SUEN 101

UNDERGRADUATE COURSE
B.A - ENGLISH
FIRST YEAR
FIRST SEMESTER

PAPER - I

BRITISH LITERATURE - 1

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
B.A., ENGLISH PAPER - I
FIRST YEAR BRITISH LITERATURE 1
FIRST SEMESTER

WELCOME
Warm Greetings.

It is with a great pleasure to welcome you as a student of Institute of Distance Education,

University of Madras. It is a proud moment for the Institute of Distance education as you are
entering into a cafeteria system of learning process as envisaged by the University Grants
Commission. Yes, we have framed and introduced Choice Based Credit System(CBCS) in
Semester pattern from the academic year 2018-19. You are free to choose courses, as per the
Regulations, to attain the target of total number of credits set for each course and also each
degree programme. What is a credit? To earn one credit in a semester you have to spend 30
hours of learning process. Each course has a weightage in terms of credits. Credits are assigned
by taking into account of its level of subject content. For instance, if one particular course or
paper has 4 credits then you have to spend 120 hours of self-learning in a semester. You are
advised to plan the strategy to devote hours of self-study in the learning process. You will be
assessed periodically by means of tests, assignments and quizzes either in class room or
laboratory or field work. In the case of PG (UG), Continuous Internal Assessment for 20(25)
percentage and End Semester University Examination for 80 (75) percentage of the maximum
score for a course / paper. The theory paper in the end semester examination will bring out your
various skills: namely basic knowledge about subject, memory recall, application, analysis,
comprehension and descriptive writing. We will always have in mind while training you in
conducting experiments, analyzing the performance during laboratory work, and observing the
outcomes to bring out the truth from the experiment, and we measure these skills in the end
semester examination. You will be guided by well experienced faculty.

I invite you to join the CBCS in Semester System to gain rich knowledge leisurely at
your will and wish. Choose the right courses at right times so as to erect your flag of success.
We always encourage and enlighten to excel and empower. We are the cross bearers to make
you a torch bearer to have a bright future.

With best wishes from mind and heart,

DIRECTOR

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B.A., ENGLISH PAPER - I
FIRST YEAR BRITISH LITERATURE 1
FIRST SEMESTER

COURSE WRITER

Mrs. Beena Thomas

Associate Professor and Head,
Department of English
CTTE College for Women
Chennai

EDITING & COORDINATION

Dr. V. Meena Kumari

Associate Professor
Department of English
Anna Adarsh College for Women
Chennai

© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.

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 B.A., DEGREE COURSE

FIRST YEAR -

FIRST SEMESTER

Paper - I

BRITISH LITERATURE - 1

SYLLABUS
Unit-1: Introduction

The Renaissance and its Impact on England, The Reformation - causes and effects,
The Commonwealth of Nations, The Restoration, Coffee-houses and their social relevance

Unit-2: Prose

1. On Revenge - Francis Bacon

2. Sir Roger at the Theatre - Joseph Addison

3. A City Night-Piece - Oliver Goldsmith

Unit-3: Poetry

1. Prothalamion - Edmund Spenser

2. Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day? - William Shakespeare

3. A Valediction: of Weeping - John Donne

4. Paradise Lost (Book IX) - John Milton ( lines 795 - 833)

5. The Rape of the Lock: Canto III - Alexander Pope (lines 125 -178)

Unit-4: Drama

Doctor Faustus - Christopher Marlowe

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Unit- 5: Fiction

The Vicar of Wakefield - Oliver Goldsmith

Prescribed Texts:

English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries – G M Trevelyan (for Unit I)

The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus. Christopher Marlowe

Ed. William-Alan Landes (Revised). Players Press, 1997.

The Vicar of Wakefield - Oliver Goldsmith - Ed. Stephen Coote (Penguin UK, 2004)

Recommended Texts:

Christopher Marlowe the Craftsman: Lives, Stage, and Page. Ed. Professor M L Stapleton,
Dr Sarah K Scott (Revised) - Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2013.

