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 CLASSICAL MECHANICS
THIRD EDITION

Herbert Goldstein
Columbia University
Charles P. Poole
University of South Carolina
John L. Safko
University of South Carolina

“M00 Goldstein 9788131758915 FM” — 2011/2/15 — page i — #1

Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as
trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the
designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Classical Mechanics, 3rd Edition, ISBN:
9788131758915 by Goldstein, Herbert; Poole, Charles; Safko, John; published by Pearson Education, Inc.,
publishing as Addison-Wesley, Copyright c 2002

Indian Subcontinent Adaptation

Copyright c 2011 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out
or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than
that in which it is published without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on subsequent
purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means
(electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the
copyright owner and above-mentioned publisher of this book.
No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s
prior written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher
reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 978-81-317-5891-5
eISBN 978-93-325-7618-6

First Impression

This edition is manufactured in India and is authorized for sale only in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan,
Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd, licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia.

Head Office: 15th Floor, Tower-B, World Trade Tower, Plot No. 1, Block-C, Sector-16,
Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS-140, Block 2 & 9,
Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India.
Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060
www.pearson.co.in, Email: [email protected]

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 Contents

Preface to the Third Edition ix

Preface to the Second Edition xii
Preface to the First Edition xvi

1 Survey of the Elementary Principles 1

1.1 Mechanics of a Particle 1
1.2 Mechanics of a System of Particles 5
1.3 Constraints 12
1.4 D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations 16
1.5 Velocity-Dependent Potentials and the Dissipation Function 21
1.6 Simple Applications of the Lagrangian Formulation 24
Derivations 29
Exercises 31

2 Variational Principles and Lagrange’s Equations 34

2.1 Hamilton’s Principle 34
2.2 Some Techniques of the Calculus of Variations 36
2.3 Derivation of Lagrange’s Equations from Hamilton’s Principle 44
2.4 Extending Hamilton’s Principle to Systems with Constraints 45
2.5 Advantages of a Variational Principle Formulation 51
2.6 Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties 55
2.7 Energy Function and the Conservation of Energy 61
Derivations 64
Exercises 64

3 The Central Force Problem 70

3.1 Reduction to the Equivalent One-Body Problem 70
3.2 The Equations of Motion and First Integrals 72
3.3 The Equivalent One-Dimensional Problem, and
Classification of Orbits 76
3.4 The Virial Theorem 83
3.5 The Differential Equation for the Orbit, and Integrable
Power-Law Potentials 86
3.6 Conditions for Closed Orbits (Bertrand’s Theorem) 89
3.7 The Kepler Problem: Inverse-Square Law of Force 92

iii

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iv Contents

3.8 The Motion in Time in the Kepler Problem 98

3.9 The Laplace–Runge–Lenz Vector 102
3.10 Scattering in a Central Force Field 106
3.11 Transformation of the Scattering Problem to Laboratory
Coordinates 114
3.12 The Three-Body Problem 121
Derivations 126
Exercises 128

4 The Kinematics of Rigid Body Motion 134

4.1 The Independent Coordinates of a Rigid Body 134
4.2 Orthogonal Transformations 139
4.3 Formal Properties of the Transformation Matrix 144
4.4 The Euler Angles 150
4.5 The Cayley–Klein Parameters and Related Quantities 154
4.6 Euler’s Theorem on the Motion of a Rigid Body 155
4.7 Finite Rotations 161
4.8 Infinitesimal Rotations 163
4.9 Rate of Change of a Vector 171
4.10 The Coriolis Effect 174
Derivations 180
Exercises 182

5 The Rigid Body Equations of Motion 184

5.1 Angular Momentum and Kinetic Energy of Motion
about a Point 184
5.2 Tensors 188
5.3 The Inertia Tensor and the Moment of Inertia 191
5.4 The Eigenvalues of the Inertia Tensor and the Principal
Axis Transformation 194
5.5 Solving Rigid Body Problems and the Euler Equations of
Motion 198
5.6 Torque-Free Motion of a Rigid Body 200
5.7 The Heavy Symmetrical Top with One Point Fixed 208
5.8 Precession of the Equinoxes and of Satellite Orbits 223
5.9 Precession of Systems of Charges in a Magnetic Field 230
Derivations 232
Exercises 234

6 Oscillations 238
6.1 Formulation of the Problem 238
6.2 The Eigenvalue Equation and the Principal Axis Transformation 241

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 Contents v

6.3 Frequencies of Free Vibration, and Normal Coordinates 250

6.4 Free Vibrations of a Linear Triatomic Molecule 253
6.5 Forced Vibrations and the Effect of Dissipative Forces 258
6.6 Beyond Small Oscillations: The Damped Driven Pendulum and the
Josephson Junction 265
Derivations 272
Exercises 272

7 The Classical Mechanics of the

Special Theory of Relativity 276
7.1 Basic Postulates of the Special Theory 277
7.2 Lorentz Transformations 280
7.3 Velocity Addition and Thomas Precession 282
7.4 Vectors and the Metric Tensor 286
7.5 1-Forms and Tensors 289
7.6 Forces in the Special Theory; Electromagnetism 297
7.7 Relativistic Kinematics of Collisions and Many-Particle
Systems 300
7.8 Relativistic Angular Momentum 309
7.9 The Lagrangian Formulation of Relativistic Mechanics 312
7.10 Covariant Lagrangian Formulations 318
7.11 Introduction to the General Theory of Relativity 324
Derivations 328
Exercises 330

8 The Hamilton Equations of Motion 334

8.1 Legendre Transformations and the Hamilton Equations
of Motion 334
8.2 Cyclic Coordinates and Conservation Theorems 343
8.3 Routh’s Procedure 347
8.4 The Hamiltonian Formulation of Relativistic Mechanics 349
8.5 Derivation of Hamilton’s Equations from a
Variational Principle 353
8.6 The Principle of Least Action 356
Derivations 361
Exercises 363

9 Canonical Transformations 368

9.1 The Equations of Canonical Transformation 368
9.2 Examples of Canonical Transformations 375
9.3 The Harmonic Oscillator 377

