rooms continuously measure
environmental temperature.
• Each sensor publishes its temperature readings to a specific topic
(e.g., home/livingroom/temperature).
2. Broker:
• A central, lightweight MQTT broker (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)
manages these temperature topics.
• The broker receives published messages from sensors and forwards them to all
subscribed clients.
3. Subscribers:
• A user’s smartphone app subscribes to these temperature topics.
• The app receives updates in real-time whenever a sensor publishes new
temperature data.
• Additionally, an HVAC system controller might subscribe to these topics to adjust
heating or cooling automatically based on temperature data.
4. Advantages of Publish-Subscribe:
• Decouples data producers (sensors) and consumers (apps, controllers).
• Efficient for many-to-many communication.
• Supports scalable, asynchronous data delivery.
• Minimizes network bandwidth by sending messages only to interested
subscribers.
In this IoT service, the publish-subscribe model (using MQTT) enables real-time
temperature monitoring and control in a smart home, where sensors publish data to
topics, and multiple subscribers like user apps and automated systems receive updates
efficiently via the broker.
Q: Describe an example of IoT service that uses WebSocket-based communication.
Ans:
An example of an IoT service that uses WebSocket-based communication is a Real-
Time Industrial Equipment Monitoring Dashboard.
In manufacturing plants or large industrial setups, continuous monitoring of equipment
such as motors, pumps, or conveyors is critical for preventing downtime and ensuring
smooth operation.
• How WebSocket is Used:
• Real-Time Data Streaming: Sensors attached to industrial machines
continuously collect metrics such as RPM, temperature, vibration, and current
consumption.
• These sensor readings are sent to edge gateways or cloud servers.
• A WebSocket connection between the cloud server and the control room’s
monitoring dashboard enables bi-directional, low-latency communication.
• The dashboard subscribes to live updates over WebSocket, receiving data
streams instantly without needing to repeatedly poll the server.
• Operators see live graphs, alerts, and status updates on their web or desktop
applications.
• The dashboard users can also send control commands or request specific data
streams back to the equipment via the same WebSocket channel.
• Advantages of Using WebSocket:
• Provides a persistent, real-time, full-duplex communication channel.
• More efficient than HTTP polling or request-response for continuous data flows.
• Enables immediate alerting and fast operator response.
• Supports interactive features like live control and status querying through the
single open connection.
This industrial IoT service uses WebSocket communication to create a real-time,
interactive, and responsive equipment monitoring system. The persistent WebSocket
connection minimizes latency and overhead, making it ideal for scenarios that require
live data streaming and operator feedback in critical environments. This setup aligns
with the typical use of WebSockets in IoT dashboards and control applications as
highlighted in your IoT course notes.
Q: What is the role of coordinator in wireless sensor network?
Ans:
The role of the coordinator in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is crucial for organizing
and managing the network communication and maintaining overall network
functionality. Based on typical IoT and WSN concepts covered in your course notes, the
coordinator performs the following functions:
1. Network Formation and Management:
• The coordinator initializes and maintains the network by assigning network
addresses and managing device associations and disassociations.
• It handles the joining of new sensor nodes into the network and manages the
overall network topology.
2. Data Aggregation and Routing:
• Acts as a central node or gateway that collects data from various sensor nodes.
• It may perform data aggregation or preprocessing before forwarding data to
higher layers such as gateways or cloud servers.
3. Synchronization:
• Ensures time synchronization among nodes in the network for coordinated
sensing and communication, which is essential in time-critical applications.
4. Communication Management:
• Controls access to the wireless medium, schedules transmissions, and manages
retransmissions to reduce collisions and interference.
• Implements routing protocols to forward data efficiently across the network.
5. Security and Access Control:
• Manages authentication, encryption keys, or security credentials to ensure
that only authorized sensor nodes participate in the network communication.
6. Gateway Functionality:
• Often the coordinator acts as a bridge between the wireless sensor network and
external networks (e.g., Internet or cloud), translating protocols as needed.
In a WSN, the coordinator serves as the network manager and central controller node,
facilitating device joining, communication coordination, data collection,
synchronization, and acting as a gateway to external networks, thus ensuring efficient
and secure operation of the sensor network.
Q: Which are the types of Access points in wireless LAN? Explain in brief
Ans:
In a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), Access Points (APs) act as central
transmitters and receivers to provide wireless connectivity to client devices. There are
mainly two types of Access Points in WLAN:
1. Standalone (Autonomous) Access Point
A standalone AP functions independently without needing a controller. It manages all
wireless functions including authentication, security, and radio management on its own.
Characteristics:
• Configured individually via a web interface or CLI.
• Suitable for small networks or home/small office use.
• Limited scalability and difficult to manage when the number of APs grows.
Example: Small office or home where only a few APs are deployed.
2. Controller-Based (Lightweight) Access Point
A lightweight AP works together with a central Wireless LAN Controller (WLC).
The controller centrally manages multiple APs, handling configuration, security
policies, and roaming.
Characteristics:
• APs rely on the controller for control and management; the APs primarily handle
data forwarding.
• Good for large-scale enterprise networks with many APs.
• Supports advanced features like seamless roaming, centralized security, and
easier management.
Example: Enterprise campuses, universities, or large buildings deploying dozens or
hundreds of APs.
 Unit II
Q: Explain Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) of IoT Data
Communication Protocols.
Ans:
Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) is a lightweight, publish-subscribe
messaging protocol designed for constrained devices and low-bandwidth, high-latency,
or unreliable networks, making it ideal for IoT applications. Developed by IBM and
standardized under ISO/IEC 20922. Uses a Client-Broker architecture where:
Publishers send messages to a central broker under named topics.
Subscribers receive messages by subscribing to topics of interest.
This decouples data producers and consumers, enabling efficient many-to-many
communication.
Transport Layer:
Works over TCP/IP to ensure reliable, ordered delivery of messages.
Lightweight Header:
Minimal packet overhead (2 bytes header), ideal for devices with limited bandwidth and
processing power.
Quality of Service (QoS) Levels:
MQTT supports three QoS levels to guarantee message delivery according to network
conditions:
QoS 0: At most once (fire and forget)
QoS 1: At least once (guaranteed delivery but possible duplicates)
QoS 2: Exactly once (ensures no duplicates, highest reliability)
Persistent Sessions and Retained Messages:
Supports session persistence and message retention for clients that disconnect and
reconnect.
Security: Supports SSL/TLS encryption for secure data transmission.
Advantages in IoT:
• Consumes low bandwidth and power, suitable for battery-operated devices.
• Scales to thousands of devices efficiently.
• Reliable in networks with intermittent connectivity.
• Simple to implement on resource-constrained hardware.
• Well supported by many IoT platforms and programming libraries.
Use Case:
A soil moisture sensor publishes periodic readings to the topic farm/field1/soilMoisture.
A farmer’s mobile app subscribes to that topic, receiving real-time updates to monitor
irrigation needs remotely.
Q: What is Target Wake Time?
Ans:
Target Wake Time (TWT) is a power-saving feature used primarily in wireless
communication protocols like Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) and some IoT wireless standards.
• Purpose: TWT schedules specific times for devices to wake up and communicate
with the access point (AP) or coordinator instead of remaining active continuously.
This scheduling minimizes idle listening and reduces power consumption, which is
crucial for battery-operated IoT devices and mobile clients.