Relevant Videos on YouTube:

S. No. Video URL

1 History of the Renaissance https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uhd

uwFonog

2 The Restoration and Enlightenment https://www.youtube.com

watch?v=F4Jzp4Ywuek

3 The English Reformation https://www.youtube.com

watch?v=FrDhYS5lk3c

4 17th Century British Literature https://www.youtube.com

watch?v=rwGestYnQPA

5 Doctor Faustus https://www.youtube.com

watch?v=kE4_oBsuX5g

6 The Vicar of Wakefield https://www.youtube.com

watch?v=3fm9jy5F3EE

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 B.A., DEGREE COURSE

FIRST YEAR -

FIRST SEMESTER

Paper - I

BRITISH LITERATURE - 1
SCHEME OF LESSONS

Sl.No. Title Page

1. Introduction 001

2. Prose 016

3. Poetry 033

4. Drama 055

5. Fiction 072

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 1

UNIT - I
INTRODUCTION

Learning Objective :
 The objective of the introductory unit is to familiarize the students to the historical, religious
and social background of Britain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

 The Renaissance and the Reformation as two important movements in the history Of
England.

 The political changes that happened in England during the 17th century that had a great
impact on the literature of that period.

 The religious conflict that prevailed in the country over these centuries and its significance

 The suppression and later the restoration in the 18th C and the great social changes.

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Renaissance and its impact on England
1.2.1 Characteristics
1.2.2 The English Renaissance
1.3 The Reformation – causes and effects
1.3.1 Causes
1.3.2 Effects
1.4 The Commonwealth
1.5 The Restoration
1.6 The Coffee- houses and their social significance
1.7 Check Your progress
1.8 Summary
1.9 Answer to check your progress
1.10 Review Questions
1.11 Reference Books
2

1.1 Introduction

 The origin of English Literature is not well recorded. The earliest written records are
those of poetry written in the Old English Period in the 5th C. During the 14th and 15th
century the prose and poetical forms saw significant progress. Geoffrey Chaucer became
a significant poet of the Middle English Period and his works came to be denoted as the
beginning in the study of English Literature.

 The period between 1450 and 1550 witnessed the renewed desire for learning and
discovery, in England and all over the world. By 1550, the Renaissance had a strong
impact in England. The Elizabethan Age (1558-1603), during the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
thus became significant for historic and literary reasons. The literary developments in the
16th, 17th, and 18th centuries were of considerable significance.

1.2 THE RENAISSANCE AND ITS IMPACT ON ENGLAND

The Renaissance Periodis the period between1550–1660.

Renaissance means ‘rebirth’. It refers to the revival of learning of classical literature

between the fourteenth and sixteenth century. It was a process of change in Europe from the
medieval to modern order. It began in Italy (Constantinople). Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and
Machiavelli were the great writers of Italian Renaissance. When Constantinople was captured
by Turks in 1453, many Greek scholars escaped. Several parts of Europe, including Britain
welcomed them and their presence in these countries kindled an interest in classical learning
and culture in Europe.

1.2.1 Characteristics

Renaissance was characterized with a spirit of inquiry and a spirit of freedom of

thought and action. The teachings, beliefs and the customs of the past were questioned.
Social, political and religious ideas underwent great changes. People’s attitude towards
themselves and the world were revolutionized.

1.2.2 The English Renaissance

 The English Renaissance covers a long span of time, which may be divided into
the following three periods.
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o The Beginning of Renaissance (1516 – 1558).

o The Flowering of Renaissance (1558 – 1603)-The Age of Elizabeth.

o The Decline of Renaissance (1603 – 1625) - The Jacobean Age

 Renaissance in England was marked by certain inventions and discoveries that

contributed towards its spread and growth.

o PRINTING PRESS was introduced into Europe by John Gutenberg of Germany in

1454. The first Latin Bible was printed in 1455 in Germany. The first Printing press
was established in England by William Caxton in 1476 at Westminster Abbey.

o MARINER’S COMPASSwas a significant invention that encouraged voyages and

explorations

o TELESCOPE was invented a century later and it saw the beginning of science of
astronomy.

