JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE, TECHNOLOGY & ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN AFRICA Vol. 10 No.

1 MAY 2019
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LANGUAGE POLICY IN EDUCATION: THE PRACTICALITY OF ITS

IMPLEMENTATION AND WAY FORWARD

Awuor, Quin Elizabeth

United States International University –Africa
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Language is a critical tool that is used for the purposes of communication. Through it, we probe
and elucidate various situations that we come across in our daily interactions. At the centre of the
education system is the language policy in education which dictates the language used in
disseminating knowledge at varied levels. Of concern to this study is the practicality of this policy
with regard to the medium of instruction used at the various levels. According to Muthwii (2002),
the language policy approved in Kenya entails a bilingual perspective in education where the
child’s first language (or the admissible local language) is used as the language of instruction in
lower primary classes while English is taught as a subject. In the upper primary classes, English
takes over from the first language as the language of instruction however the latter does not relish
the same reverse role as English. The significance of local languages in the education system
cannot be overlooked. This is because local languages are inimitable benefactors to social,
political and economic development of any country. Nyika (2015) asserts that the use of a local
language as a medium of instruction is beneficial across all the levels of education. He asserts
that students whose mother tongue is used as the medium of instruction have an edge over those
whose mother tongue is not used. He further notes that policies respecting the channel of
instruction have both short and long term imputations some of which may easily go unnoticed yet
they may have overarching consequences for current and future generations. Because of the
impact of local languages, their use is entrenched in the Kenyan constitution of 2010 as stipulated
in chapter 2, section 7(3) which notes the commitment of the state to: promote and protect the
diversity of languages of the people of Kenya and to promote the development and use of
indigenous languages, Kenya Sign language, Braille and other communication formats and
technologies accessible to persons with disabilities. Despite the benefits that accrue from the use
of local languages, they have not been given the attention they deserve in the Kenyan context in
particular and the African continent generally. Most education systems in this continent give
precedence to international languages despite the fact that the number of those fluent in these
languages is minimal. The use of such languages in the education system pose far reaching
consequences because there is a disconnect between what is formally taught and its applicability
in its social domain. It is on this premise that this paper sought to investigate the extent to which
the local language policy in education is implemented by teachers; to examine the challenges faced
in the implementation of the local language policy and to describe practical solutions to the
challenges faced in the implementation. The researchers argued from the premise that
enhancement of local languages promote career development and open up avenues which can be
used to achieve social integration, a concept that has been elusive in the Kenyan context.
Interviews and Focus Group Discussions were carried out with the principal implementers.
Secondary data in the form of books and journals were also utilized. The study found out that there

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were challenges faced in the dissemination of information contained in the language policy in the
local languages. In addition, there was need to give teachers opportunities to attend refresher
courses with regard to teaching learners in mother tongue. Moreover, there was lack of training
in translation a fact that contributed to the encumbrance that the implementers faced in
implementing the local language policy.

Key words: Language, Multilingualism, Pedagogy, Constitution

Introduction

Language is an important tool in the society and this is best captured in Malinowski’s assertion
that ‘language is the necessary means of communion: it is one indispensable instrument for
creating the ties of the moment without which unified social action is impossible’ (Diamond,
1959). Language serves a myriad of functions the basic of which is communication. It is a social
product springing up with the first community, developing with the increasing needs of culture
and sophistication and vanishing when society vanishes. Thus language happens to be the index
of the progress of society and the longer a society exists the richer the language becomes’
(Manindranath, 2000). The use of mother tongue as a channel through which knowledge is
imparted cannot be trivialized. Fagerberg-Diallo (2006) demonstrates that learning to read and
write in the language (s) used at community level triggers learners. They enable individuals
participate and take leading roles in local institutions and organisations. Such persons encounter
an important growth in credence for they establish businesses, manage local associations and
community-based groups and take part in local political institutions. As parents, they give better
parental support to the school going children.

There is a strong correlation between language and ethnicity. Language defines a community and
through it members of the community conduct their businesses and interact with one another and
the outside world. Fought (2006) notes that language and ethnicity are deeply interlaced. Language
contributes to the social and psychological processes involved in the formation of ethnic identity.
Ethnicity is seen as a social construction that indicates association with a particular group that is
usually a minority within a country. Members of ethnic groups share common cultural attributes
such as their language. Hence the bond between language and ethnicity puts the language that
defines the community in this case the native one at the core of discussion.

