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Narrative Politics in
Public Policy
Legalizing Cannabis

Hugh T. Miller
Narrative Politics in Public Policy
 Hugh T. Miller

Narrative Politics
in Public Policy
Legalizing Cannabis
Hugh T. Miller
School of Public Administration
Florida Atlantic University
Boca Raton, FL, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-45319-0 ISBN 978-3-030-45320-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45320-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
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 Acknowledgments

My home university, Florida Atlantic University, supports research and

scholarship in many important ways, and I am particularly grateful for
the Fall 2017 sabbatical that launched this book project. I also want to
acknowledge the valuable support from Kristen Walden for help with
literature searches, indexing, and spreadsheet analysis. In addition,
the support and encouragement of Sharyn Dreyer, Albena Dzhurova,
Veronica Elias, Roy Heidelberg, Ryan Lofaro, and Gary Russ is much
appreciated. Ashley Kilroy, Executive Director of Denver’s Department
of Excise and Licenses, provided me an inside look at Denver’s collabo-
rative management process, an experience for which I am grateful. Along
with Ms. Kilroy, Mark Bolton, Legal Counsel, Colorado Governor’s
Office, Michael Hartman, Executive Director, Colorado Department
of Revenue, and Ali Maffey, Policy and Communication Supervisor,
Prevention Division, Colorado Department of Public Health partici-
pated in a valuable and informative panel session at the 2018 conference
of the American Society for Public Administration, which took place in
Denver that year. I am grateful for the skilled professionalism of Nicholas
Barclay, senior editor at Palgrave Macmillan, who ushered the book
manuscript through the review and editorial process. Prabhu Elangali,
Uma Vinesh, Ulrike Stricker-Komba, and Karthika Purushothaman
were instrumental in project management and the publication process.
I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments, in particular Reviewer 2 who provided extraordinarily con-
structive criticism and helpful feedback. Finally, I want to acknowledge

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

the early help from an individual with expert background regarding the
breeding of cannabis strains before I knew for sure where this book was
heading; same for the help from another individual for providing me
with an industry perspective on regulatory compliance.
 Contents

1 Dubiety 1
1 Facts, Goals, and Narratives 2
2 Cannabis Policy Discourse 3
3 All Words Lie 4
4 Weaponizing Dubiety 7
4.1 Electoral Dubiety 8
5 Political Pluralism 9
References 12

2 Narrative as Meaning-Unit 15
1 Narrative and Its Component Parts 15
1.1 Ideographs 17
1.2 Groups and Narratives 20
1.3 Meaning Contextualized 22
2 Situating the Narrative Politics Model 24
References 29

3 Narrative Subscription 33
1 Narrative Subscription as Identification 34
2 Context 40
3 Emotional Investment 42
4 Summary: Dynamics of Identification 43
References 45

vii
viii CONTENTS

4 Narrative Evolution in Cannabis Policy Discourse 49

1 Evolution in Public Policy 50
2 Narrative Evolution in Cannabis Policy Discourse 52
2.1 Ascendant Narratives 55
2.1.1 Social Justice Narrative 55
2.1.2 Libertarian Narrative 56
2.1.3 Compassionate Use 58
3 Competition and Adaptation 59
3.1 Abstinence Fades; Compassionate Use Ascends 59
3.1.1 Concern for Children in the Abstinence
Narrative 64
3.2 Nativism Becomes Passé as the Social Justice
Narrative Emphasizes Race 65
4 Evolution of Symbolic Associations 69
4.1 Curatorial Considerations 70
5 Attitudes Change 71
References 73

5 Implementation 81
1 Enactment: Legalization by Direct Democracy 83
1.1 Implementation Delays 85
2 Continued Contestation Over Effects of Legalization 86
2.1 Psychosis 87
2.2 “Big Marijuana” 88
3 Regulatory and Managerial Narratives 89
4 Stories Regulators Tell 90
4.1 Matters of Concern to Cannabis Regulators 92
4.1.1 Compliance 92
4.1.2 Consumption Locations 93
4.1.3 Public Education and Research 94
4.1.4 Youth 94
4.1.5 Expenditures 95
4.1.6 Social Equity 95
4.1.7 Impaired Driving 96
4.2 Administrative Discretion 96
References 97
 CONTENTS ix