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vi Contents

9.4 The Symplectic Approach to Canonical Transformations 381

9.5 Poisson Brackets and Other Canonical Invariants 388
9.6 Equations of Motion, Infinitesimal Canonical Transformations, and
Conservation Theorems in the Poisson Bracket Formulation 396
9.7 The Angular Momentum Poisson Bracket Relations 408
9.8 Symmetry Groups of Mechanical Systems 412
9.9 Liouville’s Theorem 419
Derivations 421
Exercises 424

10 Hamilton–Jacobi Theory and Action-Angle Variables 430

10.1 The Hamilton–Jacobi Equation for Hamilton’s Principal
Function 430
10.2 The Harmonic Oscillator Problem as an Example of the
Hamilton–Jacobi Method 434
10.3 The Hamilton–Jacobi Equation for Hamilton’s Characteristic
Function 440
10.4 Separation of Variables in the Hamilton–Jacobi Equation 444
10.5 Ignorable Coordinates and the Kepler Problem 445
10.6 Action-Angle Variables in Systems of One Degree of Freedom 452
10.7 Action-Angle Variables for Completely Separable Systems 457
10.8 The Kepler Problem in Action-Angle Variables 466
Derivations 478
Exercises 478

11 Classical Chaos 483

11.1 Periodic Motion 484
11.2 Perturbations and the Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser Theorem 487
11.3 Attractors 489
11.4 Chaotic Trajectories and Liapunov Exponents 491
11.5 Poincaré Maps 494
11.6 Hénon–Heiles Hamiltonian 496
11.7 Bifurcations, Driven-Damped Harmonic Oscillator, and Parametric
Resonance 505
11.8 The Logistic Equation 509
11.9 Fractals and Dimensionality 516
Derivations 522
Exercises 523

12 Canonical Perturbation Theory 526

12.1 Introduction 526
12.2 Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory 527

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 Contents vii

12.3 Illustrations of Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory 533

12.4 Time-Independent Perturbation Theory 541
12.5 Adiabatic Invariants 549
Exercises 555

13 Introduction to the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian

Formulations for Continuous Systems and Fields 558
13.1 The Transition from a Discrete to a Continuous System 558
13.2 The Lagrangian Formulation for Continuous Systems 561
13.3 The Stress-Energy Tensor and Conservation Theorems 566
13.4 Hamiltonian Formulation 572
13.5 Relativistic Field Theory 577
13.6 Examples of Relativistic Field Theories 583
13.7 Noether’s Theorem 589
Exercises 598

Appendix A Euler Angles in Alternate Conventions

and Cayley–Klein Parameters 601

Appendix B Groups and Algebras 605

Appendix C Solutions to Select Exercises 617

Selected Bibliography 626

Author Index 631
Subject Index 633

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This page is intentionally left blank.

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 Preface to the Third Edition

The first edition of this text appeared in 1950, and it was so well received that
it went through a second printing the very next year. Throughout the next three
decades it maintained its position as the acknowledged standard text for the
introductory Classical Mechanics course in graduate level physics curricula
throughout the United States, and in many other countries around the world.
Some major institutions also used it for senior level undergraduate Mechanics.
Thirty years later, in 1980, a second edition appeared which was “a through-going
revision of the first edition.” The preface to the second edition contains the fol-
lowing statement: “I have tried to retain, as much as possible, the advantages of
the first edition while taking into account the developments of the subject itself,
its position in the curriculum, and its applications to other fields.” This is the
philosophy which has guided the preparation of this third edition twenty more
years later.
The second edition introduced one additional chapter on Perturbation The-
ory, and changed the ordering of the chapter on Small Oscillations. In addition it
added a significant amount of new material which increased the number of pages
by about 68%. This third edition adds still one more new chapter on Nonlinear
Dynamics or Chaos, but counterbalances this by reducing the amount of material
in several of the other chapters, by shortening the space allocated to appendices,
by considerably reducing the bibliography, and by omitting the long lists of sym-
bols. Thus the third edition is comparable in size to the second.
In the chapter on relativity we have abandoned the complex Minkowski space
in favor of the now standard real metric. Two of the authors prefer the complex
metric because of its pedagogical advantages (HG) and because it fits in well with
Clifford Algebra formulations of Physics (CPP), but the desire to prepare students
who can easily move forward into other areas of theory such as field theory and
general relativity dominated over personal preferences. Some modern notation
such as 1-forms, mapping and the wedge product is introduced in this chapter.
The chapter on Chaos is a necessary addition because of the current interest
in nonlinear dynamics which has begun to play a significant role in applications
of classical dynamics. The majority of classical mechanics problems and appli-
cations in the real world include nonlinearities, and it is important for the student
to have a grasp of the complexities involved, and of the new properties that can
emerge. It is also important to realize the role of fractal dimensionality in chaos.
New sections have been added and others combined or eliminated here and
there throughout the book, with the omissions to a great extent motivated by the
desire not to extend the overall length beyond that of the second edition. A section
ix

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x Preface to the Third Edition

