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Elements of Physical Hydrology

2
Elements of Physical Hydrology

SECOI'ID EDlTtO'll

George M. Hornberger

Patricia L. Wiberg

Jeffrey P. Raffensperger

Paolo D'Odorico

Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore

3
© 2014 Johns Hopkins University Press
All rights reserved. Published 2014
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
98765432 1

Johns Hopkins University Press

2715 North Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 2121 8-4363
www.press.jhu.edu

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Elements of physical hydrology I George M. Homberger . . . [et al.]. - 2nd
ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1 -42 14-1373-0 (hardcover : alk. paper) - ISBN 978-1-4214-
1396-9 (electronic) - ISBN 1-4214-1373-6 (hardcover: alk. paper)­
ISBN 1-4214-1396-5 (electronic) I. Hydrology. I. Hornberger, George
M.
GB661.2.E44 2014
551 .48-<1c23 201 3036530

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Special discounts are available for bulk purchases of this book. For more
il!formaliull. please colllact Special Sales at 4/0-5/6-6936 or
[email protected].

Johns Hopkins University Press uses environmentally friendly book

materials, including recycled text paper that is composed of at least 30
percent post-consumer waste, whenever possible.

4
Contents

Preface

[ The Science of Hydrology

2 Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
3 The Basis for Analysis in Physical Hydrology: Principles of Fluid
Dynamics
4 Open Channel Hydraulics
5 Catchment Hydrology: Streams and Floods
6 Groundwater Hydraulics
7 Groundwater Hydrology
8 Water in the Unsaturated Zone
9 Ecohydrology: imcractions between Hydrological Processes and the
Biota
10 Catchment Hydrology: The Hillslope-Stream Continuum
II Water, Climate, Energy, and Food

Appendixes
1 Units, Dimensions, and Conversions
2 Properties of Water
3 Basic Stalistics in Hydrology
Answers to Example Problems
Glossary
References
Index

5
Preface

The world population is expected to grow to 9 billion by 2050. Food

production will have to grow even faster than the population because, as
countries develop and achieve a higher standard of living, diets lend to
include more animal protein and thus there is a concomitant increased
consumption of grain by animals. Agriculture consumes the greatest
amount of fresh water of all sectors, so we anticipate increased stress on
water resources as a result of increased food production. The growth in
population will also result in increases in the use of energy, which entails
the use of water as well. Furthermore, these changes will occur amidst
large-scale changes in the use ofland resources (e.g., increased
urbanization) and changes in climate caused by the burning of fossil fucls.
11 is clear that dealing with water resources issues will be a key activity for
regions, nations, and the global village as these changes unfold. Arguably,
university students need to acquire knowledge about the hydrological
cycle just to bc informcd citizens of the world in the coming decades.
This book is based on the premise that students of environmental
science must learn the quantitative physical basis of hydrology if they are
to appreciate the scientific approach to understanding observed phenomena
and the basis for achieving solutions to water resources problems. The text
is not a catalog of observations nor is it a compendium of applied
tcchniqucs of engineering hydrology. Rathcr, it prescnts a basic coveragc
of physical principles and how these allow one to grasp the essential
elements of hydrological processes. One tenet that we hold is that an
understanding of fundamental fluid mechanics is essential to the study of
hydrology. Our aim is to provide an integrated coverage of flows of water
on and bcneath the Earth's surface with the underpinning ofa knowledgc
of basic fluid mechanics.
This book originated from lectures in a coursc on Physical Hydrology at
the University ofYirginia that began more than 25 years ago. Following
publication of the first edition of our book in 1998, many colleagues
elsewhere told us that they found it useful, but that there were a few topics
that were underreprescnted. Thus, in addition to updating material
throughout the book, in this second edition we include a good bit of new
material, including a new chapter on Ecohydrology and a completely new
final chapter on water-climate-energy-food interactions. The changes

6
notwithstanding, the book is still designed to accompany an undergraduate
course in physical hydrological science. It is aimed at upper-level
undergraduates majoring in environmental or Earth scicnces. The coverage
presupposes a modest background in calculus and physics.
We use several conventions in an attempt to make the book "user
friendly." Each chapter has introductory and concluding remarks that seek
to place the material presented in the chapter in the context of some
contemporary environmental issue. Tenns that appear in boldface at their
first occurrence are found in the Glossary. Terms that appear in italics
deserve emphasis. Supporting material is contained in three appendixes: a
review of units and dimensions (Appendix I ); a tabulation of certain
properties of water (Appendix 2); and a review of some elementary
statistical concepts (Appendix 3) .
Over the ycars we have benefited from ideas and data shared by many
colleagues and students. We are grateful to all who have contributed to our
education, but will refrain from attempting to produce a comprehensive
list. We do want to acknowledge specifically colleagues who either have
taught the course at UVA that stimulated the first edition of the book in the
past or who are currently in the teaching rotation for the course: John
Albertson, Keith Beven, Keith Eshleman, John Fisher, Peter German,
Aaron Mills, Matt Reidenbach, and Todd Scanlon. In addition, we
especially thank Margot Bjoring for the preparation of the figures for this
edition of the book.