6 Post-implementation Critical Narratives 101

1 Post-implementation Narratives 103
1.1 Futility 103
1.2 Conspiracy Narratives 106
1.2.1 Market Conspiracies 106
1.2.2 Political Enemies 106
1.2.3 Drug War Enforcement Complex 107
2 Cannabis Scheduling 108
2.1 Rational Calibration and Precision Measurement 109
2.2 Restraints on the DEA 111
3 Political Contestation 113
4 The Ideography of Prohibited Pleasures 114
References 116

7 Assessing the Narrative Politics Model 121

1 Science and Relativism 122
1.1 Relativism and Objective Truth 123
1.1.1 The Hawthorne Effect in Science 123
1.1.2 Relativism, Perspectivism, and Pluralism 125
1.1.3 The Enduring Power of the Science Narrative 132
1.2 Enlightenment Redux 133
2 Concluding Reflections on the Narrative Politics Model 134
References 137

References 141

Index 163
 List of Tables

Chapter 4
Table 1 Evolving and competing narratives in cannabis policy
discourse 54

Chapter 6
Table 1 Post-implementation narratives 104

xi
 CHAPTER 1

Dubiety

Abstract The human condition is marked by multiple sources of

ambiguity and uncertainty. A typical reaction to the resultant anxiety is
to impose order through the use of narratives. However, different nar-
ratives order things differently. In public policy discourse, different
narratives betray not only different goals and aspirations, but also cite
different facts and interpret the same facts differently. Hence the job of
narrative inquiry is to parse the competing narratives to understand the
substantive contest over aspirations and facts.

Keywords Public policy discourse · Ambiguity · Uncertainty · Facts ·

Goals

In this book I explicate a Narrative Politics model of public policy dis-

course. This model is designed to emphasize the political nature of nar-
rative competition for dominance in a public policy discourse. Narratives
are generated by humans trying to impose order on an uncertain and
ambiguous world. The constitutive features of a narrative include the
connotative ideograph and a story line that gathers symbolic mate-
rial into a more or less coherent policy message. The Narrative Politics
model aims to understand the political dynamics of policy discourse by
paying close attention to the contestable narratives within a bounded
policy domain.

© The Author(s) 2020 1

H. T. Miller, Narrative Politics in Public Policy,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45320-6_1
2 H. T. MILLER

Narratives are not self-evident, easily visible objects available for

all to effortlessly ascertain. They require an interpreter of sorts, an
extradiegetic curator who can sort through and interpret the meaning
and substance of multiple narratives—despite the impossibility of get-
ting it right in any permanent sense. Claisse and Delvenne (2017) used
the term extradiegetic to indicate an outer perspective, as when com-
paring policy narratives from a distance. Narratives are dynamic in that
they adapt, evolve, lose support, or gain new subscribers. Narratives
are attempts to mitigate dubiety, but any resultant ordering of reality is
apt to come into conflict with other ways of ordering reality. Dubiety
necessitates a narrative approach that can parse the varying perspectives.