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Background information on the Language Policy

According to Association for the Development of Education in Africa (2005), the first mien of
language policies in Africa dates back to the subdivision of Africa among the European powers in
the 19thc. Besides the negative political and economic effects, these policies have had a major
influence on education. Although history has made the European languages an irrefutable attribute
of our linguistic terrain, it would be a blunder to believe that we can ever achieve practical
development if we remain absolutely reliant on them. Rather we should encourage the co-existence
of both African and European languages in our educational system, with priority given to the
former. To achieve this, rigorous emendation needs to be done to the existing policies followed by
their implementation.

A historical account of the Language policy in Kenya is crucial since it brings to perspective the
interplay between English and the native languages and how they have shaped the language
landscape in the country. Moreover, it takes note of how ‘the politics of language’ has played out
and its effects on education. Nabea (2009) observes that the language policy in Kenya has its basis
in the colonial language policy following the invasion and annexation of the African continent by
European powers, which took place towards the end of the 19th century. After independence
English was declared the official language a decision which Ngugi (1986) notes helped prolong
neo-colonialism rather than help bring change. Several commissions (Ominde commission 1964;
Gachathi 1976; Mackay 1980 among others) were initiated in order to inform the language policy
but only a few recommendations made by such commissions were put to practice. English was
thus considered as the language of official communication and was seen as illustrious as compared
to the native languages. English was a status symbol for anyone who learnt it began abominating
the peasant majority thereby becoming alienated from the values of his/her native language.
Promoting English at the expense of local languages is therefore detrimental to the future of the
Kenyan children.

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Objectives of the study

This paper sought to address the following objectives

1. To investigate the extent to which the local language policy in education is implemented
by teachers.
2. To examine the challenges faced in the implementation of the local language policy.
3. To describe practical solutions to the challenges faced in the implementation.

Benefits of using mother tongue as the medium of instruction

Any language can be used to achieve sophistication in any sphere of life. All languages have the
ability of steering the cornerstones of any country which include the political, education, social
and economic successfully. Tembe and Norton (2008) note that over the past two decades, a
growing number of researchers have provided compelling support for the promotion of mother
tongue education in the early years of schooling. They note that these researchers make the case
that knowledge and skills achieved in mother tongue can transfer across languages and that
multilingual children perform well at school when the school teaches mother tongue effectively.
Using mother tongue as the medium of instruction in schools generally and in lower grades
specifically has several strengths.

According to Fafunwa (1990), using a native language as a medium of instruction is beneficial

since learners will have better understanding of the concepts taught than those who study in a
foreign language. Wilhite (2003) also supports this assertion by arguing that using a language that
learners use for their everyday interactions improves learning and aids in establishing a link with
the local cultural contexts. It also helps in boosting a child’s self esteem since he/she is made aware
that his/her local language is not only valued but also acknowledged. Tomasevski (2003) points
out that using a native language as a channel through which education is acquired satisfies the
rights criteria of obtainability, attainability, sustainability and malleability. In sum, mother tongue
enhances cultural identity. Through it children learn who they are, the history of their communities,
their customs and beliefs. It also enables them to appreciate themselves as members of the society.
It is only then that they can appreciate languages used in other communities.

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Mberia (2016) notes that the use of native languages as the media of instruction in early formal
education has several advantages to the child, community and to the country at large. For example,
it allows for smooth change from home to school environment; the child is allowed to concentrate
on one exercise which is the subject being taught rather than having to divide his/her attention and
mental energies between the subject and the demands of a new language; the use and the early
mastery of mother tongue have the effect of constructively advancing the role of the brain that is
concerned with language and scientific experiments have shown that children learn better and
faster when they communicate in their native languages.