7
Elements of Physical Hydrology

8
1 The Science of Hydrology

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Hydrology and Water Resources

1.3 The Hydrological Cycle

1.4 The Water Budget

1.4.1 The global water budget
1.4.2 The catchment water budget
1.5 Concluding Remarks
1.6 Key Points
1.7 Example Problems
1.8 Suggested Readings

1.1 Introduction

The role of waler is cCOIral to most natural processes. Water transports

sediment and solutes to takes and oceans, thereby shaping the landscape.
The global energy balance is influenced strongly by the high capacity of
waler for storing thennal energy and the large amount of heat required to
change water from liquid to vapor and vice versa. The abundance of water
in the atmosphere and oceans makes it an important regulator of climate.
Water vapor is the most important of the greenhouse gases. Life depends
on water.
Hydrology, literally "water science," encompasses the study of the
occurrence and movement of water on and beneath the surface of the
Earth, the properties of water, and its relationship with the living and
material components of the environment. Ultimately, many hydrological
questions involve the transport of dissolved nutrients, energy, sediment, or
contaminants. The starting point for investigations of transport must be the
physical processes of water movement.
Hydrological science has an important place in discussions of natural
resources. Water resources, especially freshwater resources, are the subject

9
of intense scmtiny and speculation. In arid regions, the fair allocation and
wise use of freshwater resources are signifieant challenges facing
governments and people, affecting relations between nations, states, cities,
and individual users. As a resource, water appears unlimited. However, the
twentieth century saw a tremendous growth in the use of water, as well as
an increase in the threat of its contamination, and the trends have
continued in the new millennium.
Hydrological science has aspects related to "curiosity-driven" questions
and to "problcm-driven" questions. The first aspect relates to questions
about how the Earth works, and specifically about the role of water in
natural processes. The second relates to using scientific knowledge to
provide a sound basis for the proper use and protection of water resources.

1.2 Hydrology and Water Resources

Hydrological science has both curiosity-driven and problem-driven origins

that stretch back to antiquity (Biswas, 1972). Many of the great ancient
philosophers of Greece and Rome speculated on hydrological phenomena.
VitTUvius, writing during the second halfofthe first century BC, often is
credited with first recognizing that groundwater is derived primarily from
infiltration of rain and snowmelt, rather than upwelling of subterranean
water from great depths. By applying hydrological and hydraulic
principles, the ancients constructed great hydraulic works such as the
ancient Arabian wells, the Persian kanats, the Egyptian and Mesopotamian
irrigation projects, the Roman aqueducts, the ancient water civilizations of
Sri Lanka, and the Chinese irrigation systems, canals, and flood control
works. During the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci wrote what is likely the
earliest complete statement of the hydrological cycle, including the notions
of condensation and evaporation and the dissolution of rock minerals (after
Eagleson, 1970):

Whence we may conclude that the water goes from the rivers to the sea and
from the sea 10 the rivers, thus constantly circulating and returning, and that
all the sea and rivers have passed through the mouth of the Nile an infinite
number of times. The conclusion is that the saltiness of the sea must
proceed from the many springs of water which, as they penetrate the earth,
find mines of salt, and these they dissolve in part and carry with them 10 the
ocean and other seas, whence the clouds, the begetters of rivers, never carry
it up.

During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, hydraulic experiments

10
flourished and, until about 1950, pragmatic considerations dominated
hydrology. Primarily due to the development and availability of digital
computing, thcoretical approaches in hydrology have incrcasingly allowed
hydrological theories to be subjected to rigorous mathematical analysis.
Freshwater resources are needed to meet the needs of humans,
livestock, commercial enterprises, agriculture, mining, industry, and
thermoelectric and hydroelectric power. Ln today's world, the necessity of
solving water-supply problems has become obvious, with many regions
exhibiting signs of looming water shortages (Figure 1 . 1 ).
Most of the human consumption of freshwater resources is associated
with food production. (We use cOl/slimp/ion to refer to water that is used in
ways that return it to the atmosphere rather than to a stream, river, or
groundwater. For example, thermoelectric power plants may withdraw
large quantities of water from a river for cooling, but then return the bulk
of that water to the stream, albeit at a higher temperature.) Relative to the
consumption of water for food production, drinking, household, and
industrial uses of water are overall smaller (Figure 1.2). We need much
more water to produce the food we eat than the amount of water we use for
drinking or other activities. The global water crisis is more likely causing
hunger than thirst. A report from the office of the U.S. Director of National
Intelligence, Global Water Security
(http://www.dni.gov/index.php/aboutlorganization/national-intelligence­
council-nie-publications) concludes: "Between now and 2040, fresh water
availability will not keep up with demand absent more effective
management of water resources. Water problems will hinder the ability of
key countries to produce food and generate energy, posing a risk to global
food markets and hobbling economic growth." The need for improved
water management, based on scientific knowledge, is of critical
importance in the coming decades (Jury and Vaux, 2007).