1  Facts, Goals, and Narratives

Early in the growth of narrative policy inquiry, Kaplan (1986) saw a jus-
tification for a narrative approach under conditions where criteria, goals,
and objectives cannot be clearly articulated or agreed upon. I would
add facts to this mix of things that are often problematic. Establishing
facts is important in public policy analysis—even if pursued as an aspira-
tional ambition rather than a completely achievable accomplishment. If
facts exist as some dictionaries say they do, as indisputable truth, nar-
rative policy analysis likely would not be worth spending a lot of time
on. A singular, indisputable narrative would dominate; pluralistic com-
petition among narratives would be pointless; politics would be inert.
Contestation over goals, facts, or both is the rule and not the exception
in formulating public policy in a pluralistic democracy. And this is where
narrative inquiry offers advantages.
Scientific norms of inquiry have the most prestige in establishing fac-
ticity, but the actual research methods deployed to establish the facts
vary considerably among scientific disciplines, and within each discipline
as well. There is no single scientific method, as in the scientific method.
Mainstream, modern social science embraces quantification, neutrality,
and objectivity—an approach variously described as naturalism, positiv-
ism, or scientism depending on one’s assessment of it. My own comfort
level with scientific norms leads me to trust the findings about climate
change, greenhouse gas emissions and many other questions that have
entered the political realm. Sometimes facts can be established as effec-
tively true, or at least as persuasive and convincing among members of
a convention-sharing community. However, Poovey (1998) notes that
 1 DUBIETY 3

the modern fact severs the connection between description and inter-
pretation, and she demurs because this assumption does not withstand
scrutiny. There are no theory-free facts, value-free-facts, politics-free
facts, language-free facts, or culture-free facts. There are no narrative-free
facts. Metze and Dodge (2016) show how facts diverge among policy
discourse coalitions. There is a playing field of competing interpretations,
uncertainties, doubts, and irresolutions that one must accept once one
acknowledges that fact’s status as objective descriptor of indisputable
truth is aspirational at best. This predicament does not gesture toward
nihilism or cynicism, but instead signals a need to study policy narratives
with a focus on their meanings.
The term dubiety refers to the ambiguity we language-using humans
must negotiate in fending off one dang thing after another. The core
concern is the problem of meaning-making. The difficulty seems pro-
nounced in the age of rapid information technology, including tradi-
tional modes of communication such as television and radio, but also
the high-velocity modes of communication such as the Internet, social
media, and smart phones. Dubiety is not exclusive to high-tech commu-
nication media nor to postindustrial anxiety, though it obviously thrives
there. With respect to the Internet, Warraich (2018) complains that
“Dr. Google” has given terrible advice regarding the side effects of stat-
ins, vaccines, and alternative cancer therapies. For medical research, the
dubiety goes deeper than Internet searches. “False positives and exag-
gerated results in peer-reviewed scientific studies have reached epidemic
proportions in recent years. The problem is rampant in economics, the
social sciences and even the natural sciences, but it is particularly egre-
gious in biomedicine. Many studies that claim some drug or treatment is
beneficial have turned out not to be true” (Ioannidis 2011).

2  Cannabis Policy Discourse

In the chapters of this book, I focus on claims made in public policy dis-
course, with most illustrations coming from policy-related discussions of
cannabis in the United States. The discourse on cannabis policy in the
United States is replete with claims based on different interpretations of
the facts, different facts altogether, different concerns and different aspi-
rations. The cannabis discourse was characterized for many years by the
near-prohibition of scientific research on the effects of cannabis. The
claims made for and against this plant are sometimes dubious, and some
4 H. T. MILLER

have a long history. Cannabis policy discourse, the main exhibit room
for the Narrative Politics model I am about to lay out, was chosen espe-
cially for its evolving nature, and for the diversity of perspectives engaged
in political contestation. Public opinion has moved rapidly with respect
to this policy concern, at least in recent years. Some policy narratives
remain remarkably durable while other ebb, flow, recede, and ascend.
Some narratives dominate in certain time periods; they lose that domina-
tion in other time periods; new narratives emerge. Previously dismissed
narratives regain coherence and meaning, coming to pose challenges to
decohering dominant narratives.
Other features of the cannabis policy discourse that make it attractive
as an exemplar for the Narrative Politics model have to do with the curi-
ous structure of status quo policy in the United States. Medical cannabis
is illegal at the federal level but legal in most of the states. And states
vary among themselves in terms of the legal status of adult-use, recrea-
tional cannabis and the punishments prescribed for possessing it; some
have decriminalized possession of small quantities and others continue to
impose long prison sentences. Including Washington, DC, there are 51
different polities at the state level, plus a broad national polity at the fed-
eral level. The exhibit room for this book is necessarily limited to the dis-
course in the United States, though Canada, Uruguay, and other nations
with diverse polities are witnessing rapid change in cannabis policy.
Even when devoid of ideological dogma, scientific studies of the
medicinal, psychological, and behavioral consequences of this plant vary
widely in their conclusions. Psychological effects can range from relax-
ation and happy euphoria, on one end of the pole, to panic, paranoia
and psychosis on the other. Dubiety and ambiguity prevail in multiple
dimensions of the discourse.