These benefits far outweigh the vexations of addressing the problems of administering a policy
using such languages as the media of instruction. Fishman (1968) argues that there is nothing in
the composition of any language that impedes it from becoming a channel of modern
enlightenment. Gacheche (2010) notes that the use of a familiar language to teach children literacy
is more effectual than an immersion system as children are able to associate sounds with the
symbols they see, thus facilitating comprehension. Moreover, the learning of new notions does not
have to be delayed until the learners grasp the second language thus teachers and learners are able
to broker meanings together, thereby achieving adroitness in the second language through mutual
relation rather than memorisation and mechanical learning. Laitin and Ramachandran (2014:2)
argue that ‘the choice of language influences human capital as it provides those who speak the
official language of the state with greater access to economic and political opportunities. The
greater the proportion of the population that speaks that language of instruction in schooling, the
lower the cost and the higher the level of human capital in society.’ Development is made possible
through a language that people understand best. In the case of Africans, it is their native languages.
These languages should be used in both written and oral communication. If they are confined to
the latter no tangible development can be realised and poverty will continue defining African
states. These studies point out the advantages of using mother tongue as the medium of instruction,
the present study supports the arguments fronted by these scholars and it is also interested in
looking at the challenges that the principal implementers face while using the language policy and
some practical solutions that can be used to address them.

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Drawbacks of using mother tongue as the medium of instruction

Verifiable studies carried out by some scholars show that the use of mother tongue as the language
of instruction has drawbacks. For example, Smits, Huisman and Kruijff (2008) posit that the use
of local languages is twofold: it could unite ethnic groups or isolate the members from the
dominant language speaking part of the population and limit them in their use of a society’s lawful
resources, including education. Benson (as cited in Smits, Huisman and Kruijff 2008) notes that
in terms of educational attainment people who do not speak the language of instruction have less
opportunity to understand enrolment procedures, communicate with school administrators or
comprehend what is being taught. When in schools, the quality of education for these pupils is
lower because they do not understand what is being taught. This leads to inequalities of
opportunities. According to Muthwii (2002) mother tongue has been imposed for political and not
for sociolinguistic or demographic reasons. Parents want their children to master English since it
is the language of wider communication (Bergman, 1996).

In order to minimise the inequalities among languages, several governments developed mother
tongue based education policies for learners in the lower grades. It has long been realized that
educational results may be affected negatively if there is a difference between the languages that
children speak and those used in the educational system. Despite the setbacks, the use of mother
tongue as the language of instruction in lower grades has more strengths than weaknesses.
Therefore, nations that are interested in developing their citizenry should make use of this policy
in order to reap the benefits of civilization.

Theoretical Framework

The study adopted Cummins Proficiency theory (1979, 1991, & 2000). In this theory, Cummins
makes a distinction between two differing kinds of language proficiency namely: Basic
Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) which are the ‘surface’ skills of speaking and listening
and which are typically acquired quickly by many students; particularly by those from language
backgrounds similar to English who spend a lot of their school time interacting with native
speakers. The other is Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) which is the basis for a
child’s ability to cope with the academic demands placed upon him/her in various subjects.

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Cummins (1991) believes that in the course of learning one language a child acquires a set of skills
and implicit metalinguistic knowledge that can be drawn upon when working in another language.
The common underlying proficiency thus provides the base for the development of both the first
and the second language. It follows that any expansion of common underlying proficiency that
takes place in one language will have a beneficial effect on other languages. Cummins further
notes that it is very important that students be encouraged to continue their native language
development and one of the ways in which this can be done is by parents assisting their children
at home by providing them with opportunities to read extensively in their mother tongues. He also
posits that parents should make some time every evening to discuss with their children in their
native languages what they did at school. They should give their children time to explain in their
native languages how they solved mathematical problems or conducted experiments in school for
example. Cummins (2000) further postulates that ‘conceptual knowledge developed in one
language helps to make input in other languages comprehensible.’ If a child already understands
some concepts in his/ her language, all the child has to do is acquire the label of such notions in
English. This theory is significant for the study since it brings to perspective the vital role that
mother tongue plays in the academic life of a child. Through it different skills are acquired and
the child’s ability to cope with various demands that are academic in nature is taken care of.

Methodology

Data was collected using an interview schedule and Focus Group Discussions. A total of thirty
respondents participated in the research. Fifteen of them participated in the group discussions
while the others were interviewed. A total of ten schools were sampled from two neighbouring
constituencies of Uriri and Awendo in Migori County. The schools sampled from the former
constituency were rural while those sampled from the latter were urban. All the teachers who
participated in the study were native speakers of Dholuo and they were drawn from Dholuo-
speaking school catchments. The pupils in the rural schools were native speakers of Dholuo thus
this language was used as the medium of instruction while those in the urban schools were drawn
from different communities such as Luhya, Kisii, Kuria, Luo and Somali. Because of this linguistic
heterogeneity, Kiswahili, a lingua franca, was used as the medium of instruction from grade one.

