138

[O26] Physics education research and UK physics;

tensions and possible remedies
David Sands
Department of Physical Sciences (Physics)
University of Hull
[email protected]

ABSTRACT activities learning can be enhanced. This view

applies to higher education in general but
Physics education research (PER) is a remarkably it coincides with the results of
systematic activity aimed at identifying physics education research (PER) in the USA.
weaknesses in students’ understanding of Unlike much of education research, which is
physics in order to develop instructional concerned with educational theory and
methods to overcome them. These methods cognitive psychology, PER is regarded as a
stress understanding over content, which research discipline which sets out to identify
inevitably leads to reservations about applying misconceptions and find instructional
the findings in UK universities where physics is methods to overcome them. In the words of
taught within a dedicated and concentrated one of its leading exponents (2),
programme with a prescribed minimum core
content. In this paper the findings of PER are ‘Physics education research differs
shown to be consistent with established from traditional education research in
cognitive theory and models of thinking. Thus that the emphasis is not on
the outcomes of PER can be generalised and educational theory or methodology in
extended to other areas of the physics the general sense, but rather on
curriculum and a cognitive model for teaching student understanding of physics.
physics is established. This model allows Such research requires an in-depth
teaching for understanding without reducing too knowledge of the subject as well as
much the course content. In particular, the access to students, which means that
educational value of small-group work for it can usually only be carried out by
instruction in problem solving skills is physicists working in physics
emphasized. departments. The findings form a rich
resource that provides insights into
how students learn physics. When
INTRODUCTION teachers apply this information and
document the results for others to use,
The view has arisen that conventional teaching cumulative improvement in instruction
methods serve only the minority in today’s is possible …Our research indicates
higher education system (1). Biggs in that although students vary in the way
particular has put forward the view that they learn best, learning is not as
constructive alignment of teaching should lead idiosyncratic as is often assumed.
to improved learning. Constructive alignment Students at the same level of study
is based on the principle that it is what the respond in a remarkably similar way to
student does that determines what is learnt certain kinds of questions, both before
rather than what the teacher does, so by and after standard instruction via
aligning teaching methods to student learning lectures, textbooks and lab classes.’
 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005 139

PER identifies the following difficulties with the above take time and often understanding is
standard ‘chalk and talk’ method of course achieved at the expense of coverage. Perhaps
delivery (3,4). it is desirable to sacrifice content for improved
student understanding in the USA, where
" Facility in solving standard quantitative nearly all university students are expected to
problems is not an adequate criterion for study some physics, even if it is only one
functional understanding module, but in the UK, physics is usually taught
within a concentrated and dedicated degree
" Connections among concepts, formal programme accredited by the Institute of
representations, and the real world are Physics. Students are exposed to a prescribed
often lacking after traditional instruction minimum body of knowledge which includes
the five core areas of electromagnetism, wave
" Certain conceptual difficulties are not phenomena, classical and quantum mechanics,
overcome by traditional instruction and statistical physics and thermodynamics, and
advanced study might not increase properties of matter. To the extent that
understanding of basic concepts misconceptions of basic concepts exist among
students, it is likely that the problems faced by
" A coherent conceptual framework is not US academics are similar to the problems
typically an outcome of traditional faced by academics in the UK, but to what
instruction extent content can be reduced in favour of
improved understanding is not so clear.
" Growth in reasoning ability often does
not result from traditional instruction The purpose of this paper is to show that the
deficiencies in traditional methods identified
" Teaching by telling is an ineffective mode by PER, together with the solutions, are firmly
of instruction for most students in line with current cognitive thinking on
learning and teaching. In particular, the SOLO
The solution to these difficulties is to change taxonomy (structure of observed learning
both the methods of instruction and outcomes) developed by Biggs provides a
assessment. Students must be intellectually direct explanation of many findings.
active to develop a functional understanding Herrmann’s quadrant model of thinking, which
so questions that require qualitative reasoning is pragmatic metaphor that has been applied
and verbal explanation are not only essential very successfully to business, is shown to
for assessing student learning but are also complement SOLO and the synthesis of the
effective for helping students learn. In two leads directly to a cognitive model of
addition, scientific reasoning skills must be problem solving which can be taught to, and
explicitly cultivated. Persistent conceptual used metacognitively by, students. The
difficulties must be explicitly addressed in implications for course delivery by
multiple contexts and students need repeated conventional lectures are discussed in order to
practice in interpreting physics formalisms and suggest alternative means of improving
relating them to the real world. Students need understanding whilst maintaining coverage.
to participate in the process of constructing
qualitative models and applying these models
to predict and explain real-world phenomena. COGNITIVE BACKGROUND: SOLO