was added on the Euler and Lagrange exact solutions to the three body problem.
In several places phase space plots and Lissajous figures were appended to illus-
trate solutions. The damped-driven pendulum was discussed as an example that
explains the workings of Josephson junctions. The symplectic approach was clar-
ified by writing out some of the matrices. The harmonic oscillator was treated
with anisotropy, and also in polar coordinates. The last chapter on continua and
fields was formulated in the modern notation introduced in the relativity chap-
ter. The significances of the special unitary group in two dimensions SU(2) and
the special orthogonal group in three dimensions SO(3) were presented in more
up-to-date notation, and an appendix was added on groups and algebras. Special
tables were introduced to clarify properties of ellipses, vectors, vector fields and
1-forms, canonical transformations, and the relationships between the spacetime
and symplectic approaches.
Several of the new features and approaches in this third edition had been men-
tioned as possibilities in the preface to the second edition, such as properties of
group theory, tensors in non-Euclidean spaces, and “new mathematics” of theoret-
ical physics such as manifolds. The reference to “One area omitted that deserves
special attention—nonlinear oscillation and associated stability questions” now
constitutes the subject matter of our new Chapter 11 “Classical Chaos.” We de-
bated whether to place this new chapter after Perturbation theory where it fits
more logically, or before Perturbation theory where it is more likely to be covered
in class, and we chose the latter. The referees who reviewed our manuscript were
evenly divided on this question.
The mathematical level of the present edition is about the same as that of the
first two editions. Some of the mathematical physics, such as the discussions of
hermitean and unitary matrices, was omitted because it pertains much more to
quantum mechanics than it does to classical mechanics, and little used notations
like dyadics were curtailed. Space devoted to power law potentials, Cayley-Klein
parameters, Routh’s procedure, time independent perturbation theory, and the
stress-energy tensor was reduced. In some cases reference was made to the second
edition for more details. The problems at the end of the chapters were divided into
“derivations” and “exercises,” and some new ones were added.
The authors are especially indebted to Michael A. Unseren and Forrest M.
Hoffman of the Oak Ridge National laboratory for their 1993 compilation of
errata in the second edition that they made available on the Internet. It is hoped
that not too many new errors have slipped into this present revision. We wish to
thank the students who used this text in courses with us, and made a number of
useful suggestions that were incorporated into the manuscript. Professors Thomas
Sayetta and the late Mike Schuette made helpful comments on the Chaos chapter,
and Professors Joseph Johnson and James Knight helped to clarify our ideas
on Lie Algebras. The following professors reviewed the manuscript and made
many helpful suggestions for improvements: Yoram Alhassid, Yale University;
Dave Ellis, University of Toledo; John Gruber, San Jose State; Thomas Handler,
University of Tennessee; Daniel Hong, Lehigh University; Kara Keeter, Idaho
State University; Carolyn Lee; Yannick Meurice, University of Iowa; Daniel
Marlow, Princeton University; Julian Noble, University of Virginia; Muham-

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 Preface to the Third Edition xi

mad Numan, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Steve Ruden, University of

California, Irvine; Jack Semura, Portland State University; Tammy Ann Smecker-
Hane, University of California, Irvine; Daniel Stump, Michigan State University;
Robert Wald, University of Chicago; Doug Wells, Idaho State University.
We thank E. Barreto, P. M. Brown, C. Chien, C. Chou, F. Du, R. F. Gans,
I. R. Gatland, C. G. Gray, E. J. Guala, Jr, S. Gutti, D. H. Hartmann, M. Horbatsch,
J. Howard, K. Jagannathan, R. Kissmann, L. Kramer, O. Lehtonen, N. A.
Lemos, J. Palacios, R. E. Reynolds, D. V. Sathe, G. T. Seidler, J. Suzuki,
A. Tenne-Sens, J. Williams, and T. Yu for providing us with corrections in
previous printings. We also thank Martin Tiersten for pointing out the errors in
Figures 3.7 and 3.13 that occurred in the earlier editions and the first few printings
of this edition.
A list of corrections for all printings are on the Web at http://astro.physics.sc.
edu/goldstein/goldstein.html. Additions to this listing may be emailed to the
address given on that page.
It has indeed been an honor for two of us (CPP and JLS) to collaborate as
co-authors of this third edition of such a classic book fifty years after its first
appearance. We have admired this text since we first studied Classical Mechan-
ics from the first edition in our graduate student days (CPP in 1953 and JLS in
1960), and each of us used the first and second editions in our teaching through-
out the years. Professor Goldstein is to be commended for having written and later
enhanced such an outstanding contribution to the classic Physics literature.
Above all we register our appreciation and acknolwedgement in the words of
Psalms (19:1):

O ι‘ ovρανoι
’ διηγ ov̂ντ αι δoξ αν ov̂

Flushing, New York H ERBERT G OLDSTEIN

Columbia, South Carolina C HARLES P. P OOLE , J R .
Columbia, South Carolina J OHN L. S AFKO
July, 2002

The publishers would like to thank Dr R. Jagannathan, Deputy Registrar

(Education), Vinayaka Missions University, Chennai, for his valuable sugges-
tions and inputs in enhancing the content of this book to suit the requirements
of Indian and other Asian universities.

“M00 Goldstein 9788131758915 FM” — 2011/2/15 — page xi — #11

 Preface to the Second Edition

The prospect of a second edition of Classical Mechanics, almost thirty years after
initial publication, has given rise to two nearly contradictory sets of reactions.
On the one hand it is claimed that the adjective “classical” implies the field is
complete, closed, far outside the mainstream of physics research. Further, the
first edition has been paid the compliment of continuous use as a text since it
first appeared. Why then the need for a second edition? The contrary reaction
has been that a second edition is long overdue. More important than changes in
the subject matter (which have been considerable) has been the revolution in the
attitude towards classical mechanics in relation to other areas of science and tech-
nology. When it appeared, the first edition was part of a movement breaking with
older ways of teaching physics. But what were bold new ventures in 1950 are the
commonplaces of today, exhibiting to the present generation a slightly musty and
old-fashioned air. Radical changes need to be made in the presentation of classical
mechanics.
In preparing this second edition, I have attempted to steer a course some-
where between these two attitudes. I have tried to retain, as much as possible,
the advantages of the first edition (as I perceive them) while taking some account
of the developments in the subject itself, its position in the curriculum, and its
applications to other fields. What has emerged is a thorough-going revision of the
first edition. Hardly a page of the text has been left untouched. The changes have
been of various kinds:
Errors (some egregious) that I have caught, or which have been pointed out to
me, have of course been corrected. It is hoped that not too many new ones have
been introduced in the revised material.
The chapter on small oscillations has been moved from its former position
as the penultimate chapter and placed immediately after Chapter 5 on rigid body
motion. This location seems more appropriate to the usual way mechanics courses
are now being given. Some material relating to the Hamiltonian formulation has
therefore had to be removed and inserted later in (the present) Chapter 8.
A new chapter on perturbation theory has been added (Chapter 11). The last
chapter, on continuous systems and fields, has been greatly expanded, in keeping
with the implicit promise made in the Preface to the first edition.
New sections have been added throughout the book, ranging from one in Chap-
ter 3 on Bertrand’s theorem for the central-force potentials giving rise to closed
orbits, to the final section of Chapter 12 on Noether’s theorem. For the most part
these sections contain completely new material.

xii

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 Preface to the Second Edition xiii