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The interviews and the Focus Group Discussions were conducted in English. These interviews
were conducted with the teachers in their respective schools. As for the Focus Group Discussions,
they were held at a central school for both groups of participants. The main aim of the research
was to find out if the teachers implemented the Language policy in their schools, the strengths of
the policy as well as the challenges that they faced in the course of implementing the policy. All
participants in the study were lower grade teachers, the principal implementers of the policy. For
this study, the points of reference were the reports of the commissions that had been vested with
the responsibility of reviewing the language policy in education in post independent Kenya. They
were: The Ominde Report (1964); Gachathi Report (1976); Koech Report (1999) and the Sessional
Paper No. 14 of 2012.

Discussion

All the participants noted that the language policy which required that children be taught in mother
tongue was vital since it made change from the home to the school environment smooth. Using a
language that the learners were familiar with made them feel at ease and appreciated. Through
mother tongue they learnt about their customs, beliefs and traditions as well as the history of their
community. The teachers observed that even though the policy makers had good intentions for the
learners, there was no uniformity in the implementation of the policy. The methods used varied
depending on the comprehension of it by different teachers, the situations in which they found
themselves in and the kind of learners that they had.

The teachers cited several challenges that impeded the effectual implementation of the policy. All
of them decried the absence of varieties of teaching and learning materials in mother tongue. The
materials that were available was insufficient, the curriculum developers failed to give a clear
guide on how the instruction in the native languages was to be conducted and so the teachers were
left with no option but to consult the curriculum that was written in English and which was meant
for the upper primary and customize it to fit the mother tongue situation. In other words, the
interpretation of the policy was at the discretion of individual teachers because of an ambivalent
comprehension of it.

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Most of the participants who taught in the rural as well as urban schools noted that they were not
trained on mother tongue as a subject thus when they faced challenges they would code switch in
the process of instruction thereby leaving the learners confused as to which language they were
supposed to use in answering questions. Those teaching in the rural schools noted that there were
some concepts especially those in the realm of the science that were difficult to explain in mother
tongue because they did not know the words to use for them. One teacher had this to say:

There are some words that are foreign and some are not found in the immediate environment of
the learners. They are innovations that have come about as a result of technological advancement.
When we come across these words, we find it difficult to conceptualise what they could be and
because we do not have dictionaries for example a Dholuo- English dictionary, we ourselves are
not able to tell what they are in mother tongue or even give the learners equivalents of such terms
or concepts. We scratch our heads to find examples to use in the classroom so that learners can
have a rough idea of what such a word is but we fail. It becomes more frustrating for the teacher
when he/she finds himself/herself in such a situation. Therefore, we resort to use an English word
to explain to them such concepts. Such experiences are at times embarrassing for the teacher.
The status of native languages should be raised to enable it compete favourably with foreign
languages. This argument is supported by Mbithi (2014) who notes that indigenous languages
should be given official status and get assistance and motivation at all levels of the education
system. Structures should be put in place to teach and scrutinize the capabilities of the indigenous
languages used in Kenya. Such structures should include the resources to produce and disseminate
instructional materials. Gacheche (2010) also supports this assertion by noting that the government
can increase the functional uses of the native languages beyond the home so that as literacy in
them increases, they attain substantial efficacy in the community. By so doing, the local languages
become a valuable resource which thrives alongside global languages. Moreover, ameliorating the
status of local languages will also refine the socioeconomic prospects and political involvement of
a greater portion of the population.