Physics Education Research is thus a SOLO is an important application of cognitive

systematic activity of assessing where theory to modern education. In order to place
difficulties lie and finding instructional methods SOLO in context, it is necessary to look into
to overcome them. The methods described some of the preceding work in cognition.
140 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005

Halford (5) has looked into cognitive drawing inferences from them. As we know,
development in terms of problem solving this is not always the case. Nor is it the case
ability, ie deductive thinking or the process of that students have mastered the problem
drawing inferences. Halford has presented a solving aspects of mathematics in physics.
complex flow diagram to illustrate the thinking
involved in solving a problem, but in essence it Biggs (6) recognised that cognitive tests such
resolves into a three-step process first as those used by Halford require a background
developed by Craik in 1943 (see 5); knowledge of some sort, and student
responses simply indicate how well this
" translate the problem into an equivalent material has been learnt and understood. In
model short, what is measured are actually learning
outcomes. Cognitive development is hypo-
" operate on the model thetical in so far as it is nigh on impossible to
measure it without recourse to something that
" re-translate back to the physical has been learnt. The complex relationship
situation between how well material is first encoded by
reading or listening and how well it is
This coincides with the three-step model of subsequently reproduced means that
mathematics that most physicists would cognitive structure cannot be reliably
recognise as descriptive of the relationship assessed.
between maths and physics, which involves
expressing the physics in mathematical The origins of SOLO lies with work on younger
terms, operating on the mathematics, and age groups, but it is applicable to all ages. One
finally, interpreting the mathematical solution of Biggs’ examples, a poem called ‘Spring and
in terms of physics. Halford’s ideas on Fall – to a young child’ by Gerard Manly
cognition would therefore appear to be Hopkins (GMH), which is in fact quite difficult
directly applicable to physics education, to interpret, illustrates learning outcomes from
especially as he uses logico-mathematical students around 20 to 21 years of age. The
operators to define the different stages of responses ranged from a literal interpretation
cognitive development. with no generalization, to some generalization
bounded by the context, and finally to a
Halford identified three developmental stages description of the poem as a metaphor in
and three meaningful levels of thought which the context is seen simply as a vehicle
corresponding to the complexity of for conveying the central message.
operations that can be performed. Level one Generalizing to this last level represents a high
is limited to relations between pairs of level of cognitive functioning, but only those
objects. Level two allows for binary who had an interest in poetry and had studied
operations, that is using two pieces of it at university were able to present this sort of
information together to derive a third, and analysis. Clearly, analysis is underpinned by
level 3 corresponds to compositions of binary knowledge.
operations, ie where three or more pieces of
information are used together. Halford It is a necessary condition of being able to
suggests that level three cognitive functions demonstrate high level cognitive functioning
are well developed by the age of 17–19, that students must acquire knowledge.
which corresponds to first year university Lectures are a very effective means of
entrants. We should therefore expect all our delivering it, but they not so effective at
students to be able to demonstrate the delivering understanding. The principle of
highest levels of cognition by considering constructive alignment described at the
several pieces of information together and beginning of this paper holds that the student
 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005 141