 The English Renaissance spread classical scholarship in England.

o Although English Renaissance was started by Geoffrey Chaucer and Selling who
were closely associated to Italy, it was only some years later that classical scholarship
began seriously in England with the efforts of three Oxford friends who had studied
in Italy; Thomas Linacare, William Grocyn and Hugh Latimer.

o John Colet, later, founded St Paul’s Grammar school which was the first school in
England that taught only classical literature.

o William Lily, the first headmaster of the school, prepared The Latin Grammar and it
remained the standard textbook for 200 years.

o Other schools were soon started in London, like Christ Hospital and Charterhouse
and outside London also.

 The period of Renaissance was also an Age of Translation in England.

o The works of Greek and Latin writers, Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, Demosthenes and Plutarch
were translated into English.
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o The first part of Chapman’s Homer was translated in 1598.

o Those who did not know the classical languages became familiar with the classics
through these translations. One among them is Shakespeare.

 Renaissance had an impact on English Literature.

 Renaissance in Literature began in England with SIR THOMAS MORE’S Utopia which
in Greek meant, “Nowhere”. It was first published in Latin in1516 and the English translation
in 1551.

 More’s friend and contemporary ERASMUS also wrote in Latin. He published a version
of the New Testament of the Bible in parallel columns of original Greek and his own Latin
translation.His famous work is The Praise of Folly.

 However it is SPENSER, the author of the first great English epic, “Faerie Queene”, who
is regarded as the representative poet of the English Renaissance.

 FRANCIS BACON made a mark as a Renaissance prose writer.

 Renaissance in England found its best expression in the romantic drama written during
the period by SHAKESPEARE. Other Renaissance dramatists were BEN JONSON
and CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE (Father of English tragedy).

 The period of Renaissance brought in great changes in English educational

systems.

o The medieval dual system of education; one for the clergy and the other to make a
‘perfect and gentle Knight’ was found inadequate. Hence a new educational system
was introduced with the inputs of educational experiments conducted by
COMENIUS, RABELAIS and MONTAIGNE. Their methods were holistic and meant
‘to fashion, not the scholar, but the man”

 The Renaissance had an impact on maritime exploration.

o After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, European nations found new
trade routes to the East.
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o The invention of the mariner’s compass enabled them to explore new sea routes.

o Thus COLUMBUS discovered America in 1492.

o VASCO DA GAMA in 1498, reached the west coast of India via the cape of Good
Hope.

o MAGELLAN in 1519 set out to explore the Pacific Ocean. Although he was killed
his lieutenant SEBASTIAN DEL CANO completed the first navigation of the world
and returned to Spain in 1522.

 The Renaissance saw the discoveryof new details in cosmology.

o The cosmology by the Ptolemy of Egypt in the Middle Ages taught that the earth
was the entre of the universe. This was replaced by COPERNICUS in the middle of
the 16C who discovered that the sun was the centre of the universe. KEPLER and
GALILEO later revealed the main features of the solar system.

 The Renaissance influenced religion.

o It led to two religious movements- REFORMATION and COUNTER-

REFORMATION.

 The Renaissance had a great influence in Art and Literature.

o MICHAEL ANGELO, RAPHAEL and LEONARDO DA VINCI were poets, painters

and sculptors who were closely associated with the Renaissance Art.

Michael Angelo wrote many sonnets and did the sculptures of David, Moses and Pieta,
painted the ceiling of Sistine Chapel and ‘The Last Judgement’. Raphael’s magnificient pictures
include the Madonnas. Leonardo da Vinci’s is famous for his painting the ‘Last Supper’.

 Architeture underwent a classical revival all over Europe during the Renaissance.

o Roman and Greek styles with round arches and domes replaced the medieval
Gothic style .

o St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome is a great example of renaissance architecture.

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o This style was introduced in England in the 17th C by English architects - INIGO
JONES and CHRISTOPHER WREN. They reconstructed St Paul’s Cathedral in
London after the Great Fire of 1666 apart from other churches in London.

1.3 THE REFORMATION – Causes and Effects

 As mentioned in the previous section on Renaissance, the Reformation is the result

of the impact of the Renaissance on religion in England.

 Reformation (also referred as Protestant Reformation) is the term used to refer to the
religious revolution that took place in the western church in the 16th C. It aimed at reforming
the doctrines and practices of the Roman Church. As a result various Reformed or
Protestant churches were established in central and north-western Europe.

