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Methodology, Technology and Innovation
in Translation Process Research
 Methodology, Technology and
Innovation in Translation Process
Research
A Tribute to Arnt Lykke Jakobsen

Edited by

Inger M. Mees
Fabio Alves
Susanne Göpferich

Copenhagen Studies in Language 38

Samfundslitteratur Press
Methodology, Technology and Innovation in Translation Process Research
A Tribute to Arnt Lykke Jakobsen
Copenhagen Studies in Language 38

© Samfundslitteratur 2010

ISSN 0905-09857
E-ISBN 978-87-593-9757-2

1. e-edition 2011

Cover by SL Grafik
Layout by the editors

Copenhagen Business School

Published by:
Samfundslitteratur Press
Rosenørns Allé 9
DK-1970 Frederiksberg

Phone: + 45 38 15 38 80
Fax: + 45 35 35 78 22
[email protected]
www.samfundslitteratur.dk

Editors:
Inger M. Mees
Fabio Alves
Susanne Göpferich
 CONTENTS
Foreword by Finn Junge-Jensen .................................................................. xi
Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

Arnt Lykke Jakobsen

Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator1 ............................................ 9
Inger Mees

Ten years of Translog .................................................................................. 37

Lasse Schou, Barbara Dragsted & Michael Carl

Part I: Methodological issues

What can translation research learn from Darwin? ..................................... 51
Andrew Chesterman
Eye to IS: on qualitative research in interpreting studies ........................... 67
Franz Pöchhacker
The way they were: subject profiling in translation process research ........ 87
Ricardo Muñoz Martín

Exploring retrospection as a research method for studying the

translation process and the interpreting process ....................................... 109
Birgitta Englund Dimitrova & Elisabet Tiselius

Using process studies in translator training: self-discovery through

lousy experiments ...................................................................................... 135
Anthony Pym

Part II: Computer assistance in process research

Adding value to data in translation process research:
the TransComp Asset Management System ............................................. 159
Susanne Göpferich

Markers of translator gender: do they really matter? ................................ 183

Miriam Shlesinger, Moshe Koppel, Noam Ordan & Brenda Malkiel

1
See pp. 33–36 for a select list of Arnt Lykke Jakobsen’s publications.
x Contents

Uncovering the ‘lost’ structure of translations with parallel treebanks .... 199
Matthias Kromann, Iørn Korzen & Henrik Høeg Müller

Triangulating product and process data: quantifying alignment units

with keystroke data.................................................................................... 225
Michael Carl

Part III: Eye-tracking

Eye tracking in translation-process research: methodological
challenges and solutions ............................................................................ 251
Sharon O’Brien

A new window on translators’ cognitive activity: methodological

issues in the combined use of eye tracking, key logging and
retrospective protocols .............................................................................. 267
Fabio Alves, Adriana Pagano & Igor da Silva

Experts exposed......................................................................................... 293

Barbara Dragsted, Inge Gorm Hansen & Henrik Selsøe Sørensen

Effects of L1 syntax on L2 translation ..................................................... 319

Kristian T.H. Jensen, Annette C. Sjørup & Laura Winther Balling

Part IV: Precision, strategies and quality assessment

Translation preferences in legal translation: lawyers and professional
translators compared ................................................................................. 339
Dorrit Faber & Mette Hjort-Pedersen

The necessary degree of precision revisited ............................................. 359

Paul Kußmaul

Looking for a working definition of ‘translation strategies’ ..................... 375

Riitta Jääskeläinen

Some thoughts about the evaluation of translation products in

translation process research ....................................................................... 389
Gyde Hansen
Notes on contributors ................................................................................ 403
 FOREWORD
CBS is unique among the thousands of business schools around the world.
During the last two decades, it has developed a broad range of disciplines
within the social sciences and the humanities, emphasising cross-discipli-
nary collaboration in order to meet the challenges from a fast changing and
complex global knowledge society. Language, culture and communication
are now recognised as core areas of its profile.
Within translation and translation technology, Arnt Lykke Jakobsen
has been an invaluable academic entrepreneur, who has founded a research
centre, implemented EU projects and established international net-
works. He has also been a key figure in one of the six world-class research
environments started up at CBS in 2008. In addition, he has been actively
involved in setting research agendas, developing strategies and facilitating
collaboration across research areas both in the Academic Council and in
countless everyday CBS activities.
Arnt has shown himself to have an open mind, boundless curiosity
and proved in all ways a highly valued colleague. It has been a privilege to
work with him.