How It Works:
• The AP negotiates a wake time with a device.

• The device sleeps most of the time and wakes only at negotiated intervals to transmit
or receive data.

• This reduces contention for the channel and optimizes network efficiency by
grouping transmissions.

Benefits in IoT and Wireless Networks:

• Extends battery life of sensor nodes and mobile devices.

• Improves overall network efficiency by reducing channel congestion.

• Enables predictable communication windows, helpful for real-time or periodic data

flows.

Target Wake Time (TWT) is a power management mechanism that allows IoT devices
and wireless clients to schedule and synchronize their active communication times with
a network coordinator or AP, thereby conserving energy and enhancing network
performance.

This concept is especially important in low-power IoT networks and modern Wi-Fi
standards where many devices share the wireless medium. If your IoT course notes do
not explicitly mention TWT, it is an advanced topic mostly associated with Wi-Fi 6 and
LPWAN protocols designed for energy efficiency. Let me know if you want me to
elaborate on TWT in specific IoT communication standards!
Q: Which are the types of Access points in wireless LAN? Explain in brief
Ans:
Types of Access Points in Wireless LAN
Type of Access Point Description Typical Application
Operates independently without external
Standalone controller; manages all functions such as Small offices, homes,
(Autonomous) AP authentication, security, and radio SOHO environments.
management itself. Configured individually.
Depends on a centralized Wireless LAN
Controller (WLC) for configuration, Large enterprises,
Controller-Based
management, security policies, and campuses, factories
(Lightweight) AP
roaming support. APs mainly handle data with many APs.
forwarding.
Access points that connect wirelessly to
Smart cities, outdoor
each other, creating a self-healing, flexible
Mesh AP areas, expansive IoT
network topology without relying solely on
networks.
wired backhaul.
APs managed remotely through cloud- Education, retail
based platforms for configuration, chains, healthcare
Cloud-Managed AP
monitoring, and firmware updates, allowing institutions with
easier multi-site management. distributed sites.