1.3.1 Causes:
a) The medieval Roman Catholic Church of the 16th C, to which the reformers belonged,
was greatly involved with the political life of the period. The church was keen in increasing
its power and wealth and so abused their faith.As a result many of their practices and
doctrines were outdated.

b) The growing spirit of inquiry during the Renaissance, made the people question the corrupt
practices of the church.

c) A spirit of nationalism prevailed during the 16th C.

d) The rivalry between Popes and anti-Popes worsened the situation. Corruption, nepotism
and favouritism within the church brought discontent among the people.Many members
of the clergy, including some Popes were reported to be immoral and pleasure-seeking.

e) One of the worst practices and the immediate cause for the Reformation was THE SALE
OF INDULGENCES, which the clergy sold to the people as a compensation for their sins.
This was sold by preference to people who contributed financially to the church and
denied to others. Faithful Christians were shocked and disturbed by the commercial attitude
of the church.

f) MARTIN LUTHER, an ex- Augustian German monk started the Reformation Movement
on October 31, 1517. On that day he nailed ninety-five theses on the door of the Castle
 7

Church, Wittenberg, Germany. The theses were points that debated against the sale of
indulgences and other practices of the Catholic Church. He also wrote to the Archbishop
about the confusion that this practice created in the minds of the people. Later he also
wrote to the Pope drawing his attention to the growing scandal. As a result, Luther was
excommunicated from the Catholic Church by Pope Leo X. This led to the open conflict
against the Catholic Church by Luther and his supporters in Germany.

g) The cause of the inclusion of England in the Reformation Movement was an accident.
King Henry VIII, had supported and wrote in defense of the Catholic Church to the Pope.
But his desire to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon to marry Anne Boleyn was
not accepted by Pope Clement VII. Thomas Cromwell advised the King to break away
from Rome as the only solution. So in 1529, King Henry VIII, summoned the Reformation
Parliament. In a span of seven years it passed many laws against the papal authority.
According to the Act of Supremacy, passed in 1534, the Pope lost all authority in England
and King Henry VIII became the supreme head of the Church of England. In 1536, the
Reformation Parliament passed a Bill to dissolve all the monasteries. Their wealth and
property were later used by the King.

1.3.2 Effects :

 Henry VIII’s decisions made England a part of the Reformation Movement. It left lasting
religious and political effects on England.

a) Henry VIII’s decision to create the Church of England resulted in more than acentury
of religious turmoil in England.

b) Although the rest of Europe rejected the authority of the Pope to reform and discipline
the clergy, in England, it was only for the King’s selfish interests. The Statute of Six
Articles was passed in 1539 which imposed death penalty on all those who went
against the King’s decisions.

c) When he died in 1547, England had mostly turned Protestant. During his son
Edward VI’s reign, the first PRAYER BOOK was prepared and introduced.

d) When Queen Mary ascended the throne, she made an attempt to restore catholic
faith. This led to a lot of internal disturbance and violence. In her short reign of five
years, she burnt nearly 300 people. She came to be known as ‘Bloody Mary’.
8

e) Queen Elizabeth I, founded the Church of England. It was a compromise between the
catholic and protestant doctrines. A BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER was issued.

f) Two Acts of Parliament noted the differences between the Church of England and the
Catholic Church; The Act of Supremacy and The act of Uniformity. In 1563, the doctrines
of the Church of England were emphasized in the Thirty-nine articles.

g) The Elizabethan compromise brought some peace between the two factions of Catholics
and Protestants.

1.4 THE COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND

 Queen Elizabeth I of England died after 44 years of rule. King James VI of Scotland
ascended the throne, uniting England and Scotland under a single British monarch. He
ruled from 1603–1625. After his death King Charles I took over as the monarch of
England, Scotland and Ireland until his execution in 1649. The wide conflict between
Roman Catholicism and Protestantism discussed in the earlier sections continued to
have its effect on the country.