Finn Junge-Jensen
President of CBS, 1987–2009
 INTRODUCTION
On 27 December, 2009, Arnt Lykke Jakobson will celebrate his 65th
birthday. Usually this age is associated with retirement but not so in Arnt‟s
case. His pioneering spirit, innovative force and visionary ideas continue to
give fresh impetus to translation and interpreting process research.
With the contributions collected in this liber amicorum, its authors
and editors wish to honour Arnt Lykke Jakobsen as a researcher, as a
teacher and as a friend, and to thank him for the inspiration he has given us.
In recognition of his achievements, the two opening contributions
deal with Arnt‟s scholarly pursuits. The first, by Inger M. Mees, attempts
to show just how multi-faceted his all-round talent is by emphasising
highlights from his career and providing an overview of his most important
publications. The second, by Lasse Schou, Barbara Dragsted and
Michael Carl, gives an historical account of the development of Translog,
the key-logging software conceived by Arnt, which is now a translation
process research tool used worldwide.
The remainder of Copenhagen Studies in Language 38 is divided
into four sections, which reflect Professor Jakobsen‟s broad range of
interest in translation and interpreting studies.

Part I: Methodological issues

The first section comprises five contributions on methodological issues in

empirical studies, and the articles move from the general to the more
specific.

The section begins with Andrew Chesterman‟s explanation of why he

believes “Charles Darwin can be a model for any empirical researcher”.
Inspired by Darwin‟s Origin of Species, which originally appeared in 1859,
Chesterman describes Darwin‟s way of thinking and writing, his sense of
curiosity, his desire to question and test assumptions, his ability to unite a
variety of facts under a single uniting principle, and his emphasis on
considering counter-evidence. Darwin‟s rhetorical strategy is that of a
2 Inger M. Mees, Fabio Alves & Susanne Göpferich

dialogue or debate. The paper is interspersed with parallels drawn between

Darwin‟s empirical methods and those of translation research.

Franz Pöchhacker gives a broad perspective of methodologies in the field

of interpreting studies (IS) from various vantage points. After providing a
historiographical survey of the research methods employed in IS,
Pöchhacker aims at substantiating a trend he has observed towards an
increasing number of studies adopting qualitative approaches. He does this
by examining the publications included in the Interpreting Studies Reader
(Pöchhacker & Shlesinger 2002), containing material from 1956 to 2002;
the Benjamins Translation library (1990s to the present); and the 100
papers published in the journal Interpreting since its foundation in 1996.

Ricardo Muñoz Martín argues that research into translation processes

needs more methodological rigour. In his paper, which deals with subject
profiling, Muñoz points out that not enough attention has been paid to
variations in subjects‟ mental abilities and language skills. Unless these are
comparable, it is uncertain whether findings are the result of the variables
that are measured or whether they can be attributed to inter-individual
variation. It is proposed that subjects can be classified by means of the
WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and TOEFL (Test of English as a
Foreign Language) subtests. The article discusses the results of an
experiment in which 17 subjects who translated four texts using Translog
were profiled on the basis of their performance in the above-mentioned
tests.

Another methodological paper is that authored by Birgitta Englund

Dimitrova and Elisabet Tiselius. They discuss retrospection, cued by the
source text/source speech, as a means of accessing the cognitive processing
of problems and strategies in both translation and simultaneous
interpreting. The protocols of six subjects (three in each mode) are
subjected to close scrutiny, the main objective being to find a suitable way
of coding and analysing the data obtained by this method.

Anthony Pym shows how translation process research can benefit the
training of translators. Nineteen students from different language programs
Introduction 3

(7 Chinese, 5 Korean, 1 Japanese, 6 French) participated in three

experiments conducted in the classroom. Pym investigated whether
machine translation slows down the translation process, whether different
translators have different styles and whether time pressure leads to a loss in
translation quality. He concludes that experimental approaches are
definitely able to allow students to discover more about their own translator
behaviour.

Part II: Computer assistance in process research

The second section brings together various contributions dealing with ways
in which computers can assist translation process researchers in their
endeavours.

Susanne Göpferich‟s article shows how electronic systems can be used to

make the large amounts of data typically collected in process studies
available on the Internet. In many cases, the data gathered in such studies
are never published, which makes it difficult to reproduce and verify the
results, or indeed to re-use the data. Göpferich argues in favour of
employing Asset Management Systems for “storing, archiving, annotating,
analysing and displaying digital resources of any type”, exemplifying this
by describing the one developed for her own longitudinal study
TransComp. Amongst many other features, this system enables one to link
transcripts to the corresponding sections in the video files.

Miriam Shlesinger, Moshe Koppel, Noam Ordan and Brenda Malkiel

are interested in the interface between computational linguistics and
translation studies. They draw attention to the fact that “translation scholars
routinely use methodologies, terminology, and findings from fields as
disparate as psychology, linguistics, comparative literature, sociology and
cultural studies”, but that “they are less prone to seek common ground with
the „hard sciences‟”. Their paper is an attempt to remedy this lacuna.
Machine learning has earlier been shown to be successful in determining
author gender, but Shlesinger and her co-authors have now taken this one
step further. They investigate whether computers are also able to classify
texts by translator gender based on features in the translation. Their corpus
4 Inger M. Mees, Fabio Alves & Susanne Göpferich

consisted of 273 samples of literary prose translated into English from 12

different languages. Interestingly, the results showed that the computer
could be trained to identify a number of male vs. female characteristics;
however, as yet, the gender of the translator cannot accurately be predicted.