• Standalone APs are simple, self-contained devices ideal for small-scale

deployments where management is straightforward.
• Controller-Based APs provide centralized control and scalability, making them
suitable for complex and dense wireless deployments requiring features like
seamless roaming.
• Mesh APs form a wireless mesh network enabling coverage in areas difficult or
costly to wire, with automatic rerouting capabilities.
• Cloud-Managed APs allow network administrators to manage multiple APs over the
Internet via cloud dashboards, simplifying management and monitoring of
distributed networks.
Q: How is Bluetooth used in IoT?
Ans:
Bluetooth is widely used in IoT as a wireless communication protocol enabling short-
range, low-power, and flexible connectivity between devices such as sensors,
wearables, beacons, and smart appliances.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) is especially prominent due to its energy efficiency, which
allows IoT devices to operate for long periods on small batteries—an essential feature
for sensor networks and wearables.
Bluetooth is utilized in IoT in several key ways:
• Device-to-device networking: BLE radios are embedded in devices, enabling them
to wirelessly connect and exchange data within personal area networks (PANs), such
as health trackers connecting to smartphones or smart home devices interacting with
each other and a central hub.
• Mesh networking: Modern Bluetooth (especially Bluetooth 5 and above) supports
mesh networks where each device (node) can relay information, expanding range
and improving reliability. This is useful for building automation, large sensor
deployments, and scenarios where direct connections are impractical.
• Power efficiency: BLE allows devices to spend most of their time in sleep mode,
waking up only to transmit data, which greatly extends battery life and makes it
suitable for distributed, often remote, IoT sensors.
• Location and asset tracking: Bluetooth beacons and tags are used for indoor
positioning, asset tracking in warehouses, and proximity services by broadcasting
identifiable signals that triangulate device location without needing expensive
infrastructure.
• Security: Bluetooth protocols provide built-in encryption, authentication, and privacy
features to protect data being transmitted between IoT devices and curb the risk of
attacks.
• Interoperability: Bluetooth is ubiquitous—virtually all smartphones, tablets, and
laptops support it, allowing new IoT devices to easily interact with existing consumer
gadgets, reducing barriers to deployment
Bluetooth’s ability to support flexible topologies (point-to-point, mesh, broadcast), its
widespread adoption, and its ongoing enhancements (such as direction-finding
introduced in Bluetooth 5.1) ensure it remains a cornerstone technology for IoT use
cases, including smart homes, healthcare wearables, industrial automation, and asset
management.
Q: What is a Wireless Access Point in wireless LAN?
Ans:
A Wireless Access Point (WAP) is a networking device that enables wireless-capable
devices—such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, and IoT devices—to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi, effectively creating a wireless local area network (WLAN).
A WAP serves as a bridge between the wired LAN (typically Ethernet) and wireless
devices:
• It transmits and receives data over Wi-Fi, converting signals between wired
(Ethernet) and wireless standards.
• When connected to the wired network, it broadcasts a wireless signal (SSID), which
wireless devices can join after authentication.
• This setup greatly extends network coverage, allowing users to move freely within
the access point’s range while maintaining connectivity and eliminating the need for
physical cables.
Key Functions and Benefits:
• Network Bridging: Links wireless devices to the organization’s wired network so
users and devices can access network resources, such as the internet or internal
servers.
• Coverage Extension: Multiple access points can be deployed in large spaces
(offices, schools, hospitals) to ensure complete coverage and eliminate dead zones.
• Support for Multiple Devices: WAPs handle many simultaneous connections,
supporting 50–100+ devices per access point in enterprise settings, surpassing
typical wireless routers.
• Seamless Roaming: Devices can switch between access points without dropping
the connection, maintaining service as users move throughout a building.
• Enhanced Security: WAPs support authentication, encryption, and other security
measures to restrict network access to authorized users only
Wireless Access Point vs. Wireless Router:
• A wireless router combines a router, switch, and wireless access point functions in a
single device and is common in home networks, while a WAP focuses only on
providing wireless connectivity and is typically used in larger or more complex
networks.