 King Charles I formed a Parliament to solve his issues, in 1640. This parliament sat for a
long time that it came to be called the Long Parliament. It was dominated by Puritans.
Soon the nation was divided into two groups, one supporting the King (royalists) and the
other, the Parliament (roundheads). Religion and lack of money became the major causes
for the English Civil Wars ( 1642-51) during the reign of King Charles I and his successor
King Charles II. The Rump Parliament was the English Parliament that was formed
after the Long Parliament, on 6 December 1648.

 The Commonwealth refers to the period (1649-1660) in the post-Civil War period
when England was ruled without a King after King Charles I was executed in 1649.
The newly founded Commonwealth replaced the Monarchy with a Council of State,
which attempted to rule along with the Rump Parliament.

 During the next 11 years many forms of government were tried. But none could bring a
stable political settlement or reforms.
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 Hence Oliver Cromwell dismissed the Rump Parliament in 1653 and took the title of
Lord Protector.As he did not have a constitutional legacy he ruled like a military dictator.
His military achievements and political skill kept him in power. But when he died in 1658,
his son Richard Cromwell who succeeded could not continue for long.

 The Commonwealth collapsed in 1660 and monarchy was restored.

1.5 THE RESTORATION

 Restoration England is the period between 1660 and 1688.

 Political monarchy, Parliament and Law were brought back.Charles II returned to England
to become the King.

 The rule of the Bishops and the prayer book were reintroduced in religion.Anglicanism
became the accepted religion of the upper class. Roman Catholics were completely
avoided in the local and national government.

 In social hierarchy, the nobles and the gentry once again headed provincial and national
life.The local squire controlled their parish church. The church parson and the squire
often quarreled.

 Political parties were formed during the Restoration Period.

 Politically the upper class was divided into two parties; WHIGS and TORIES. The Whigs
were the landlords with commercial interests who supported the rights of the Parliament.
The Tories were from rural England and they supported the King.

 Restoration England saw the spread of science. It began to be used to develop agriculture,
industry, navigation, medicine and engineering. The Royal Society of Science was founded
in 1662.

 All the institutions and practices which were shut down during the previous period were
restored.

 The theatres which were closed during the previous period were reopened with certain
changes. Playhouses were roofed and artificially lighted with candles. Drop curtains and
painted scenery were used. Women began acting in drama. Drama was patronized by
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the people of the court and the fashionable people of the town. Most of the Restoration
dramas were vulgar and therefore young people from good families were not permitted
to watch them. Wycherley’s Country Wife was a popular Restoration drama which was
very vulgar. However soon things changed for the better.

 Censorship was rigid during Restoration period.

 The first Licensing Act was passed in 1663 to prevent the publication of seditious and
puritanical writings. Milton’s Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained however were printed.

 Despite censorship, Private Libraries became common during the Restoration period.
Individuals like Samuel Pepys and many families owned private libraries with valuable
volumes of books.

 A Public Library was first established in 1634 by Archbishop of Canterbury, Tenison in the
courtyard of St. Martin’s Church.

 In 1696, the Licensing Act was repealed.

 After monarchy was restored, the finances of the landed families improved. However the
lower Squires who lived from the income of their own lands and the wage-earners suffered.

 The English society maintained their characteristic high standard of living. A typical English
meal of that period, included bread, beer, wheat, vegetables, fruit and a small portion of
meat. There were also many who could afford meat only twice a week.

 Sports and Entertainment were restored during this period. Sports which were banned
during the puritan rule were brought back during the Restoration Period. Shooting
patridges, Netting of birds became fashionable sports. Fox and deer hunting were also
popular. It was exciting for gentlemen to go hunting on a horseback with a pack of hounds
and common folk following them. Wrestling, Boxing, sword fighting, Bull and Bear baiting
and rough kinds of football were other popular sports.Cock-fighting was most popular
which drew huge crowds to watch them. Horse-racing enjoyed Royal patronage.

 During the Restoration period, wealth was not evenly distributed among the people
in the country. The central counties were richer than many other parts of the country.
Middlesex was the richest county. Despite the biggest coal mines and textile mills in the
northern counties, they were poor.
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 The Restoration Period witnessed two great national calamities. The Plague of 1655
and The Great Fire of 1665. The plague took the lives of nearly one-fifth of London’s
population. The fire raged for five days and destroyed many churches and buildings of
London. In five years London was rebuilt and modernized.