Matthias Buch-Kromann, Iørn Korzen and Henrik Høeg Müller are

engaged in investigating how computers can be trained to contribute to our
understanding of human translation processes. In their paper they outline
the design principles behind the Copenhagen Dependency Treebanks, a set
of parallel treebanks for a number of languages with a unified annotation of
morphology, syntax, discourse and translational equivalence. These
treebanks can be used to express structural relationships between source
and target texts and thus provide answers to a number of qualitative and
quantitative research questions about translations, such as how often
particular structures occur in different languages, how they are mapped to
other languages, and what the systematic differences between languages
are. To illustrate the type of research they have in mind, they put forward
some hypotheses about morphology and discourse and describe how these
can be explored by means of treebanks.

Michael Carl proposes a strategy and a set of tools for cross-validating and
triangulating Translog product and process data. Translation process
scholars are familiar with translation units (cognitive entities in the process
data), but Carl now introduces the notion of an alignment unit (AU), which
refers to translation equivalences in the source and target texts in the
product data. Once the source and target texts have been fragmented into
AUs, all the keystroke data obtained from Translog can be allocated to
them.

Part III: Eye-tracking

The third section comprises four papers dealing with eye-tracking.

Sharon O’Brien addresses methodological matters in translation process

research, specifically those related to eye-tracking studies. The challenges
posed are divided into five categories (research environment, research
Introduction 5

participants, ethics, data explosion and validity), some of which have been
further subdivided. Each of the issues is discussed followed by possible
solutions to the problems.

Fabio Alves, Adriana Pagano and Igor da Silva conducted a study

combining eye-tracking with key logging and retrospective protocols. Ten
professional translators were asked to carry out a direct and an inverse
translation. This was followed by two types of retrospection (verbalisation
elicited by a replay of their own task and by means of questions) during
which the eye-tracker was switched on. Firstly, the study tests whether
average fixation length is affected by the use of different filters. Secondly,
it measures the effect of directionality on fixation length, and on the
amount of time spent on the different phases of translation. Finally, the
retrospective protocols are analysed as a means of gaining insight into the
metacognitive activity of professional translators.

Barbara Dragsted, Inge Gorm Hansen and Henrik Selsøe Sørensen

have carried out an explorative study of the processes and products of three
expert translators who were to a greater or lesser extent familiar with
speech recognition (SR) technology. The participants were given five tasks:
a reading task, a reading-for-the-purpose-of-translation task, a sight
translation task, a sight translation task with the use of SR and a written
translation task. Time consumption and translation behaviour are then
compared. In addition to investigating a number of process variables, the
authors have also undertaken a preliminary analysis of the translations
produced in the written and SR conditions in order to detect potential
differences in the quality of the spoken and written output.

Kristian TH Jensen, Annette Sjørup and Laura Winther Balling

conducted an eye-tracking experiment with the purpose of establishing
whether segments requiring a change in the word order in the translation
had an effect on the participants‟ eye behaviour. Two Danish texts (the
translators‟ L1) were translated into English (their L2). They contained
clauses for which the order of subject and verb could be transferred directly
and clauses where the order had to be reversed. It turned out that the
participants gazed significantly longer at segments for which the word
6 Inger M. Mees, Fabio Alves & Susanne Göpferich

order had to be reversed even though there was no significant word order
effect on pupil dilation. The study suggests possible interpretations for this
difference.

Part IV: Precision, strategies and quality assessment

Our last section comprises four articles on precision in translation, the

different definitions of the concept of “strategy”, and quality assessment of
target texts.

Dorrit Faber and Mette Hjort-Pedersen adopt an interesting approach to

exploring the issue of fidelity to the source text vs. catering for the needs of
target-text readers in legal translation. They analyse eight translations of an
English pre-marital contract produced by four lawyers and four
professional translators, investigating to what extent explicitations and
implicitations are handled differently by the two groups. The results show
that the two groups do indeed vary in certain respects. This is attributed to
differences (a) in drafting style conventions, (b) in the manner in which
legal concepts are handled and (c) in the degree of narrowing of legal
conceptual content.

Paul Kußmaul elaborates on “the principle of the necessary degree of

precision” and illustrates this using examples from the translation of social
surveys. Translators will often avoid taking risks for the sake of caution,
but in this paper Kußmaul argues that being precise often involves taking
chances, and that the crucial skill a translator needs to acquire is how to
manage uncertainty (namely, risk reduction rather than risk avoidance). It is
shown that, if dealt with properly, the concepts of explicitation and
equivalence can be seen as forms of risk management. In order to arrive at
the optimal degree of precision, translators should bear in mind the
function of the segment to be translated, and make use of the notions of
prototypicality and scenes.

Riitta Jääskeläinen discusses the difficult concept of “translation

strategy”, which has multiple definitions both in translation and other fields
such as second language acquisition and cognitive psychology. She
Introduction 7

illustrates how various scholars have attempted to come to grips with the
notion by means of various categorisations (textual and procedural; local
and global; product- and process-oriented). The paper concludes with a
map showing how the different strategy notions might be related to each
other.