Wireless access points are essential for scalable, flexible, and reliable wireless
communication in modern networks, from homes to large enterprise deployments.
Q: What are the design considerations for MAC Protocols of UIoT.
Ans:
Key design considerations for MAC (Medium Access Control) protocols in UIoT (UAV-
assisted IoT) include ensuring high throughput, energy efficiency, low latency,
and collision avoidance, while addressing the unique challenges of UAV and IoT
device integration.
Essential considerations are:
• Throughput: The MAC protocol must efficiently manage data transmission to handle
potentially millions of devices. It should minimize collisions and optimize bandwidth
utilization, especially given the limited shared spectrum in UIoT.
• Energy Efficiency: Both UAVs and IoT devices are often battery powered, so
minimizing energy wastage from collisions, idle listening, overhearing, and control
packet overhead is critical. The MAC protocol should use methods like duty cycling
or efficient slot allocation to extend device and UAV battery life.
• Low Latency: Since UAVs typically communicate directly with IoT devices, the MAC
protocol must ensure minimal delays to support time-sensitive or mission-critical
applications, such as industrial automation or real-time surveillance.
• Collision Avoidance: Reducing the probability of packet collisions is essential, as
these result in retransmissions, energy waste, and delays. Techniques include
contention-free scheduling, carrier sense, or hybrid contention-based/contention-
free approaches.
• Scalability: The protocol should support an increasing number of devices in dense
deployments without disproportionate performance degradation or excessive
control overhead.
• Adaptability to Mobility and Dynamic Topology: The presence of UAVs, which
are mobile nodes, introduces frequent topology changes. The MAC protocol must
adapt to these dynamics to maintain reliable communication and minimize
handoff/interruption.
• Network Overhead Minimization: Control messages should be efficient to reduce
bandwidth waste. Excessive overhead reduces throughput and network efficiency.
• Interference and Spectrum Sharing: The wireless environment is prone to external
interference and overlapping transmissions. MAC protocols need strategies to cope
with such conditions, sometimes using multichannel or dynamic spectrum access.
• Quality of Service (QoS) and Prioritization: Applications like industrial or
healthcare IoT may need deterministic latency or prioritized data flows. MAC
protocols should allow for differentiated service and scheduling schemes that honor
application-specific QoS requirements.
• Security: Since UAVs and distributed IoT devices are often exposed, MAC protocols
may incorporate lightweight security mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access
and data tampering.
Q: Explain Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) of IoT Data Communication
Protocols.
Ans:
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application-layer protocol widely used in IoT
for enabling communication between devices and servers over the Internet, leveraging
the same standards that power web browsing. In IoT data communication, HTTP is
primarily used for exchanging data between resource-constrained devices and cloud
platforms or other backend applications.
Key aspects of HTTP in IoT data communication:
• Request/Response Model: HTTP operates on a client-server, request-response
paradigm. IoT devices (clients) initiate a request (such as GET, POST, PUT, DELETE)
to a server endpoint (often a RESTful API), and the server responds with the
requested information or acknowledgment. This interaction models IoT device-to-
cloud communication for operations like sending sensor readings or receiving
configuration commands.
• Standardization and REST: HTTP’s well-defined methods make it suitable for
RESTful architectures, which are heavily used in IoT for uniform, stateless
communication and API-based access to device resources. Devices use URLs to
represent resources (e.g., sensor data), making integration straightforward.
• Ease of Implementation: HTTP is easy to implement on most devices because it’s a
mature, ubiquitous protocol with broad support across hardware, operating
systems, and languages.
• Security: HTTP can use Transport Layer Security (HTTPS) for encrypted
transmissions, ensuring privacy and integrity of the data sent between IoT devices
and the server.
Limitations for IoT:
• HTTP is stateless, meaning each interaction is independent, leading to the need for
repeated authentication and overhead for every message.
• Every request carries a relatively large amount of header information, so HTTP is
less efficient for bandwidth-constrained or battery-powered IoT devices compared
to protocols designed specifically for IoT (like MQTT).
• It’s best suited for infrequent or non-real-time communication, such as periodic
sensor updates, rather than scenarios requiring continuous, low-latency, or
bidirectional messaging

HTTP’s adoption in IoT is driven by its simplicity, compatibility, and the ease of
integrating devices with cloud services, especially where resources are sufficient and
real-time performance is less critical. However, for highly resource-constrained or real-
time IoT applications, other protocols like MQTT are often preferred.