In various sections arguments and proofs have been replaced by new ones that
seem simpler and more understandable, e.g., the proof of Euler’s theorem in Chap-
ter 4. Occasionally, a line of reasoning presented in the first edition has been
supplemented by a different way of looking at the problem. The most important
example is the introduction of the symplectic approach to canonical transforma-
tions, in parallel with the older technique of generating functions. Again, while the
original convention for the Euler angles has been retained, alternate conventions,
including the one common in quantum mechanics, are mentioned and detailed
formulas are given in an appendix.
As part of the fruits of long experience in teaching courses based on the book,
the body of exercises at the end of each chapter has been expanded by more than
a factor of two and a half. The bibliography has undergone similar expansion,
reflecting the appearance of many valuable texts and monographs in the years
since the first edition. In deference to—but not in agreement with—the present
neglect of foreign languages in graduate education in the United States, references
to foreign-language books have been kept down to a minimum.
The choices of topics retained and of the new material added reflect to some
degree my personal opinions and interests, and the reader might prefer a different
selection. While it would require too much space (and be too boring) to discuss
the motivating reasons relative to each topic, comment should be made on some
general principles governing my decisions. The question of the choice of math-
ematical techniques to be employed is a vexing one. The first edition attempted
to act as a vehicle for introducing mathematical tools of wide usefulness that
might be unfamiliar to the student. In the present edition the attitude is more one
of caution. It is much more likely now than it was 30 years ago that the student
will come to mechanics with a thorough background in matrix manipulation.
The section on matrix properties in Chapter 4 has nonetheless been retained,
and even expanded, so as to provide a convenient reference of needed formu-
las and techniques. The cognoscenti can, if they wish, simply skip the section.
On the other hand, very little in the way of newer mathematical tools has been
introduced. Elementary properties of group theory are given scattered mention
throughout the book. Brief attention is paid in Chapters 6 and 7 to the manip-
ulation of tensors in non-Euclidean spaces. Otherwise, the mathematical level
in this edition is pretty much the same as in the first. It is more than adequate
for the physics content of the book, and alternate means exist in the curriculum
for acquiring the mathematics needed in other branches of physics. In particular
the “new mathematics” of theoretical physics has been deliberately excluded. No
mention is made of manifolds or diffeomorphisms, of tangent fibre bundles or
invariant tori. There are certain highly specialized areas of classical mechanics
where the powerful tools of global analysis and differential topology are use-
ful, probably essential. However, it is not clear to me that they contribute to
the understanding of the physics of classical mechanics at the level sought in
this edition. To introduce these mathematical concepts, and their applications,
would swell the book beyond bursting, and serve, probably, only to obscure
the physics. Theoretical physics, current trends to the contrary, is not merely
mathematics.

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xiv Preface to the Second Edition

In line with this attitude, the complex Minkowski space has been retained for
most of the discussion of special relativity in order to simplify the mathematics.
The bases for this decision (which it is realized goes against the present fashion)
are given in detail on pages 292–293.
It is certainly true that classical mechanics today is far from being a closed
subject. The last three decades have seen an efflorescence of new developments
in classical mechanics, the tackling of new problems, and the application of the
techniques of classical mechanics to far-flung reaches of physics and chemistry. It
would clearly not be possible to include discussions of all of these developments
here. The reasons are varied. Space limitations are obviously important. Also,
popular fads of current research often prove ephemeral and have a short lifetime.
And some applications require too extensive a background in other fields, such
as solid-state physics or physical chemistry. The selection made here represents
something of a personal compromise. Applications that allow simple descriptions
and provide new insights are included in some detail. Others are only briefly men-
tioned, with enough references to enable the student to follow up his awakened
curiosity. In some instances I have tried to describe the current state of research
in a field almost entirely in words, without mathematics, to provide the student
with an overall view to guide further exploration. One area omitted deserves
special mention—nonlinear oscillation and associated stability questions. The
importance of the field is unquestioned, but it was felt that an adequate treatment
deserves a book to itself.
With all the restrictions and careful selection, the book has grown to a size
probably too large to be covered in a single course. A number of sections have
been written so that they may be omitted without affecting later developments
and have been so marked. It was felt however that there was little need to mark
special “tracks” through the book. Individual instructors, familiar with their own
special needs, are better equipped to pick and choose what they feel should be
included in the courses they give.
I am grateful to many individuals who have contributed to my education in
classical mechanics over the past thirty years. To my colleagues Professors Frank
L. DiMaggio, Richard W. Longman, and Dean Peter W. Likins I am indebted for
many valuable comments and discussions. My thanks go to Sir Edward Bullard
for correcting a serious error in the first edition, especially for the gentle and gra-
cious way he did so. Professor Boris Garfinkel of Yale University very kindly
read and commented on several of the chapters and did his best to initiate me
into the mysteries of celestial mechanics. Over the years I have been the grateful
recipient of valuable corrections and suggestions from many friends and strangers,
among whom particular mention should be made of Drs. Eric Ericsen (of Oslo
University), K. Kalikstein, J. Neuberger, A. Radkowsky, and Mr. W. S. Pajes.
Their contributions have certainly enriched the book, but of course I alone am
responsible for errors and misinterpretations. I should like to add a collective
acknowledgment and thanks to the authors of papers on classical mechanics that
have appeared during the last three decades in the American Journal of Physics,
whose pages I hope I have perused with profit.

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 Preface to the Second Edition xv

The staff at Addison-Wesley have been uniformly helpful and encouraging.