The final paper in this volume, authored by Gyde Hansen, serves as a

reminder to translation process researchers that, although process research
is interesting in its own right, it is also important to consider the quality of
the results of these processes, namely the evaluation of the product. The
criteria adopted naturally depend on the purpose for which the evaluation is
carried out, whether this is scientific translation criticism; practice (in
companies); translation didactics; or translation process research. The
article discusses issues such as the choice of evaluators, the value of pre-
defined criteria and procedures, and the classification and weighting of
errors.

The editors wish to thank Finn Junge-Jensen, former President of the

Copenhagen Business School, and Alex Klinge, Head of the Department of
International Language Studies and Computational Linguistics, for
providing the funding for this work.

Copenhagen, Belo Horizonte and Graz, October 2009 The Editors

 Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator

Inger M. Mees

Early years at the university

A great age of literature is perhaps always a great age of translations.

(Ezra Pound)

When, in 1985, Arnt Lykke Jakobsen moved from his post at Copenhagen
University to accept an associate professorship at the Copenhagen Business
School (CBS), his father jumped for joy. Now the grocer‟s son was back
where he belonged. He‟d had the good sense to return to a business
environment with every promise of a secure and successful future career.
And today, almost twenty-five years on, were he still alive, Jakobsen père
would have every reason to say “I told you so”. At the time, our protagonist
might have had his doubts about his decision. Coming as he did from a
traditional arts faculty with an emphasis on core university subjects such as
literature, history and philosophy, and having as his main interest English
literature, the move to the Business School was a major step, and he must
have felt uncertain as to what the future held in store. His research had so
far largely focussed on literary theory and analysis, notably the works of
Malcolm Lowry (Jakobsen 1980, 1981) and D. H. Lawrence (Einersen and
Jakobsen 1984). In Jakobsen (1985a) he had attempted to explain why
Lawrence still appeals so much to modern readers – even though the
reasons for reading him are so different from the situation in the thirties.
Jakobsen (1985b) is a meticulous and captivating account of how
Lawrence‟s works were received and interpreted in Denmark in the half-
century spanning 1932 to 1982. Incidentally, we may also note Jakobsen
(2007), where Arnt returns to his early literary interests. But although the
main focus was on literature, one can also trace an early fascination with
text linguistics, pragmatics and semantics, all of which formed a basis for
his literary analyses, and which would now prove invaluable to him in his
10 Inger M. Mees

new role of making the teaching of translation at CBS more theoretically

informed. His faculty for critical thinking and the intellectual curiosity that
drove his research were clearly present right from the outset of his career.
Arnt Lykke Jakobsen was born on 27 December 1944, and grew up
in the little town of Skjern in western Jutland – far from the bustle of the
metropolis, and where at the time a large percentage of the population had
only limited education with very little chance of acquiring more. His all-
round talents were evident from an early age, both to his parents and his
schoolteachers. It was therefore no surprise that he became, as his mother
respectfully used to put it, “the first academic in the family”. After
completing secondary school in Tarm, a nearby town, at the age of 18 he
moved to the capital to read English at Copenhagen University, obtaining
his MA in 1972. He was appointed Assistant Professor at the University in
the same year, and Associate Professor in 1978. In 1973/74 he spent a year
in the USA as Visiting Lecturer at Tufts University, Medford/Massa-
chusetts.
Coming from a somewhat remote area had given him an insatiable
curiosity about the wider world and one of the ways he satisfied this was
through reading the classics of world literature. Above all, he devoured
works in English by famous authors – Laurence Sterne, Joseph Fielding,
George Eliot, Joseph Conrad, W.B. Yeats, James Joyce, Graham Greene,
John Fowles, Salman Rushdie, to name just a few. Even today, his desire to
obtain information about anything and everything remains undiminished. I
have often seen him grab a dictionary, or start googling, right in the middle
of a conversation if a topic crops up where he feels he needs to boost his
knowledge. It could be anything – translating an English word into
German, the rendering in English of a Danish idiomatic expression, the
geographical location of a town or country (Google Earth is a favourite!), a
composer‟s date of birth, the Latin name of a flower or bird, the workings
of software programs, or even the rules of cricket – I could go on. His
genuine need to soak up all kinds of information is doubtless the
explanation for his encyclopaedic knowledge covering a wide range of
topics. And it is also why he is such a fascinating conversationalist.
Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator 11

Research interests: literature, text analysis and semantics

Translation is not a matter of words only: it is a matter of making intelligible a whole

culture.
(Anthony Burgess)