must develop this understanding through A MODEL OF LEARNING

engagement with the subject matter, and PER
shows the same. Students who have It is quite natural to regard these cognitive
developed an understanding should be able to levels as hierarchical, so that a relational
demonstrate high level cognitive functioning, response is seen as representing a higher level
but weak students who might have learnt a lot of thought than a unistructural response. For
but can apply it in only limited circumstances example, extended abstract is more likely from
will only be able to demonstrate knowledge. a postgraduate physicist rather than an
The SOLO taxonomy provides a means of undergraduate except perhaps in problem
differentiating between these cases by solving, where necessarily the idea is to
defining understanding in general terms synthesize something new from given
independent of discipline. There are five levels: information. Problem solving is an important
prestructural, unistructural, multistructural, skill in physics and the subject will be revisited
relational, and extended abstract. In a after the development of an effective learning
prestructural response the answer is confused model.
or the question is simply repeated. A
unistructural response focuses on a single fact It is important not to confuse the level of the
or concept, multistructural on several subject with the level of the response or the
unrelated facts or concepts, relational ties the ability of the student. Some of the unistructural
various components together, and extended and multistructural responses to GMH came
abstract generalises from the given to the new. from people who would be considered able
and intelligent in their own fields, so interest
Knowledge used in this way is ‘functioning’. In and motivation, as well as prior learning, are
its most basic form knowledge is either important factors which determine to a great
declarative or procedural. The former is extent how information is interpreted. This can
propositional - as the name implies it is used to be at a unistructural, multistructural, or
declare this or that – and the latter is knowledge relational level but this is not necessarily how it
gained through repeated practice of procedures will be conveyed some time later. A
and doesn’t necessarily imply understanding. multistructural view can only be transformed
To a great extent mathematical knowledge is into a relational view if a deliberate attempt is
procedural for the physicist. It is acquired made to relate the disparate components. If
through repeated practice, though of course little or no thought is applied the output will be
there is an element of declarative knowledge. at a lower cognitive level. PER supports this
When these two – procedural and declarative - directly with the observation that students’
are combined with a knowledge of how and epistemological views influence strongly how
when to use them they become functioning. well they learn physics (7) . Three typical views
PER and constructive alignment are in are: learning physics is about retaining
agreement in so far as both stress that formulas and problem-solving algorithms;
intellectual engagement is essential for learning, learning involves relating fundamental
and that assessment has a role to play. PER has concepts to problem-solving techniques; and,
shown how to achieve functioning knowledge learning involves building one’s own
across a range of topics, but room is made understanding. The first of these is clearly
within the class for intellectual engagement and multistructural, the second is relational, and
functioning knowledge therefore comes at the the third is extended abstract in so far as the
expense of the range of declarative knowledge. student attempts from the outset to build
Engagement in the students’ own time, something new from what has been given.
through, for example, formative assessment
should have a similar effect but without Thus PER confirms the premise of SOLO. The
detriment to the course coverage. cognitive level at input determines the
142 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005

cognitive level at output, as students who There would appear to be some

perceive physics in a multistructural manner correspondence between the cognitive levels
are very unlikely to develop a higher cognitive of SOLO and Herrmann’s model. The
view. It would seem necessary, therefore, to organisational and analytical quadrants correlate
alter the way that some students think about with multistructural and relational, and possibly
physics. Unfortunately, SOLO, as the name extended abstract corresponds to aspects of
implies, is concerned with classifying the strategic quadrant. However, Herrmann
observed outcomes. Although the same terms stresses preferences whereas SOLO implies a
can be used to classify inputs, SOLO itself hierarchy. None-theless, the quadrant model
provides no guidance on how perceptions at can explain the situational aspects of cognitive
the input stage might be changed. First it is encoding implied in Biggs’ work. A logical and
necessary to identify a cause, and though analytical mind may well be unable to interpret
motivation is identified as one factor it is by no the metaphors contained in GMH, hence the
means clear that this is the main, or only lack of interest and the consequent
reason, that information is encoded at a multistructural responses from otherwise able
particular cognitive level. An alternative model people. Hence, an effective model of learning is
of thinking provides some insight. to describe the input in terms of preferred
thinking and the output in terms of SOLO. It is
Herrmann developed a four-quadrant model more important to ensure that material is
of thinking in the 1970s whilst working as a delivered in a way that can be understood by
human resources manager with General students with different thinking patterns than to
Electric in the US (8). It is based on the try directly to alter their perceptions of physics.
celebrated left-right split in the brain with a Otherwise there is a good chance that students
further subdivision based on the evolutionary will not build up sufficient knowledge to be able
structure of the brain. This leads to four to develop different modes of thinking.
quadrants, each of which of which meta-
phorically describes a particular thinking This model has two very important
pattern, but it is not suggested that thinking implications for the delivery of any higher
is located in these physically distinct areas. education programme, not just physics. The
Moving anti-clockwise, the upper left, A, is first concerns effective communication. If the
analytical and logical, the lower left, B, audience is characterised by different thinking
organisational, the lower right, C, emotional styles the message must contain information
and empathetic and concerned with encoded in ways that each can take
personal relations, and the upper right, D, is something from it. Initially, the collective brain
strategic but encompasses the artistic and profiles of first year undergraduates is likely to
creative as well as conceptual thinking. The contain a good proportion from at least three
dominance of one quadrant or another is not a of the four quadrants (organisational,
matter of intelligence but simply of personal analytical, and strategic). Possibly some
characteristics. Each of us prefers to think in students will also exhibit a dominant empa-
one or sometimes two particular quadrants thetic brain profile, but, these are probably
and will tend to apply this type of thinking to better suited to people oriented activities and
new situations even when it is not probably will not last the course. By way of
appropriate. Students’ epistemological views example, Herrmann has compared the
of physics described above can be related collective brain profiles of entry-level
respectively to quadrants B, A and D undergraduate engineers at a college in the
therefore probably reflect their natural US with those of Faculty. Among the students
thinking patterns (called by Herrmann ‘brain there was an even mixture of all four
profiles’) as much as any prior conceptions quadrants, but the Faculty profiles resembled
developed at school. very much the average characteristics of
 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005 143