I want especially to thank Mrs. Laura R. Finney for her patience with what must
have seemed a never-ending process, and Mrs. Marion Howe for her gentle but
persistent cooperation in the fight to achieve an acceptable printed page.
To my father, Harry Goldstein , I owe more than words can describe for
his lifelong devotion and guidance. But I wish at least now to do what he would
not permit in his lifetime—to acknowledge the assistance of his incisive criticism
and careful editing in the preparation of the first edition. I can only hope that
the present edition still reflects something of his insistence on lucid and concise
writing.
I wish to dedicate this edition to those I treasure above all else on this earth,
and who have given meaning to my life—to my wife, Channa, and our children,
Penina Perl, Aaron Meir, and Shoshanna.
And above all I want to register the thanks and acknowledgment of my heart,
in the words of Daniel (2:23):

Kew Gardens Hills, New York H ERBERT G OLDSTEIN

January 1980

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 Preface to the First Edition

An advanced course in classical mechanics has long been a time-honored part

of the graduate physics curriculum. The present-day function of such a course,
however, might well be questioned. It introduces no new physical concepts to
the graduate student. It does not lead him directly into current physics research.
Nor does it aid him, to any appreciable extent, in solving the practical mechanics
problems he encounters in the laboratory.
Despite this arraignment, classical mechanics remains an indispensable part
of the physicist’s education. It has a twofold role in preparing the student for
the study of modern physics. First, classical mechanics, in one or another of
its advanced formulations, serves as the springboard for the various branches
of modern physics. Thus, the technique of action-angle variables is needed for
the older quantum mechanics, the Hamilton-Jacobi equation and the principle
of least action provide the transition to wave mechanics, while Poisson brackets
and canonical transformations are invaluable in formulating the newer quantum
mechanics. Secondly, classical mechanics affords the student an opportunity to
master many of the mathematical techniques necessary for quantum mechanics
while still working in terms of the familiar concepts of classical physics.
Of course, with these objectives in mind, the traditional treatment of the sub-
ject, which was in large measure fixed some fifty years ago, is no longer adequate.
The present book is an attempt at an exposition of classical mechanics which
does fulfill the new requirements. Those formulations which are of importance
for modern physics have received emphasis, and mathematical techniques usually
associated with quantum mechanics have been introduced wherever they result
in increased elegance and compactness. For example, the discussion of central
force motion has been broadened to include the kinematics of scattering and the
classical solution of scattering problems. Considerable space has been devoted to
canonical transformations, Poisson bracket formulations, Hamilton-Jacobi theory,
and action-angle variables. An introduction has been provided to the variational
principle formulation of continuous systems and fields. As an illustration of the
application of new mathematical techniques, rigid body rotations are treated from
the standpoint of matrix transformations. The familiar Euler’s theorem on the
motion of a rigid body can then be presented in terms of the eigenvalue problem
for an orthogonal matrix. As a consequence, such diverse topics as the inertia
tensor, Lorentz transformations in Minkowski space, and resonant frequencies of
small oscillations become capable of a unified mathematical treatment. Also, by
this technique it becomes possible to include at an early stage the difficult con-
xvi

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 Preface to the First Edition xvii

cepts of reflection operations and pseudotensor quantities, so important in modern

quantum mechanics. A further advantage of matrix methods is that “spinors” can
be introduced in connection with the properties of Cayley-Klein parameters.
Several additional departures have been unhesitatingly made. All too often,
special relativity receives no connected development except as part of a highly
specialized course which also covers general relativity. However, its vital impor-
tance in modern physics requires that the student be exposed to special relativ-
ity at an early stage in his education. Accordingly, Chapter 6 has been devoted
to the subject. Another innovation has been the inclusion of velocity-dependent
forces. Historically, classical mechanics developed with the emphasis on static
forces dependent on position only, such as gravitational forces. On the other hand,
the velocity-dependent electromagnetic force is constantly encountered in modern
physics. To enable the student to handle such forces as early as possible, velocity-
dependent potentials have been included in the structure of mechanics from the
outset, and have been consistently developed throughout the text.
Still another new element has been the treatment of the mechanics of continu-
ous systems and fields in Chapter 11, and some comment on the choice of material
is in order. Strictly interpreted, the subject could include all of elasticity, hydro-
dynamics, and acoustics, but these topics lie outside the prescribed scope of the
book, and adequate treatises have been written for most of them. In contrast, no
connected account is available on the classical foundations of the variational prin-
ciple formulation of continuous systems, despite its growing importance in the
field theory of elementary particles. The theory of fields can be carried to consid-
erable length and complexity before it is necessary to introduce quantization. For
example, it is perfectly feasible to discuss the stress-energy tensor, microscopic
equations of continuity, momentum space representations, etc., entirely within
the domain of classical physics. It was felt, however, that an adequate discussion
of these subjects would require a sophistication beyond what could naturally be
expected of the student. Hence it was decided, for this edition at least, to limit
Chapter 11 to an elementary description of the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian for-
mulation of fields.
The course for which this text is designed normally carries with it a prerequisite
of an intermediate course in mechanics. For both the inadequately prepared grad-
uate student (an all too frequent occurrence) and the ambitious senior who desires
to omit the intermediate step, an effort was made to keep the book self-contained.
Much of Chapters 1 and 3 is therefore devoted to material usually covered in the
preliminary courses.
With few exceptions, no more mathematical background is required of the
student than the customary undergraduate courses in advanced calculus and
vector analysis. Hence considerable space is given to developing the more
complicated mathematical tools as they are needed. An elementary acquaintance
with Maxwell’s equations and their simpler consequences is necessary for
understanding the sections on electromagnetic forces. Most entering graduate
students have had at least one term’s exposure to modern physics, and frequent
advantage has been taken of this circumstance to indicate briefly the relation
between a classical development and its quantum continuation.

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xviii Preface to the First Edition

A large store of exercises is available in the literature on mechanics, easily

accessible to all, and there consequently seemed little point to reproducing an
extensive collection of such problems. The exercises appended to each chapter
therefore have been limited, in the main, to those which serve as extensions of
the text, illustrating some particular point or proving variant theorems. Pedantic
museum pieces have been studiously avoided.
The question of notation is always a vexing one. It is impossible to achieve
a completely consistent and unambiguous system of notation that is not at the
same time impracticable and cumbersome. The customary convention has been
followed by indicating vectors by bold face Roman letters. In addition, matrix
quantities of whatever rank, and tensors other than vectors, are designated by
bold face sans serif characters, thus: A. An index of symbols is appended at the
end of the book, listing the initial appearance of each meaning of the important
symbols. Minor characters, appearing only once, are not included.
References have been listed at the end of each chapter, for elaboration of the
material discussed or for treatment of points not touched on. The evaluations
accompanying these references are purely personal, of course, but it was felt nec-
essary to provide the student with some guide to the bewildering maze of literature
on mechanics. These references, along with many more, are also listed at the end
of the book. The list is not intended to be in any way complete, many of the older
books being deliberately omitted. By and large, the list contains the references
used in writing this book, and must therefore serve also as an acknowledgement
of my debt to these sources.
The present text has evolved from a course of lectures on classical mechanics
that I gave at Harvard University, and I am grateful to Professor J. H. Van Vleck,
then Chairman of the Physics Department, for many personal and official encour-
agements. To Professor J. Schwinger, and other colleagues I am indebted for many
valuable suggestions. I also wish to record my deep gratitude to the students in
my courses, whose favorable reaction and active interest provided the continuing
impetus for this work.