So Arnt Lykke Jakobsen‟s early years as a researcher were devoted to

literature, his approach always being guided by a broad understanding of
the concept of meaning. No fuzzy interpretations are to be found in his
analyses; he always takes due account of the speaker, the receiver and the
situation. Meaning is embedded in the text, the co-text and the context, and
the interpretation of an utterance therefore goes far beyond what can be
looked up in a dictionary. People‟s backgrounds, cultures and experiences,
the manner in which something is spoken, accompanying facial expressions
and gestures, all contribute to the way we perceive and understand matters.
This approach is evident if one watches Arnt trying to read and
interpret a text. He takes off his glasses, bends down over the book, picks
up a pen, scrutinises the text and underlines all the relevant portions. A
slight frown is visible as he raises his eyebrows and accesses the
knowledge stored in his brain in order to add this to the information he is
gleaning from the text. One can virtually see him constructing meaning as
he goes along. He doesn‟t gladly tolerate incompetence: incorrect grammar
and orthography, infelicitous phrasing, illogical sequencing, the use of
clichés, stereotypes and unsuccessful imagery are all likely to provoke
severe criticism, or at least obvious displeasure. In contrast, well-written
work gives him intense pleasure: beauty and quality of language contribute
greatly to the enjoyment he obtains from reading and listening. He is a
gifted translator and writer himself, having an unsurpassed ability for
phrasing matters elegantly, precisely and concisely. He has at his disposal a
vast vocabulary in both Danish and English – with the possible exception
of the little word “no”, which he finds hard to articulate if asked for help or
advice. This may account for the amazing number of undertakings in which
he is involved.
Arnt‟s spoken English is also excellent. His pronunciation is almost
flawless, and in Britain people rarely take him for anything other than a
native speaker. He is also a superb mimic, and seems able to imitate many
varieties of Danish and English, all the more convincingly because he so
12 Inger M. Mees

effortlessly reproduces speakers‟ voice qualities. His co-authorship of a

piece on Danish students‟ identification and evaluation of different accents
of English (Jarvella et al. 2001) bears testimony to his liking for dialects.
Another of his talents is that he is a brilliant annotator. To get a taste
of this, read Jakobsen‟s (1980) annotation of Malcolm Lowry‟s Under the
Volcano (1947), which contains a host of comments and notes. In fact, in
his early days, Arnt‟s outstanding analytical powers were mainly revealed
in the form of writings based on his close reading of the works of literary
critics – “Critique of Wayne C. Booth‟s Rhetoric of Irony” (Jakobsen 1977)
being a good example. His interest in semantics is reflected in another pre-
CBS publication on hypostasis forms (Jakobsen 1982), an article which
measured up to his own high standards (Arnt is invariably his own sternest
critic).
Although Jakobsen‟s early work did not deal with translation per se,
his curiosity about what constitutes textual meaning clearly paved the way
for his new field of research. Bearing this in mind, it is not so surprising
that he managed to adapt so easily to the study of translation at CBS.

The move to CBS: from literature to translation

As mentioned above, 1985 saw him make the move from Copenhagen
University to the Department of English at CBS. His new CBS colleagues
had a lot of experience in teaching practical translation skills, but the
subject was greatly in need of a person who could provide a theoretical
foundation.
Before Arnt began to concentrate on domain-specific translation,
there was a transitional period in which his original interest in literature
was still clearly apparent, but in which one could already see in which
direction he was heading. In his last year at the university he had
contributed numerous brief entries on British and American literature to the
supplementary volumes of a Danish encyclopaedia, Gyldendals Leksikon.
Although he was rapidly adjusting to his new situation, for a time Arnt
remained much preoccupied with literary matters; he was still working on
D. H. Lawrence‟s reception in Denmark, and was also invited to talk on the
main Danish radio channel on various authors (for example, on Lawrence
and his wife Frieda von Richthofen, and on John Fowles). Arnt still retains
Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator 13

his love of literature, one manifestation of this being his personal library
containing many thousands of books (including many first editions) for
which he is ever trying to find new storage space. It is a joy to watch him
picking up a book, gently removing the dust jacket, fingering the covers,
studying the title page, and then slowly turning the pages.
In the year of his CBS appointment, he published a paper in Danish
(Jakobsen 1985c) on translation and localisation (in its original broad sense
of adapting a text to a local culture, rather than the current more specialised
meaning of translating software packages, websites and other products that
need to be adapted for international markets). In this piece, his literary
roots are still clearly to be seen. The examples are from older Danish and
English literary works, including a translation into Danish of Alexander
Pope‟s Rape of the Lock, where, among other things, the translator has
localised the Thames as a Danish equivalent, Øresund („the Sound‟). In an
attempt to define the difference between translation and localisation, he
explains (1985c: 12) that translation involves equivalence between two
semantic structures while localisation consists in equivalence between two
semiotic structures, namely the complete meaning structures of the two
linguistic communities involved.
Jakobsen (1988) provides a detailed overview of the earliest
translations from English into Danish; these appeared in the middle of the
seventeenth century – the very first translated writings having come via
Latin. Translations of English literature into other modern European
languages emerged at the beginning of the seventeenth century but in
Denmark things moved somewhat more slowly. At that time, English was
little known, and the availability of German translations had made
translations from English into Danish seem superfluous (pp. 367ff.). The
vast amount of work involved in tracing these early specimens, and the
accurate biographical information provided on the translators, are typical of
Arnt‟s approach to research. Like his previously mentioned study of
Lawrence (1985b), this research is characterised by the same patient,
conscientious and meticulous search for facts, precise details and evidence
of extensive reading. Arnt never goes for the easy way out. Every line he
produces is considered and reconsidered, written and rewritten, and then
checked and double-checked.
14 Inger M. Mees