professional engineers in which the analytical group behaviour, which is to look at the
quadrant dominates, perhaps even at the problem in a variety of different ways:
expense of some creativity. Inevitably some unistructural, to identify the most important
selection, as well as development, occurs idea; multistructural, to identify and organise
from student to professional. the separate components; relational, to
analyse and link the components together;
If something similar happens with physicists we strategic, to identify wider aspects and
can expect a shift towards the two quadrants possible courses of action; and finally to
that tend to be dominant in professional synthesize and solve. In terms of quadrants,
physicists, viz. the analytical and the strategic. the student must organize, analyze,
At the later stages of a course it will be empathize (where necessary) and strategize.
reasonable both to deliver and assess material The student has to switch metacognitively to
at a predominantly relational level but in the a different mode of thinking as the need
earlier years material should ideally be delivered arises. Herrmann calls this ‘situationally
at several levels. The PER finding that persistent whole-brained’ thinking, as it seems that true
conceptual difficulties must be overcome by whole-brained thinking occurs in only 2.5% of
teaching in multiple contexts is an expression of the population. These people show equal
this. The single concept is unistructural, the strength in all four quadrants, but each of us
several different contexts is multistructural, and can learn and develop our thinking in other
there may be a relational element as well. Within quadrants. Group activites can help students
a single lecture the unistructural level would to learn physics, but they also serves as
emphasize the single most important idea, the exemplars of problem solving.
multistructural level would identify other
important ideas, and if these can be linked by a
concept the relational level is supplied.
CONCLUSION
Students will take away the information most
appropriate to their own thinking.
PER has been shown to be consistent with
The second implication relates to group work. both the SOLO taxonomy and quadrant
Herrmann has shown that groups composed of model of thinking. A cognitive model of
members with similar thinking styles will rapidly physics teaching has been established
converge upon an agreed course of action, from the synthesis of the quadrant model
whereas groups constructed from repre- and SOLO. The mains findings of this work
sentatives of all four quadrants will take as are:
much time as is allotted, and possibly more, to
air a range of possibilities. Indeed, they might 1. Knowledge learnt in lectures is
not even come to a conclusion. Within SOLO declarative, but this in itself is necessary.
Biggs has also related the cognitive levels to
three categories of mental operation or 2. Functioning knowledge is developed
function, one of which relates to arriving at a only if students engage with the subject.
decision. At the lower cognitive levels decisions
are reached quickly at the expense of 3. Material should be taught at several
consistency, but at the extended abstract there cognitive levels.
is a strong need for consistency, sometimes at
the expense of a firm decision. A comparison 4. A clear problem-solving strategy
with group whole-brain thinking implies that emerges from the synthesis of SOLO and
extended abstract is also whole-brain thinking. quadrant thinking.

In order to develop extended abstract thinking 5. Group work provides an exemplar for the
(problem solving), students need to mimic development of problem solving skills.
144 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005

REFERENCES

1. Teaching for Quality Learning at University,

Second Edition, John Biggs, The Society
for Research into Higher Education and
OU Press, 2003
2. Lillian C. McDermott, Physics Education
Research: the key to student learning,
Physics World, IoP Publishing, January
2004
3. L. C. McDermott and E. F. Redish 1999
Am. J. Phys. 67 755
4. L. C. McDermott, 2001 Am. J. Phys. 69(11)
p1127
5. Graeme S. Halford, Toward a Redefinition
of Cognitive Developmental Stages, in
Cognition, Development and Instruction,
edited by J. R. Kirby and J. B. Biggs. (N.Y.
Academic Press. , 1980)
6. J. B. Biggs, Developmental Processes and
Learning Outcomes, in Cognition,
Development and Instruction, edited by J.
R. Kirby and J. B. Biggs. (N.Y. Academic
Press, 1980)
7. Andrew Elby, Phys. Educ. Res, Am. J.
Phys. Suppl. 67 (1999) (1999) S52-S57.
8. The Whole Brain Business Book, Ned
Herrmann, McGraw-Hill Harvard Business
School Press, 1996, ISBN: 0070284628.
 145

[O27] LeAP interaction: towards curriculum change

in HE
Derek Raine and Sarah Symons
Department of Physics and Astronomy
University of Leicester