The teachers in the urban schools argued that even though Dholuo was the language of the
catchment area, the learners came from different communities and so the policy dictated that
Kiswahili be used as the medium of instruction. Those teaching in the urban schools noted that not
all of them used Kiswahili to deliver their content since some of them were not competent in the
language. One of them had this to say:

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Kiswahili is a difficult language. I can write it well but I have a problem speaking it. The language
is demanding in terms of ‘ngeli’ and at times some learners correct you when you speak in it. Most
of us Luos have a negative attitude towards Kiswahili and we prefer English instead since we
speak it with ease. Personally, my handicap in Kiswahili language makes me resort to instructing
the learners in English and at times I code switch. I know this is wrong but I do not have a choice.
Since the learners come from the urban centre, they are conversant with the English language and
they understand what is being taught in it. The government should offer us opportunities to attend
refresher courses in the teaching of learners in mother tongue so that we can gain fresh insights.
They should also provide us with adequate resources so that we are well equipped as implementers
of the policy.
Even though all the teachers were native speakers of Dholuo, some of them were not competent
in the language and this therefore acted as a barrier to its effective use in the classroom situation
during instruction. Such teachers were burdened because they had to learn the language in the
process of instruction and this made the process not only clumsy but also cumbersome. Because
of the challenges that they faced, some of them resorted to code switching as a result. One of the
teachers in the rural schools had this to say:

I was born and bred in Kawangware. My mother speaks Luganda and my father Dholuo so we
used English in our house since my mother could hardly communicate in Kiswahili. We rarely
interacted in Dholuo a situation that was compounded by the fact that the children in our
neighbourhood came from different ethnic backgrounds so we used Kiswahili in our interactions.
I trained in Machakos teachers college and I only came back home when I was looking for a job.
My father encouraged me to come back to the village since it was easier getting an employment
opportunity in the village than in Nairobi. The only time that I got to speak Dholuo frequently was
in the village and here (in school). The first few months were very challenging for me because I
had to deal with learners most of whom did not speak Kiswahili at all. I at times mix Kiswahili
and Dholuo as I teach my learners in grade two.
The teachers had misgivings about using mother tongue to instruct the learners since they noted,
it was not the language used in examination. They argued that this did a lot of harm to the learners.
It was a waste of time, energy and resources. They noted that at the end of the primary education,
examinations are set and done in English. Therefore, learners do not understand the essence of
learning in mother tongue during their formative years because they do not have an opportunity to
express themselves in the languages that were crucial in their academic foundations and which
played vital roles in the comprehension of important concepts. The question that the teachers asked
was: is it worth learning in a language that ceases to be useful once one completes lower primary,
a language that is confined to the periphery and one that is devalued once one climbs the academic
ladder? This issue was a point of concern for most of them. Failure to use mother tongue as a

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language of instruction even though the policy demands so is best captured by Adegoju (2008)
who notes that the use of mother tongue as the medium of instruction is not enforced at the level
of implementation and to support this claim, he quotes Adegbite’s (2003:188) assertion that the
elite of the society are to blame for this situation:

Since it is the elite that dominate policy making in Nigeria, the

interest of the elite has always been equated with public interest.
Consequently, the dominance of English over the indigenous
languages in Nigeria and the attendant positive attitude towards
the language can be attributed to elitist interest.
The situation in Nigeria as is presented by Adegbite is replicated in Kenya. The policy on language
is formulated in the boardroom and the interest of those to whom it is established is not fully taken
care of. The situation on the ground in most cases is not taken into account during the inception as
well as the implementation of such policies. Those concerned with ensuring that such policies are
implemented (for example Quality Assurance Officers) do not make follow ups to ensure that the
direct consumers benefit. They do not establish the weaknesses of such policies so that
improvements can be made to ensure that the children benefit from such interventions. Coupled
with negative attitudes and laxity that have been developed by the principal implementers towards
this language policy, practical solutions need to be put in place if the interests of the African
children particularly the Kenyan ones are to be taken care of.

The participants in the study noted that some parents especially those in the rural areas were
stumbling blocks to the implementation of the policy. The parents argued that teaching children in
their mother tongue was detrimental because such children could not compete favourably with
their counter parts in the urban areas who were taught in English. To such parents, learning can
only take place in English therefore the sole responsibility of the teachers was to teach the children
different concepts in English and give them opportunities to express themselves in the same at a
tender age. One teacher explained an encounter that she had with a parent representative after a
stormy meeting at the school compound. This is what she reported:

The parents had resolved that their children be instructed in English rather than mother tongue
because the exams done at the end of the primary education were set and administered in the
English language. The parents thought that the decision to instruct the learners in their native
language was the teachers’ and not the Ministry’s. The parent representative told me that parents
did not kindly take that decision because according to them the teachers had already developed a