Computers and corpora

Many critics, no defenders,

translators have but two regrets:
when we hit, no one remembers,
when we miss, no one forgets.
(Anonymous)

In the mid and late 1980s Arnt became fascinated by the new possibilities
available through the introduction of word processors. I remember his talk
to his colleagues at CBS in the mid-80s when I had helped him carry up an
incredibly heavy, monstrously large word processor from his car parked in
the basement area to a room on the third floor where he was demonstrating
this new toy. This was at a time when floppy disks really were floppy and
the whole apparatus was slow and clumsy – the computer groaned while
going about its tasks. The rest of us had just about come round to accepting
the electric typewriter. Some of us had even grown adept at switching the
golf balls to obtain different fonts, but very few of us were ready for these
new electronic wonders. Eventually we all did come to terms with them of
course, and even managed to give up hitting the return key every time we
reached the end of a line. But Arnt was way ahead of his colleagues. I
remember his eyes shining and the fervour with which he elaborated on all
the features and advantages of word processing. His enthusiasm made a
deep impression on us all.
Not surprisingly, the computer age (this was before we started
calling it the “information age”) did indeed present new avenues for
linguistic research, and Arnt quickly saw the potential it offered for storing
and processing large quantities of texts which would then enable the study
of translation phenomena. He was keen on using the LOB (Lancaster-Oslo-
Bergen) text corpus and even wrote a short manual for it in Danish. By the
late 1980s Jakobsen had built up his own Danish electronic corpus
(OVSDA), which was intended as a complement to an existing corpus of
original Danish novels. Remember that this was in the era before it was
possible to scan text and he had himself typed out no fewer than a thousand
extracts, each approximately 250 words in length, culled from fiction
translated from English into Danish between 1970 and 1975. OVSDA was
indexed using Word Cruncher. Word frequency and word collocation lists
Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator 15

were produced, forming the basis for certain of his publications on particles
and compounds (see below), all of which are replete with entertaining and
illustrative examples.
One publication arising from this painstaking work was Jakobsen
(1987), a significant corpus study illustrating differences in the frequency
of occurrence of a selection of words. An interesting example is provided
by the difficulties encountered when attempting to translate Danish modal
particles. An item like jo (in the sense “you know”, “you see”) is noticeably
more frequent in the corpus of novels written originally in Danish than in
the corpus of translated fiction. This far more restricted usage obviously
has an impact on the translations of source texts in which modality plays an
important role, and if one resorts to a translation using modal verbs or
adverbials, this results in a “distinct awkwardness of style” (1987: 104).
Arnt‟s work on corpora provided hard evidence for the frequent lack of
correspondence between the way meanings are mapped in original and
translated texts. The combination of working on word frequency lists and
his involvement in teaching courses on translation possibly sparked
Jakobsen‟s interest in lexicography. He wrote several reviews of
dictionaries, for instance, the NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary
(Jakobsen 1990); the very popular Danish–English dictionaries compiled
by Jens Axelsen, published by Gyldendal, commonly termed “Gyldendal‟s
red dictionaries” (Jakobsen 1991); and Politikens Visuelle Ordbog
(Jakobsen 1993). Consequently, the move to the study of compounds in the
early 1990s turned out to be not such a big step. Incidentally, the beginning
of this decade also marked the point at which Arnt switched to publishing
consistently in English, thus making his work accessible to a much wider
audience. A selection of his most important post-1992 publications on
translation written in English has been listed separately on pp. 33 to 36
(these are shown henceforth with an asterisk).
Arnt published several articles on the translation of compounds in
language for special purpose (LSP) texts, e.g. Jakobsen (1992a), and on
teaching translation of technical compounds, e.g. Jakobsen (*1992). For
these papers, he used for exemplification a comparison of the lexical
inventories of two Danish corpora, both of one million words, one being a
general Danish corpus and the other a biotechnological corpus. Arnt
retained his interest not only in the translation of compounds, but also of
16 Inger M. Mees

any other words in combination; in Jakobsen (*1996) he discusses the

difficulties encountered by translators when faced with translating
compounds, collocations, and modal and discourse particles.

LSP translation and first major project

Woe to the makers of literal translations, who by rendering every word weaken the
meaning! It is indeed by so doing that we can say the letter kills and the spirit gives life.
(Voltaire)