ABSTRACT Bertand Russell (2) gives us the following

warning about the one-time popularity of
Although problem-based learning (PBL) is a Hegelian philosophy. Hegel’s major works are
well-established methodology in several very difficult to understand – you have to
scientific and technological disciplines, spend quite a large fraction of a lifetime to
attempts to introduce it into physics education even partly master them. Academic
provide an interesting insight into the philosophers having put in this effort and
management of change in higher education achieved the status of Hegelian expert find it
(HE). This paper will describe experiences difficult to admit that the great works are less
from projects in a variety of institutions than wholly meaningful and that their lifetime’s
implementing curriculum change towards work has been a waste of time. Is this the
PBL. It will identify factors that predispose dilemma of the PBL adherents? Or of the
implementations to successful outcomes and traditionalists?
embedding of enhanced practice.
Outside Physics there is at least some
On the one hand we have the problem-based possible evidence beyond the anecdotal for
learning (PBL) community preaching the new the efficacy of PBL. The original introduction of
panacea – a teaching method you really can PBL in medicine led to measurable
rely on. Put your students together in groups, improvements in the propensity to keep up to
given them a meaningful and sufficiently date with new developments amongst PBL
complex, open-ended real-world problem to trained doctors. Retesting of engineering
get their engagement, offer some gentle students in Maastricht after a year’s break
guidance and watch them research the showed significantly greater retention
problem, find a (not ‘the’) solution and see how amongst PBL-trained students (3). For obvious
they learn new and difficult material, which ethical reasons it is difficult to get extensive
they will own forever (1). Surely the evidence and reliable comparative data, although the
must tell us how much better this is than the effect of co-operation on learning has been
traditional methods. On the other hand we widely explored (4). Some claims to show that
have the ‘proud to be traditional’ tradition, PBL itself has at most marginal benefits have
which produces some really good students been challenged (5).
and excellent reports from external examiners.
Surely the evidence points to no real problems When we turn to Physics matters are even less
with the traditional methods. Can both views clear. Bowe (6) in DIT was able to compare two
be right? first year classes taught the same material, one
by PBL and one by lectures, and to show a
Two questions to begin with: can we really large benefit in retention rates and engagement
demonstrate anything wrong with the amongst the PBL students, although not a
traditional approach? And can we prove that large difference in examination performance.
PBL does any better? On the other hand, Lennon (7) in Dundalk has
146 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005

found a large improvement in one first year learning to investigate the use of PBL in
class using PBL in end-of-year examinations. various modes and contexts in physics and to
Although the novelty effect cannot be ruled out disseminate the results. From our visits to
here, the result is in agreement with the force about ten departments in the UK we can
concept inventory (FCI) approach (8), which characterise the various negative responses to
showed a factor 2 improvement (in the FCI PBL in physics as follows.
defined gain) in the ability to manipulate force
concepts amongst students taught through (i) Our quality indicators tell us that no
PBL. The stark fact is that none of these data change is required.
relate to the ‘good’ physics students in major
UK institutions. (ii) Not invented here; the PBL method was
designed for professional education and
The other way of looking at this then is to ask may work well in medicine and
whether there is any evidence that change is engineering, but there is no evidence
required. The Hegelian antithesis holds here that it works in physics and may well be
too in a way. Staff who have spent half a ill-suited for leading physics
lifetime learning how to lecture well are unlikely departments.
to come to the conclusion that they should
never have been lecturing at all. Students (iii) PBL may have been shown to work for
having put an inordinate amount of effort in some students, for example high-flyers
choosing the course that was right for them who can be trusted to take responsibility
then, somewhat strangely, assume that all for their own learning, or weaker
courses use the same approach to teaching: students who need motivation, or
they have been led to expect that university students for whom physics is not their
courses are taught by lectures, supplemented, major study, or at school level, or in the
if they are lucky enough to go to a posh early years of a course when we are not
university, by tutorials. Students, having trying to teach relativity, or in the later
trusted their entire education to a department, years of a course when students have
appear reluctant to criticise their own mastered the core material, but is not,
institutions and their views are usually that no really not, suitable for ‘my’ students.
major change is required.
(iv) We would like to introduce PBL if we
Finally there is a lot of inertia in the system. could, but we cannot, because of (a)
There are a number of reasons for this. The staff opposition (b) opposition from the
Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) HoD (c) the RAE (delete as applicable).
weightings on funding coupled with the
inelasticity of student numbers, mean that (v) PBL cannot (?) be used to teach general
departmental resources are more likely to be relativity therefore it cannot be any good.
directed to research activity than to changing
teaching practice. External examiners give If we are going to find a significant case for
their approval to systems they know: no one the introduction of PBL into physics clearly
thinks that they have to prove that lectures we must recognise from these findings that
work. (It is the students’ fault if they do not.) I thus far we are looking in the wrong place.
recall a subject review visit in which reviewers Where PBL has been introduced as a
spent the fours days bemoaning how much significant component of physics teaching it
better university teaching ought to be, and has been through leadership from senior
then awarding full marks to the department for management (the University of Delaware for
fulfilling their stated aims and objectives. example), or under extreme pressures, for
example from severe difficulties of
Project LeAP was set up through the HEFCE recruitment or retention. These examples are
fund for the development of teaching and characterised by a vision that PBL is not a
 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005 147