Cambridge, Mass. H ERBERT G OLDSTEIN

March 1950

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CHAPTER
Survey of the
1 Elementary Principles

The motion of material bodies formed the subject of some of the earliest research
pursued by the pioneers of physics. From their efforts there has evolved a vast
field known as analytical mechanics or dynamics, or simply, mechanics. In the
present century the term “classical mechanics” has come into wide use to denote
this branch of physics in contradistinction to the newer physical theories, espe-
cially quantum mechanics. We shall follow this usage, interpreting the name to
include the type of mechanics arising out of the special theory of relativity. It is
the purpose of this book to develop the structure of classical mechanics and to
outline some of its applications of present-day interest in pure physics. Basic to
any presentation of mechanics are a number of fundamental physical concepts,
such as space, time, simultaneity, mass, and force. For the most part, however,
these concepts will not be analyzed critically here; rather, they will be assumed as
undefined terms whose meanings are familiar to the reader.

1.1 MECHANICS OF A PARTICLE

Let r be the radius vector of a particle from some given origin and v its vector
velocity:

dr
v= . (1.1)
dt

The linear momentum p of the particle is defined as the product of the particle
mass and its velocity:

p = mv. (1.2)

In consequence of interactions with external objects and fields, the particle may
experience forces of various types, e.g., gravitational or electrodynamic; the vec-
tor sum of these forces exerted on the particle is the total force F. The mechanics
of the particle is contained in Newton’s second law of motion, which states that
there exist frames of reference in which the motion of the particle is described by
the differential equation

dp
F= ≡ ṗ, (1.3)
dt
1

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2 Chapter 1 Survey of the Elementary Principles

or
d
F= (mv). (1.4)
dt
In most instances, the mass of the particle is constant and Eq. (1.4) reduces to

dv
F=m = ma, (1.5)
dt
where a is the vector acceleration of the particle defined by

d 2r
a= . (1.6)
dt 2
The equation of motion is thus a differential equation of second order, assuming
F does not depend on higher-order derivatives.
A reference frame in which Eq. (1.3) is valid is called an inertial or Galilean
system. Even within classical mechanics the notion of an inertial system is some-
thing of an idealization. In practice, however, it is usually feasible to set up a co-
ordinate system that comes as close to the desired properties as may be required.
For many purposes, a reference frame fixed in Earth (the “laboratory system”)
is a sufficient approximation to an inertial system, while for some astronomical
purposes it may be necessary to construct an inertial system (or inertial frame) by
reference to distant galaxies.
Many of the important conclusions of mechanics can be expressed in the form
of conservation theorems, which indicate under what conditions various mechan-
ical quantities are constant in time. Equation (1.3) directly furnishes the first of
these, the

Conservation Theorem for the Linear Momentum of a Particle: If the total force,
F, is zero, then ṗ = 0 and the linear momentum, p, is conserved.

The angular momentum of the particle about point O, denoted by L, is defined

as

L = r 3 p, (1.7)

where r is the radius vector from O to the particle. Notice that the order of the
factors is important. We now define the moment of force or torque about O as

N = r 3 F. (1.8)

The equation analogous to (1.3) for N is obtained by forming the cross product of
r with Eq. (1.4):

d
r3F = N = r3 (mv). (1.9)
dt

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 1.1 Mechanics of a Particle 3

Equation (1.9) can be written in a different form by using the vector identity:

d d
(r 3 mv) = v 3 mv + r 3 (mv), (1.10)
dt dt

where the first term on the right obviously vanishes. In consequence of this iden-
tity, Eq. (1.9) takes the form

d dL
N= (r 3 mv) = ≡ L̇. (1.11)
dt dt

Note that both N and L depend on the point O, about which the moments are
taken.
As was the case for Eq. (1.3), the torque equation, (1.11), also yields an imme-
diate conservation theorem, this time the

Conservation Theorem for the Angular Momentum of a Particle: If the total

torque, N, is zero then L̇ = 0, and the angular momentum L is conserved.

Next consider the work done by the external force F upon the particle in going
from point 1 to point 2. By definition, this work is
 2
W12 = F ? ds. (1.12)
1

For constant mass (as will be assumed from now on unless otherwise specified),
the integral in Eq. (1.12) reduces to
  
dv m d 2
F ? ds = m ? v dt = (v ) dt,
dt 2 dt

and therefore
m 2
W12 = (v − v12 ). (1.13)
2 2

The scalar quantity mv 2 /2 is called the kinetic energy of the particle and is
denoted by T , so that the work done is equal to the change in the kinetic energy:

W12 = T2 − T1 . (1.14)

If the force field is such that the work W12 is the same for any physically
possible path between points 1 and 2, then the force (and the system) is said to be
conservative. An alternative description of a conservative system is obtained by
imagining the particle being taken from point 1 to point 2 by one possible path
and then being returned to point 1 by another path. The independence of W12 on
the particular path implies that the work done around such a closed circuit is zero,

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4 Chapter 1 Survey of the Elementary Principles

i.e.:

F ? ds = 0. (1.15)

Physically it is clear that a system cannot be conservative if friction or other dis-

sipation forces are present, because F ? ds due to friction is always positive and
the integral cannot vanish.
By a well-known theorem of vector analysis, a necessary and sufficient condi-
tion that the work, W12 , be independent of the physical path taken by the particle
is that F be the gradient of some scalar function of position:

F = −∇V (r), (1.16)

where V is called the potential, or potential energy. The existence of V can be

inferred intuitively by a simple argument. If W12 is independent of the path of
integration between the end points 1 and 2, it should be possible to express W12
as the change in a quantity that depends only upon the positions of the end points.
This quantity may be designated by −V , so that for a differential path length we
have the relation

F ? ds = −d V

or
∂V
Fs = − ,
∂s
which is equivalent to Eq. (1.16). Note that in Eq. (1.16) we can add to V any
quantity constant in space, without affecting the results. Hence the zero level of V
is arbitrary.
For a conservative system, the work done by the forces is

W12 = V1 − V2 . (1.17)

Combining Eq. (1.17) with Eq. (1.14), we have the result

T1 + V1 = T2 + V2 , (1.18)

which states in symbols the

Energy Conservation Theorem for a Particle: If the forces acting on a particle

are conservative, then the total energy of the particle, T + V , is conserved.