II
 r
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asins:'"
;
Water stress indicator
�o""'!�'o'b
.. ., ......
Sou"*,, Smakht"" Ailvenga
.nd DOlI, 20001.

Figure 1.1 Water resources are highly stressed in many parts of the world.
The water stress indicator is the fraction of available water appropriated
for use by humans. Fractions greater than one indicate the use of fossil
groundwater.
http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/deta iI/water-scarcity-index_14f3

12
 o Agriculture

o Household
9.6%
o Industrial

85.8%

Figure 1.2 Relative contributions of agriculture. household, and industrial

consumption to the human appropriation of freshwater resources.
Data from Hoekstra and Chapaga;n 2008.

Although the rate of increase in water usc in some arcas has slackened
over the past several decades, the total consumption of water globally has
continued to increase (Figure 1.3 ). Population growth, depiction or
deterioration of freshwater resources, and changing demands (mosl
notably the tendency to adopt more water-demanding diets in emergent
countrics,-i.c., an increase in meat consumption) will tend to further stress
water resources in the future for many countries. Falkenmark et al. (2007)
indicate their view of the severity of the issue. "We are on the verge of a
new and more serious era of water scarcity, and it is clear that we will face
increasingly complex challenges. Water supply to different sectors will
become more challenging as supplies of blue water (e.g. water in rivers
and aquifers) become overstretched, while a scarcity of green water (e.g.
water in the soil) will limit food and biomass production."
World population is expected to increase in the next 50 years, stressing
water resources. Issues related 10 the qualifY of water supplies have
occupicd an increasingly important niche in hydrology. Ii is estimated that

13
80% of all diseases and over one-third of all deaths in developing countries
result from the consumption of contaminated water. Provision of basic
sanitation and water treatment in much of the world is still lacking. [n
1980, the United Nations launched the International Drinking Water
Supply and Sanitation Decade, with the goal of clean water and sanitation
services to those without them. Despite enonnous effort, expense, and
progress, at the close of the decade 1.8 billion people still had no access to
sanitation services, and nearly 1 .3 billion people still laeked access to
clean water. Population growth wiped out the progress achieved through
this effort (Gleick, 1993).

2000
Europe
�
North America
�
-

>-
,

Africa
� 1500
E Asia
..
-
South America
<:
0 Australia and Oceania
a.
'-

1000
-

E
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0
u
Q)
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500
C\I
-

;:

o
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Figure 1.3 Water consumption grew during the twentieth eemury and is
projected to continue increasing in the future.
Data from Shiklomanov 1999.

In the developed world, the availability of safe drinking water and

adequate sewage treatment is taken for granted, but other water quality
issues abound. These include eutrophication of surface waters (delCierious
clTects duc to excess nutrient supply), contamination of groundwater with
a variety of organic compounds and metals, and the acidification of surface
waters from acid rain. The ability of streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries to
dilute contaminants to safe levels and to purify the water through natural

14
processes (their assimilative capacity) depends on the quantity of water
flowing in them.
Understanding surface-water now is a requisite for water quality
studies. Similarly, knowlcdge ofsubsurfacc flow is nccessary for
understanding the movement of pollutants underground. To predict or
evaluate the effects of liquid-waste disposal in deep injection wells or the
use of solid waste as fill for reclamation of strip mines, one must
appreciate the mcchanics of water flow in rock and soil. The massive
cffort now undcr way in the Unitcd States to clean up sitcs wherc
groundwater has been contaminated represents another challenge for
hydrological science.
Major floods are the most dramatic and visible of hydrological
phenomena. The number of people afef cted by floods and the number of
lives lost havc increased in recent decades (Figure 1.4). With pressure for
increased usc of floodplains, the prediction and control of floods remain
among the most important applications of hydrology.
Addressing hydrological challenges, such as those related to floods or
groundwater contamination, requires a finn understanding of the basic
principles of the physics and chemistry of water. Hydrological science
uses the fundamentals of the basic sciences and mathematics to develop
explanations (modcls) of obselVed phenomena. One of the basic problems
in hydrology is a description of water motion. One goal of physical
hydrology is to identifY the paths of water movement on and beneath the
surface of the Earth. Using physical theory and associated mathematical
models, hydrologists seek to describe quantitatively the motion of water in
the nafUral environment. As Jury and Vaux (2005) put it, "There is little
question that science must play a critical role in fonning a succ·essful
solution to the world's emerging water problems." They go on to conclude
that "a new science of sustainability will be needed if the prospects for
managing and solving the world's emcrging watcr problcms are to bc
bright." Knowledge of physical hydrology will be a critical component of
this new science.

15
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