more or less effective teaching method, but (i) A group of colleagues with a similar
represents a cultural change. PBL is about vision: although there can be individual
providing not only a different, but a coherent, champions of PBL their work is unlikely
learning environ-ment in which the student to outlast their own tenure.
prior learning, discipline objectives,
assessment and community aspects are (ii) A supportive management who see PBL
aligned in a way that is rarely the case in as a component of the institutional
conventionally taught courses (9). teaching and learning strategy.

PBL is therefore a way of addressing the key (iii) Identifiable issues to be addressed:
problem with current higher education in these could include retention and
physics: that we have an elitist system operating, recruitment as well as attendance and
relatively unsuccessfully, in a mass market. By an student performance.
elitist culture I mean an approach that requires
students to have mastered a significantly large (iv) Reasonable expectation of outcomes: it
body of knowledge before they can be expected may be necessary to introduce PBL over
to engage meaningfully in the professional a period of years and to expect
process of the scientific discipline. While this is substantial revisions over that timescale.
a common assumption in many sciences, it is
manifestly not the case in all disciplines. One (v) Time for preparation, but not too much
time so that preparation is focussed. The
only has to mention the empathetic approach to
time budget needs to include problem
history or the introduction of creative writing in
development and staff training.
English at the level of primary education.
Attempts to address the appeal of physics to a
(vi) An appropriate physical environment:
mass market through curriculum development, PBL is possible in tiered lecture theatres
while welcome in ensuring a curriculum with but it is easier in flat teaching areas with
contemporary relevance, do not appear to have moveable furniture.
altered the elitist culture.
There is some evidence of suppressed
It is unnecessary to rehearse again the need recognition of the potential of PBL. In a survey
for some success in increasing the appeal of carried out in the LeAP project at least 40% of
physics in HE. PBL represents an attempt to physics departments in the UK claimed to
address this problem at source: it is based on offer some PBL or PBL-like activities in their
the creation of an environment of engagement programmes (from a response rate of just over
in which students learn science by doing 50%). What therefore are the impediments to
science, that is by solving scientific problems expanding this, not to an exclusive use of PBL,
through (guided) scientific research. but to a situation in which the traditional
lecture-based methods are used, as
Our experience of visiting UK and overseas appropriate, in a PBL environment, not vice-
departments who have introduced PBL in a versa? It seems to us that there are at least
substantial portion of the curriculum has two major obstacles.
shown that PBL, although currently rare in
physics departments, can be implemented in One is the lack of PBL resources in physics.
a wide variety of institutions. However, some Few lecturers construct a lecture course from
common factors can be identified which scratch: there are books, problem sets, web
may indicate potential for successful resources, past examination papers and often
their own experience of being lectured to (if
implementations.
148 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005

not their actual notes!). With PBL there are no 5. Newman M. A pilot systematic review and
textbooks of problems, no established meta-analysis on the effectiveness of
assessment routines and the web resources Problem Based Learning PEPBL report,
mostly seem to have been written for different July 2004 (http://www.hebes.mdx.ac.uk/
types of students (as indeed most have). teaching/Research/PEPBL/PSR-PBL.pdf)
Another is the exposure to failure. We often 6. Bowe, Band Cowan J. (2004) A
expect to hone a lecture course after its first comparative evaluation of Problem-Based
delivery and we have to accept that, at least in Learning in Physics in Challenging
our experience, a PBL problem is rarely Research into Problem-Based Learning M
perfect first time. The usually quoted Savin-Baden and K Wilkie (eds) (SRHE/
complaint that PBL takes a lot of resources to Open University)
develop has not been our experience if the 7. Lennon T. (2005) A PBL Programme at
comparison is made fairly with the time taken DkIT in Possibilities: a Practice Guide to
to develop a lecture course or a new Problem-Based Learning in Physics D J
laboratory experiment from scratch. Nor is it Raineand S L Symons (eds) (HE Academy
our experience that the courses are Physical Science Centre)
excessively labour intensive to run, although 8. Hake, R. (1998) Interactive-Engagement
one can get carried away with the assessment vs. Traditional Methods: A Six-Thousand
load for both students and staff, and it does Student Survey of Mechanics Test Data for
require appropriate time for staff development Introductory Physics Courses American
for facilitation. Journal of Physics, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp.
64–74.
Thus, Project LeAP is attempting to contribute 9. D. J. Raine (2002) Independent learning for
to overcoming these obstacles by providing a the unwilling U. Chem. Ed 6, 84-88.
freely available bank of PBL problems of
various types, and in sufficient quantity, to act
as a resource for PBL developers, together
with supporting resources for assessment and
facilitator training. The CETL in Innovative
Physics Teaching will take on this role when
the LeAP project comes to an end.