Arnt was now very conscious that Copenhagen Business School was
offering a degree in translating and interpreting. At Copenhagen University
he had been used to dealing with the translation of literary works, but now
legal, technical and economic language had to become an essential part of
his everyday life. He recognised that it was necessary for CBS to indicate
how different it was from the University, and from then on Arnt made it his
mission to emphasise the significance of LSP; perhaps not whole-heartedly
at first (he might be forgiven for remaining more enamoured of literature
than of LSP texts) – but with the realisation that this was what he had been
appointed to do and that there would be no future unless he accepted the
necessity of focussing on LSP. In 1990 he put in his first major application
for a project to be called Oversættelse af Fagsproglige Tekster
(“Translating LSP Texts”) or OFT.
In that era, the pressure of having to obtain external funding was not
as significant as it is today but, characteristically, Arnt was ahead of his
time and could obviously sense the way things were developing. He spent
hours and hours writing the application, all the while downing gallons of
his favourite drink, coffee. His indefatigable efforts were rewarded: the
Danish Research Council for the Humanities allocated a huge grant (4.7
million Danish kroner) to OFT, and Arnt was appointed to act as its leader;
see Jakobsen (1992b) for an outline of its aims and objectives. The OFT
project ran from 1990 to 1994, involving 35 researchers from five different
Danish universities, and six different languages (Danish, English, German,
French, Spanish and Russian). Much thought had gone into its formulation.
Arnt‟s cultural background with its focus on literature and the
interpretation of texts forced him to realise that studying words in isolation
Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator 17

was not a fruitful enterprise. He remained faithful to his earlier view that
texts should be treated holistically and as culture-bound entities (semiotic
structures). This explains his insistence on focussing on translating LSP
texts and not merely translating LSP and so his overriding concern became
how language was actually used in the translation of authentic texts. The
LSP areas covered were IT, biotechnology and medicine. There were five
subprojects: (1) a survey of LSP-oriented translation theory in western and
eastern Europe from 1970 to 1990; (2) expert human LSP translation; (3)
translation theory in connection with machine translation of LSP texts; (4)
meta-lexicography (specifically how translators draw on special-purpose
dictionaries); and (5) an applied project on the use of LSP contrastive
grammar for the translation of agro-industrial texts between Russian and
Danish/English (Jakobsen 1992b, *1994a). Arnt himself was involved in
the second of those listed above – one of his concerns being how
translation could be defined.

The teaching of translation

Translators live off the differences between languages, all the while working toward
eliminating them.
(Edmond Cary)

Apart from being engaged in research and heading the project, Arnt
continued to teach translation, and his experience as a teacher formed the
basis for insightful reflections on how translation skills could best be
acquired. In a talk given at a seminar on teaching methods organised by
CBS colleagues in the early 90s, Arnt adeptly transformed the Danish
saying Man må krybe før man kan gå (“You have to learn to walk before
you can run”) into “Man må skrive før man kan oversætte” (“You have to
learn to write before you can translate”). In Jakobsen (*1994d) he pursued
this line of thought, stating that translation is a special type of text
production. Inspired by the strong emphasis at the time on the function of
the target text, he observed that translation begins with the need for a target
text, and with all the usual questions we ask ourselves when we sit down to
write a text (p. 145). He argued that writing is a skill which precedes the art
of translation and that translation students should therefore first of all
concentrate on acquiring writing skills. To ensure this, a more process-
18 Inger M. Mees

oriented approach should be adopted in translation training, and use should

be made of what he termed “warm texts”, namely those characterised,
amongst other things, by a genuine communicative purpose. Teachers
should be seen as partners rather than instructors or assessors (see also
Kiraly 2000), and need to be present while the text is being composed so
that they can assist in what then becomes a collaborative writing task.
Arnt also brought other innovations into the CBS curriculum.
Spurred on by the importance he attached to writing skills, he developed a
new course Translation and Text Pragmatics, the aim of which was to
integrate translation theory, text typology and pragmatics both for general
and domain-specific texts. In addition, he has for many years advocated
multimedia approaches to teaching, and has repeatedly stated that students
no longer want mere printed pages, but are better motivated by a
combination of text, audio, video, animation and the interaction of all these.
He consistently aims at integrating new technology into classroom lessons,
an example being two courses on subtitling using new software.
Arnt has supervised numerous MA and PhD theses on translation,
and he allows PhD students almost unlimited access to his time. Apart from
discussing theoretical and methodological issues, he is always willing to
read drafts and manuscripts, and to provide guidance on improving aspects
of composition and structure. He has also sat on examiners‟ committees
assessing PhD theses both in Denmark and abroad. Many of these ex-
students now themselves hold positions at universities (some have indeed
also contributed to this volume, namely Barbara Dragsted, Mette Hjort-
Pedersen, Brenda Malkiel, and Sharon O‟Brien).
Outside the confines of the Business School, he has from the end of
the 1980s developed and taught courses with other CBS colleagues for the
National Association of the Local Authorities, the Local Government
Computing Centre and the Danish National Bank. Since 1982 he has been
an examiner for the Cambridge Local Examinations in Denmark, and from
1993-96 he was a delegate with responsibility for the Oxford International
Business Executive Certificate (OIBEC) in Denmark.
Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator 19

Definition of the concept of translation

Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as is possible, and moves the
reader towards him: or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves
the author towards him.
(Friedrich Schleiermacher)