3   All Words Lie

I intend for the Narrative Politics model to have potential application
beyond cannabis policy and beyond the United States. In all domains
of public policy discourse there are echo chambers, self-referential bub-
bles, and fragmentation, serving to unmoor policy consensus among the
polity. When prominent liars, bullshitters, or idea marketers deliberately
weaponize uncertainty and ambiguity to distract and misrepresent, the
problem becomes more pronounced. Postings of deepfake videos on the
Internet are but one manifestation of this phenomenon (Rini 2019).
 1 DUBIETY 5

Dubiety undermines aspirations for goal consensus and goal clarity.

For public policy implementation, clear and stable goals would be desira-
ble for those public administrators whose job it is to implement the stat-
utes and directives. But scholars also realize this desired condition is a
bit of a pipe dream. Ambiguity is a way of life in the world of policy
implementation. The problem is not merely that legislative bodies some-
times leave goals vague in order to win majority support for a bill, or
that opponents of the legislation continue to be opposed to the policy
even after enactment. Without a common agreement on goals and facts
in a policy domain, the idea of a sustained, broad consensus may be out
of the question. If there were such a consensus in any given moment,
it would not survive if people change their minds, or if a previously
excluded faction weighs in at the next political moment.
Beyond our inherited capacity for empathy (de Waal 2009), human
sociality benefits from a distinct aptitude for symbolic communication.
Humans have an unequalled talent for abstraction. We categorize and
sort; we use metaphors. Linguistic talents are useful in telling stories and
for philosophizing. Such talents also generate an unavoidable tendency
toward hypostatization—to misconstrue our word constructs as some-
thing akin to a concrete reality. Hypostatization infers that abstractions
of language are assigned reality status. Humans make things of mere
concepts. Humans also exaggerate and lie, which is inherent in language
(Eco 1976). For Eco, a sign is anything that can be substituted for some
other thing. This “other thing” does not have to be present, and does
not even have to exist at the moment a sign stands in for it. “Thus semi-
otics is in principle the discipline studying everything which can be used in
order to lie. If something cannot be used to tell a lie, conversely it cannot
be used to tell the truth: it cannot in fact be used ‘to tell’ at all” (Eco
1976, 7, italics in original). Hence, all words have the potential to lie;
the unicorn has company.
And humans imitate (Tarde 1903). The capacity to imitate is a large
part of how we learn language as children. More than that, humans
imitate fashion to the point of trendiness. Humans repost Twitter and
Facebook messages in a ritual of replication. Vacationing humans go to
Disney parks in Southern California, Florida, France, and Japan and have
their pictures taken with the same replicated Mickey Mouse, who is able
to appear in multiple tourist destinations simultaneously. Micky, mean-
while, is not actually a mouse—there is almost zero denotative content
linking Micky Mouse with a real mouse. Again, what I am suggesting in
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Example 8: Ethical considerations and implications
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
References 2: Experimental procedures and results
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• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
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Example 12: Fundamental concepts and principles
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
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Example 16: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
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Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
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Remember: Current trends and future directions
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Conclusion 3: Historical development and evolution
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
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[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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Quiz 4: Case studies and real-world applications
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[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
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Conclusion 6: Practical applications and examples
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Example 51: Historical development and evolution
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Definition: Experimental procedures and results
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Important: Experimental procedures and results
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- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
References 7: Research findings and conclusions
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 67: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 8: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 75: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 76: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 78: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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