REFERENCES

1. Barrows H. S. (2000) Problem-Based

Learning Applied to Medical Education
(Southern Illinois University School of
Medicine, Springfield, Ill.)
2. Russell, B. (1946) History of Western
Philosophy (Allen and Unwin)
3. M. Savin-Baden (2000) Problem-based
Learning in Higher Education: Untold
Stories (SRHE and OU)
4. Smith, K. A., Sheppard, S. D., Johnson D.
Wand Johnson, R. T., (2005) Pedagogies of
Engagement: Classroom-Based Practices
J. Eng Education p1 also at http://www.ce.
umn.edu/~smith/docs/Smith-Pedagogies
_of_Engagement.pdf
 149

[O28] Industry-supported context-based chemistry

practicals

David J. McGarvey
Lennard-Jones Laboratories, School of Physical and Geographical Sciences
Keele University
[email protected]

Keywords: laboratory work, context-based learning, chemistry, industry, photochromism,

sunscreens

ABSTRACT In recent years the author has been active in

the development of problem-based practical
Two industry-supported context-based under- work for undergraduate chemistry students
graduate chemistry practicals are described. and some of this work has been disseminated
The extent of the industrial involvement is via the LTSN and elsewhere (2). The work
primarily through in-kind support and this is reported here focuses on the development of
explained for each practical. One experiment context-based undergraduate chemistry
is concerned with spectro-photometric and laboratory experiments that owe their
kinetic analysis of commercial photochromic inception to liaison with industrial partners. To
dyes, whilst the other is concerned with UV place the industrial involvement in
absorption spectroscopy and Beer-Lambert perspective, the author has secured in-kind
analysis of commercial UV sunscreens. Both support in the form of commercial samples as
experiments involve the students carrying out well as technical advice and electronic
measurements that would be routinely materials (articles/ brochures). The practicals
undertaken by the industrial partner and they involve topical contemporary industrial
are able to make direct comparisons of their contexts that require knowledge and
data with the company’s published data. Both understanding of practical and theoretical
experiments are supported by pre-lab and aspects of core chemistry topics.
post-lab activities and extensive on-line
resources. Context-based practical work clearly has the
potential to show ‘purpose’, ‘relevance’ and
‘application’, provided the context is valid and
INTRODUCTION credible. This work reported here is concerned
with the use of tangible industrial/commercial
‘Wow, why don’t textbooks and lab contexts that draw upon specific core topics in
manuals do a better job of commun- chemistry to form the basis for undergraduate
icating what these real-world chemists chemistry practicals. In addition, a particular
do?’ (1) (although not pre-requisite) aspect of these
practicals is that there is some form of
This is a quote from the preface to ‘an industrial support/sponsorship, even if this is
industry-based laboratory manual’ by John just in-kind support through the supply of
Kenkel and is an appropriate pre-text to the materials and/or resources. The educational
work described here. aim of the work is to enrich the student
150 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005

learning experience in the laboratory through

provision of contemporary and topical
industrial contexts within which they can learn
and apply theoretical and practical aspects of
core topics in chemistry. The approach
described is flexible and adaptable to other
laboratory-based sciences.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PRACTICALS

1. Photochromism: The Importance of

Kinetic, Spectroscopic and Thermo-
dynamic Factors in Potential Applications

‘Photochromism’ is an example of a
photochemical phenomenon with tangible and
recognisable applications in products such as
photochromic sunglasses. Moreover, the
kinetic, thermodynamic and spectroscopic
properties of such dyes are important
considerations when selecting a dye for a
particular application.

For this practical the industrial partner is

James Robinson Ltd (3-5), who have kindly
supplied free samples of various organic
photochromic dyes (Reversacol product
range). The experiment forms part of the level
1 physical chemistry module, CHE-10004
‘Energy and Dynamics’, at Keele University.
The first page of the script and an image of the
relevant website are shown on the right.