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negative attitude towards their children and concluded that they were best suited for the village
polytechnics after primary school the reason why they were taught in mother tongue. He further
argued that had the teachers seen the potential in their children they would have taught in English
which is the language of wider communication to give them a level ground to compete with their
counterparts for positions in prestigious schools located in different parts of the country.
Obanya (1995) observes that there is an erroneous assumption that African languages are
inadequate as such they cannot address scientific and technical entities. This may be one of the
reasons why the parents in the rural school mentioned above had misgivings about the use of
mother tongue as the language of instruction. Parents and other principal stakeholders need to be
sensitized on the benefits of carrying out instructions in the child’s home language in the lower
grades so that certain misconceptions that are held are corrected.

Some teachers noted that since Kenya is a country where ethnicity is a sensitive issue, mother
tongue should not be used as the medium of instruction in lower grades as it fuels ethnic divisions
since at a tender age learners are made aware of their ethnic orientations and this makes them begin
looking at themselves as different from those who come from other ethnic groups. Such groupings
become more pronounced during the electioneering period when ethnicity becomes a major
defining factor. Therefore, to achieve national cohesion a national language should be used as a
medium of instruction in all schools across the country.

The participants concluded that the policy was good and it should be fully executed. However, the
government should put more effort in improving it by coming up with a realistic and practical
strategy to ensure that it is effectively implemented. Some suggestions given towards the
improvement of the policy are: training the principal implementers on how to use the policy in
service delivery so that there is uniformity in content dissemination for the benefit of the clients
who in this case are the learners. Board of Management(s) should also sponsor early childhood
teachers from their schools to neighbouring to institutions which have successfully implemented
the policies with good returns so that bench marking can be done and best practices from such
schools be adopted. Quality assurance officers should regularly visit schools and offer guidance
on areas that are problematic or even seek the services of specialists through their various county
offices to assist the teachers.

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Recommendations

First, communal effort is required among different stakeholders such as policy makers, scholars,
implementers, education specialists and other advisors to tackle the challenges of implementing
the mother tongue policy so that practical solutions can be sought. Second, adequate resources
such as textbooks and reference materials such as dictionaries and encyclopaedias for all native
languages need to be developed so that the learners and the teachers can have materials that they
can make references to. Third, for those languages whose orthographies have not been developed
those concerned should do so as a matter of urgency. Fourth, challenges should be documented
and addressed by the concerned parties. Fifth, increased funding to support the implementation of
the policy. Such funds can be used in training and in servicing programmes as well as in conducting
research to help improve this policy. Sixth, supervision should be thoroughly done by concerned
personnel to ensure that children reap the benefits of instruction in native languages. Seventh,
introduction of the teaching of mother tongue as a subject alongside others in the teacher training
institutions so that the teachers are well equipped to handle instruction in the native languages once
in the field. Eighth, parents should be maximally involved in the education of their children. They
should be encouraged to engage their children more in their native languages and they should assist
them tackle assignments given in the said languages. In this way, they would help advance
development of such languages as well as the concepts taught. Finally, services of resource
persons in different native languages should be sought especially in the dissemination of oral
traditions as a way of teaching the learners about their history and culture.

Conclusion

Instruction in mother tongue especially in the lower grades is key in the achievement of the goals
of education. Therefore, it should be enhanced and advanced resources made available to the major
implementers of the policy. Evidence has been provided on the benefits that accrue as a result of
the use of native languages in dissemination of knowledge to learners. For instance, countries
such as China, Japan and Russia do not instruct learners in English yet they have progressed greatly
with regard to technology. In addition, there is merit in introducing a course on Translation and
Interpretation in the Teacher Training Colleges because linguistic barrier is an impediment to the
understanding as well as transmission of knowledge. As such, translation, an important component

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in the comprehension process, should be given the attention it deserves if any benefits are to be
attained in education. This course will be instrumental in ensuring that the language policy
document in education among other vital ones is comprehended and the information contained
therein effectively transmitted. The need for professional interpreters in the education system
cannot be underestimated. This is because professional interpretation guards against incidences of
misinterpretation that may lead to incorrect translations.

Bibliography

Adebtite, W. (2003). ‘Enlightenment and Attitudes of the Nigerian Elite on the Roles of Languages
in Nigeria.’ Language, Culture and Curriculum, vol 16(2), 185-196.

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