The force applied to a particle may in some circumstances be given by the

gradient of a scalar function that depends explicitly on both the position of the
particle and the time. However, the work done on the particle when it travels a
distance ds,
∂V
F ? ds = − ds,
∂s

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 1.2 Mechanics of a System of Particles 5

is then no longer the total change in −V during the displacement, since V also
changes explicitly with time as the particle moves. Hence, the work done as the
particle goes from point 1 to point 2 is no longer the difference in the function V
between those points. While a total energy T + V may still be defined, it is not
conserved during the course of the particle’s motion.

1.2 MECHANICS OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

In generalizing the ideas of the previous section to systems of many particles,

we must distinguish between the external forces acting on the particles due to
sources outside the system, and internal forces on, say, some particle i due to all
other particles in the system. Thus, the equation of motion (Newton’s second law)
for the ith particle is written as

F ji + Fi(e) = ṗi , (1.19)
j

(e)
where Fi stands for an external force, and F ji is the internal force on the ith
particle due to the jth particle (Fii , naturally, is zero). We shall assume that the
(e)
Fi j (like the Fi ) obey Newton’s third law of motion in its original form: that the
forces two particles exert on each other are equal and opposite. This assumption
(which does not hold for all types of forces) is sometimes referred to as the weak
law of action and reaction.
Summed over all particles, Eq. (1.19) takes the form

d2   (e) 
2
m i ri = Fi + F ji . (1.20)
dt
i i, j i
i= j

The first sum on the right is simply the total external force F(e) , while the second
term vanishes, since the law of action and reaction states that each pair Fi j + F ji
is zero. To reduce the left-hand side, we define a vector R as the average of the
radii vectors of the particles, weighted in proportion to their mass:
 
m i ri m i ri
R=  = . (1.21)
mi M

The vector R defines a point known as the center of mass, or more loosely as the
center of gravity, of the system (cf. Fig. 1.1). With this definition, (1.20) reduces
to

d 2 R  (e)
M = Fi ≡ F(e) , (1.22)
dt 2
i

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6 Chapter 1 Survey of the Elementary Principles

mi

Center of mass

ri R mj

rj

FIGURE 1.1 The center of mass of a system of particles.

which states that the center of mass moves as if the total external force were
acting on the entire mass of the system concentrated at the center of mass.
Purely internal forces, if the obey Newton’s third law, therefore have no effect
on the motion of the center of mass. An oft-quoted example is the motion of
an exploding shell—the center of mass of the fragments traveling as if the
shell were still in a single piece (neglecting air resistance). The same princi-
ple is involved in jet and rocket propulsion. In order that the motion of the
center of mass be unaffected, the ejection of the exhaust gases at high veloc-
ity must be counterbalanced by the forward motion of the vehicle at a slower
velocity.
By Eq. (1.21) the total linear momentum of the system,

 dri dR
P= mi =M , (1.23)
dt dt

is the total mass of the system times the velocity of the center of mass. Conse-
quently, the equation of motion for the center of mass, (1.23), can be restated as
the

Conservation Theorem for the Linear Momentum of a System of Particles: If the

total external force is zero, the total linear momentum is conserved.

We obtain the total angular momentum of the system by forming the cross
product ri 3 pi and summing over i. If this operation is performed in Eq. (1.19),
there results, with the aid of the identity, Eq. (1.10),

  d  (e)

(ri 3 ṗi ) = (ri 3 pi ) = L̇ = ri 3 Fi + ri 3 F ji . (1.24)
dt
i i i i, j
i= j

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 1.2 Mechanics of a System of Particles 7

FIGURE 1.2 The vector ri j between the ith and jth particles.

The last term on the right in (1.24) can be considered a sum of the pairs of the
form

ri 3 F ji + r j 3 Fi j = (ri − r j ) 3 F ji , (1.25)

using the equality of action and reaction. But ri − r j is identical with the vector
ri j from j to i (cf. Fig. 1.2), so that the right-hand side of Eq. (1.25) can be written
as

ri j 3 F ji .

If the internal forces between two particles, in addition to being equal and
opposite, also lie along the line joining the particles—a condition known as
the strong law of action and reaction—then all of these cross products vanish.
The sum over pairs is zero under this assumption and Eq. (1.24) may be written in
the form
dL
= N(e) . (1.26)
dt
The time derivative of the total angular momentum is thus equal to the moment
of the external force about the given point. Corresponding to Eq. (1.26) is the

Conservation Theorem for Total Angular Momentum: L is constant in time if the

applied (external) torque is zero.

(It is perhaps worthwhile to emphasize that this is a vector theorem; i.e., L z

(e) (e) (e)
will be conserved if Nz is zero, even if N x and N y are not zero.)
Note that the conservation of linear momentum in the absence of applied forces
assumes that the weak law of action and reaction is valid for the internal forces.
The conservation of the total angular momentum of the system in the absence of
applied torques requires the validity of the strong law of action and reaction—that

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8 Chapter 1 Survey of the Elementary Principles

the internal forces in addition be central. Many of the familiar physical forces,
such as that of gravity, satisfy the strong form of the law. But it is possible to
find forces for which action and reaction are equal even though the forces are not
central (see below). In a system involving moving charges, the forces between
the charges predicted by the Biot-Savart law may indeed violate both forms of
the action and reaction law.* Equations (1.23) and (1.26), and their corresponding
conservation theorems, are not applicable in such cases, at least in the form given
here. Usually it is then possible to find some generalization of P or L that is
conserved. Thus, in an isolated system of moving charges it is the sum of the
mechanical angular momentum and the electromagnetic “angular momentum” of
the field that is conserved.
Equation (1.23) states that the total linear momentum of the system is the same
as if the entire mass were concentrated at the center of mass and moving with it.
The analogous theorem for angular momentum is more complicated. With the
origin O as reference point, the total angular momentum of the system is


L= ri 3 pi .
i

Let R be the radius vector from O to the center of mass, and let ri be the radius
vector from the center of mass to the ith particle. Then we have (cf. Fig. 1.3)

ri = ri + R (1.27)

FIGURE 1.3 The vectors involved in the shift of reference point for the angular
momentum.