The experiment involves:

(i) Acquisition of UV-VIS absorption spectra

of the colourless and coloured forms of (v) Use of online resources available on the
the dyes, James Robinson website.
(ii) Measurement of the rate constants and
half-lives for the fading of the coloured In tasks (i)-(ii) students carry out measurements
forms of the dyes that would be undertaken by James Robinson
Ltd and other manufacturers of photochromic
(iii) Investigation of the temperature dyes.
dependence of the fade rate and
measurement of the activation energy for In the process of carrying out the experiment
the fading process of one of the dyes students learn about first order kinetic data
analysis, the variety of chemical structures
(iv) Chemical structure drawing and used for organic photochromics, their
 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005 151

spectroscopic and chemical properties, how (iv) Use of an on-line sunscreen simulator
they work, their applications and how kinetic, (provided by Ciba (7) and requires
spectroscopic and thermodynamic registration before use) to formulate a
considerations are important for these. They sunscreen and obtain SPF and UVA
also learn about some of the technical protection factor information in addition
jargon/terminology used in the industry. The to spectral data.
experiment is supported by a number of
informative pdf articles/brochures/data sheets Tasks (i) – (iii) involve the students carrying out
freely available from the James Robinson measurements that would be undertaken by
website and relating to spectroscopic and DSM and other sunscreen manufacturers
kinetic data on the individual molecules as well when developing new sunscreens, and in this
as more general articles on photochromism. respect the industrial context is tangible. For
The students compare their data with the (iv), the students are required to include one of
spectroscopic and kinetic data published by the sunscreens they have studied in their
James Robinson. The practical shows how an formulation and individual results can be
understanding of 1st order kinetics and saved as a pdf file for submission with their
spectrophotometry are important within an laboratory reports.
industrial context and also how this
understanding aids interpretation of technical In the process of carrying out the experiment
product data.
students learn about the variety of chemical
structures that form the basis of organic UV
sunscreens, their physical, spectroscopic and
2. An Investigation of the UV Absorbing
chemical properties, how they work, some of
Properties of Commercial Organic
Sunscreens. the technical jargon/terminology associated
with the industry and the wide range of
For this practical the industrial partner is DSM companies involved in their manufacture. The
Nutritional Products (6), who have kindly students also learn about the beneficial and
supplied free samples of three organic UV harmful effects of exposure to solar radiation
sunscreens (Parsol 5000, Parsol MCX and Parsol as well as the background to sunscreen
340). The experiment has been piloted with testing and formulation. The experiment is
trainee chemistry teachers on a TTA Chemistry supported by a number of informative pdf
Enhancement Course and will form part of the articles/brochures freely available from the
level 1 physical chemistry module, CHE-10004 DSM website and relating to technical data on
‘Energy and Dynamics’, at Keele University from the individual molecules as well as more
2005-2006. The experiment involves: general articles on suncare. The students
compare their data with the data published by
(i) Measurement of the UV absorption DSM and this requires students to work
spectra of the three sunscreens between different types of units for molar
absorption coefficients. The practical helps
(ii) Application of the Beer-Lambert law for students to appreciate the importance of the
the determination of the molar value of the molar absorption coefficient as a
absorption coefficients of the three key parameter for organic sunscreens and
sunscreens, shows where the Beer-Lambert law is used
directly within an industrial context. The
(iii) Investigation of any modifications to the students also acquire a sense of scale in
UV absorption profile of the sunscreens relation to what the values of molar absorption
as a result of exposure to UV light coefficients for UV absorption bands of
inducing photoisomerisation
organic molecules.
152 The Science Learning and Teaching Conference 2005

The first page of the script and images of the

relevant websites are shown above and right.

CONCLUSION REFERENCES

Two industry-supported context-based 1. John Kenkel, ‘An industry-based

chemistry practicals have been described. A laboratory manual’, 2000, CRC Press LLC.
distinctive feature of the practicals is the use of 2. D. J. McGarvey, ‘Experimenting with
actual commercial samples by the students to undergraduate practicals’, U. Chem. Ed.,
carry out practical activities that mirror what is 2004, 8, 5
actually undertaken by the industrial partners. 3. http://www.photochromics.co.uk/index.htm.
Students acquire data that they can compare 4. S. Higgins, ‘Chasing a Rainbow’,
directly with that published by the company. In Chemistry in Britain, 39 (no. 6), 26-29, June
addition to learning core chemistry topics, 2003.
students also learn about the chemistry behind 5. S. Higgins, ‘Photochromics – Colourful
the products and some of the key issues for the Molecular Athletes’, Chemistry Today,
design and marketing of these products. January-February 2003.
6. http://www.dsm.com/en_US/html/dnp/home_
dnp.htm
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7. http://www.cibasc.com/
8. http://www.physsci.ltsn.ac.uk/Home/Index.
This work forms part of a Development Project aspx
(2004) funded by the Higher Education
Academy Physical Sciences subject centre (8).