In the 1980s one of the main discussions in the field of translation studies
centred around pinning down the concept of translation. I remember Arnt
being enchanted by Skopos theory and the function of the text, and how he
was absorbing the work of scholars such as Hans Hönig, Paul Kußmaul,
Hans Vermeer, Katharina Reiß, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz-Mänttäri.
Later on, he read Ernst-August Gutt‟s application of relevance theory to
translation with equal enthusiasm. He became ever more convinced that
translation should be seen as cross-cultural transfer and as the production
(or “creation” as he is wont to call it) of a text. In addition, the 1980s saw
the advent of cognitive empirical research. Ericsson and Simon‟s
introspective methods and Hans Krings‟s application of these to translation
awakened a novel interest in what actually goes on during the process. In
many ways, the OFT project united the issues Arnt himself found most
interesting, namely focus on complete texts, theoretical considerations, and
the integration of computer technology. Furthermore, the emphasis placed
on investigating the actual translation of LSP texts – as opposed to
focussing on terminology – was the main impetus for kindling his later
passion for the cognitive processes involved in translation.
All the above-mentioned translation scholars were trying to define
the concept of translation, for instance by debating the level of importance
of source as opposed to target texts. This discussion led to a paper entitled
“Translation as textual (re)production” (Jakobsen *1993) in which he
argued that it was fruitless to proclaim either source-text or target-text
hegemony. Translations are interlingual equivalents of existing texts with
which they have an intertextual relationship, but despite this obvious
dependence they nevertheless lead a life of their own. Thus translating
“always involves both textual production and textual reproduction” (1993:
74).
Jakobsen (*1994b) concerns theories of translation types, discussing
the various criteria according to which translation has been categorised, i.e.
20 Inger M. Mees

(1) the relation between the source and target texts, (2) the subject matter of
the source text, (3) the source text type and (4) the function of the target
text. Most schools of thought appear to divide translation into two
contrasting types which have been given many different labels, such as
literal/free, semantic/communicative, formal/dynamic, overt/covert, and
documentary/instrumental. But whatever the nomenclature, the underlying
criterion seems to be one of form vs. content. Jakobsen proposes his own
terms, imitative vs. functional, and reiterates his view that translation most
resembles ordinary text production. He concludes (p. 52):
Communicatively, translating is rather like writing love letters for a friend. The
translator must know his client‟s innermost intention and must know how this
intention can best be brought home to his client‟s intended audience. The
translator stands on the periphery of the interlingual communicative situation
offering professional language services to clients.

The OFT project can be regarded as Arnt‟s apprenticeship in

translation. Building on the solid foundations of his literary studies and his
powers of text analysis, combined with his dogged determination for
collecting and absorbing information, he gradually established himself in
this new field. In addition to giving him insight into the current trends in
translation theory, leading the project also gave Arnt Lykke Jakobsen
enviable experience in uniting different theoretical stances and many fields
of research such as linguistics, lexicography, and language technology. He
also found himself dealing with numerous different languages and cultural
traditions.
He has a remarkable talent for viewing theoretical positions from a
historical perspective, and so often one finds that listening to Arnt helps
one understand how a particular school of thought has changed and evolved
over the years. He is an excellent person to go to if one wishes to interpret
the complicated maze of modern terminology; postmodernism, inter-
textuality, constructivism, innovation and modelling are just a few of the
many topics I personally have discussed with him.
The year 1994 saw the end of the OFT project, through which over a
hundred related publications had come into being. Arnt organised a major
symposium to which opponents were invited to discuss the results of the
five above-mentioned subprojects (*1994a). It was a brave undertaking,
and one much more difficult to set up than the usual type of conference
Arnt Lykke Jakobsen: portrait of an innovator 21

where papers are read out followed by a few questions from the audience.
He sent the articles to experts in the field and invited them officially to
comment on the studies. For the language departments at CBS it was a
completely new way of approaching research. The symposium was a great
success and sticks in my memory as one of the most inspiring events I have
ever attended.

Head of department and administrative tasks

By the time the OFT project had finally been wrapped up, Arnt had got a
taste for co-ordinating people, teaching and research, and took on
leadership responsibilities as head of the English department from 1996 to
1998. Even though he fulfilled this role excellently, I think he was
somewhat disappointed at having to deal with so many routine matters that
were totally unrelated to research. Rather than the excitement of initiating
new projects, choosing new staff, organising conferences and PhD courses,
and providing inspiration to colleagues and younger researchers, he found
himself caught up in a multitude of run-of-the mill administrative problems
thrown up by the everyday running of the department. He longed to lead a
new research project and consequently decided against putting his name
forward for a second term as departmental head. Nevertheless, he
continued to assume many administrative duties and sat on numerous
boards, committees, working groups and task forces. He was, for example,
a member of the IT committee, the Faculty Board and the Academic
Council, and was appointed Director of Studies for the Open University
(Faculty of Language, Communication and Culture). He also undertook a
number of consultancy tasks, such as chairman of a committee assessing
the level of English in Upper Secondary Education for the Danish
Evaluation Institute, and consultant on the translation and interpreting
degrees in Estonia and Lithuania for the Danish Ministry of Education.

Translation processes, think aloud and Translog

Whilst the OFT project was running, Arnt was still much preoccupied with
the concept of translation and attempting to find a definition of what it
implied. The next step was moving from the actual translation of texts to
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