*If two charges are moving uniformly with parallel velocity vectors that are not perpendicular to the
line joining the charges, then the net mutual forces are equal and opposite but do not lie along the
vector between the charges. Consider, further, two charges moving (instantaneously) so as to “cross
the T,” i.e., one charge moving directly at the other, which in turn is moving at right angles to the first.
Then the second charge exerts a nonvanishing magnetic force on the first, without experiencing any
magnetic reaction force at that instant.

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 1.2 Mechanics of a System of Particles 9

and

vi = vi + v

where
dR
v=
dt
is the velocity of the center of mass relative to O, and

dri
vi =
dt
is the velocity of the ith particle relative to the center of mass of the system. Using
Eq. (1.27), the total angular momentum takes on the form
 
   d 
L= R 3 mi v + ri 3 m i vi + m i ri 3v + R3 m i ri .
dt
i i i i

The last two terms in this expression vanish, for both contain the factor m i ri ,
which, it will be recognized, defines the radius vector of the center of mass in the
very coordinate system whose origin is the center of mass and is therefore a null
vector. Rewriting the remaining terms, the total angular momentum about O is

L = R 3 Mv + ri 3 pi . (1.28)
i

In words, Eq. (1.28) says that the total angular momentum about a point O is
the angular momentum of motion concentrated at the center of mass, plus the
angular momentum of motion about the center of mass. The form of Eq. (1.28)
emphasizes that in general L depends on the origin O, through the vector R. Only
if the center of mass is at rest with respect to O will the angular momentum be
independent of the point of reference. In this case, the first term in (1.28) vanishes,
and L always reduces to the angular momentum taken about the center of mass.
Finally, let us consider the energy equation. As in the case of a single particle,
we calculate the work done by all forces in moving the system from an initial
configuration 1, to a final configuration 2:

 2  2
(e)
 2
W12 = Fi ? dsi = Fi ? dsi + F ji ? dsi . (1.29)
i 1 i 1 i, j
1
i= j

Again, the equations of motion can be used to reduce the integrals to

 2  2  2 
1
Fi ? dsi = m i v̇i ? vi dt = d m i vi2 .
1 1 1 2
i i i

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10 Chapter 1 Survey of the Elementary Principles

Hence, the work done can still be written as the difference of the final and initial
kinetic energies:

W12 = T2 − T1 ,

where T , the total kinetic energy of the system, is

1
T = m i vi2 . (1.30)
2
i

Making use of the transformations to center-of-mass coordinates, given in

Eq. (1.27), we may also write T as

1
T = m i (v + vi ) ? (v + vi )
2
i
 
1 1 d 
= m i v2 + m i vi2 + v ? m i ri ,
2 2 dt
i i i

and by the reasoning already employed in calculating the angular momentum, the
last term vanishes, leaving

1 1
T = Mv 2 + m i vi2 (1.31)
2 2
i

The kinetic energy, like the angular momentum, thus also consists of two parts:
the kinetic energy obtained if all the mass were concentrated at the center of mass,
plus the kinetic energy of motion about the center of mass.
Consider now the right-hand side of Eq. (1.29). In the special case that the
external forces are derivable in terms of the gradient of a potential, the first term
can be written as
 2
(e)
 2  2
Fi ? dsi =− ∇i Vi ? dsi = − Vi ,
i 1 i 1 i 1

where the subscript i on the del operator indicates that the derivatives are with
respect to the components of ri . If the internal forces are also conservative, then
the mutual forces between the ith and jth particles, Fi j and F ji , can be obtained
from a potential function Vi j . To satisfy the strong law of action and reaction, Vi j
can be a function only of the distance between the particles:

Vi j = Vi j (| ri − r j |). (1.32)

The two forces are then automatically equal and opposite,

F ji = −∇i Vi j = +∇ j Vi j = −Fi j , (1.33)

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 1.2 Mechanics of a System of Particles 11

and lie along the line joining the two particles,

∇Vi j (| ri − r j |) = (ri − r j ) f, (1.34)

where f is some scalar function. If Vi j were also a function of the difference of

some other pair of vectors associated with the particles, such as their velocities
or (to step into the domain of modern physics) their intrinsic “spin” angular mo-
menta, then the forces would still be equal and opposite, but would not necessarily
lie along the direction between the particles.
When the forces are all conservative, the second term in Eq. (1.29) can be
rewritten as a sum over pairs of particles, the terms for each pair being of the
form
 2
− (∇i Vi j ? dsi + ∇ j Vi j ? ds j ).
1

If the difference vector ri − r j is denoted by ri j , and if ∇i j stands for the gradient

with respect to ri j , then

∇i Vi j = ∇i j Vi j = −∇ j Vi j ,

and

dsi − ds j = dri − dr j = dri j ,

so that the term for the ij pair has the form


− ∇i j Vi j ? dri j .

The total work arising from internal forces then reduces to


1 2 1 2
− ∇i j Vi j ? dri j = − Vi j . (1.35)
2 1 2 1
i, j i, j
i= j i= j

The factor 12 appears in Eq. (1.35) because in summing over both i and j each
member of a given pair is included twice, first in the i summation and then in the
j summation.
From these considerations, it is clear that if the external and internal forces are
both derivable from potentials it is possible to define a total potential energy, V ,
of the system,
 1
V = Vi + Vi j , (1.36)
2
i i, j
i= j

such that the total energy T + V is conserved, the analog of the conservation
theorem (1.18) for a single particle.

“M01 Goldstein ISBN C01” — 2011/2/15 — page 11 — #11

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