1.6 COFFEE HOUSES AND THEIR SOCIAL RELEVANCE

 In the 17th and 18th century England, Coffee Houses became popular places for people
from different walks of life to meet, interact, chat, gossip and have fun. Coffee was at that
time a newly arrived drink in Europe, from Abyssinia through Arabia.

 It was during the period of the Commonwealth that coffee-houses were first established
in London.

 During the reign of Queen Anne, in the early 18th C, the coffee-houses became the
centre of social life in London.

 Coffee-houses encouraged an active social life in England during the rule of Queen
Anne. It was regarded as the cradle of British Democracy because it gave the people
of all class and section a place to meet and freely exchange their views and opinions.
This was significant in the absence of newspapers and public meetings during that period.

 Each had his own favourite coffee-house. Separate coffee-houses were established for
the various interests of the people, like politics, religious beliefs, Literature and individual
professions.

 Tories visited the ‘Cocoa Tree Chocolate House’ while the Whigs went to the
‘St. James’ Coffee House’.

 Will’s Coffee House was the favourite of the learned literary men. Heated
discussions on literary topics like ‘poetic justice’ ,‘the classical unities ‘ or the
correctness of using poetry by Milton in Paradise Lost ,took place in this coffee-
house. John Dryden, soon became one of the famous literary person who visited
Will’s. Smoking was permitted and most of these meetings generated a lot of smoke.

 Button’s Coffee House , founded by John Ruskin’s servant Mr. Button, was almost
a rival to Will’s. Writers like Dryden, Addison, Steele and Pope used to meet at
Button’s.
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 Scholars and critics of that period, patronized The Grecian Coffee House.

 The Garraway’s Coffee House was the favourite of the doctors, including Dr.John
Radcliffe, the leading doctor during the Restoration period. When he visited the
place, other doctors and visitors crowded around him for advice. Leading
businessmen also met here for business transactions. It is believed that the London
Stock Exchange had its beginnings here.

 Truby’s Coffee House was preferred by the clergy. However there were separate
coffee-houses for the Catholics , Protestants and Jews.

 The coffee-houses which were open to the high and low, became centres of free
expression. All topics, including politics and religion took shape here. There was an attempt
to close them down, but it faced a lot of opposition.

 Later during the French Revolution, the coffee-houses witnessed a lot of extreme
discussions for and against the Government. As it became a threat to the peace of the
country, coffee-houses were forced to close down.

 Coffee-houses were revived in the Victorian era and reinvented in the twentieth century
by Starbucks, Coffee Republic and Costa Coffee.

1.7 Check Your Progress

1. Renaissance means _____________.

2. Renaissance was characterized by a spirit of________________________.

3. Reformation was a ____________ movement.

4. ___________________started the Reformation.

5. The Commonwealth refers to the period from _______ to ________.

6. _________________­­­­­­­­­­became the Lord ­Protector.

7. Restoration England is the period between ________and _________.

8. _____________were the political parties formed during the Restoration period.

9. ______________ became the centre of social life in London.

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 What were the major inventions and discoveries during the renaissance?

 What was the impact of the Renaissance on English Literature?

 How did the Reformation affect the Catholic Church?

 What was the Rump Parliament?

 Write a note on the English Civil Wars.

 What is the Licensing Act?

 What were the two great calamities that England suffered in the 18thC.

 Comment on the significance of the Coffee-houses.

1.8 Summary

 Renaissance means ‘rebirth’. It refers to the revival of learning of classical literature

between the fourteenth and sixteenth century. It was a process of change in Europe from
the medieval to modern order. It began in Italy (Constantinople). The reformation is the
result of the impact of the Renaissance on religion in England. Reformation (also referred
as Protestant Reformation) is the term used to refer to the religious revolution that took
place in the western church in the 16th C. Queen Elizabeth I, founded the Church of
England. It was a compromise between the catholic and protestant doctrines. Queen
Elizabeth I of England died after 44 years of rule. King James VI of Scotland ascended
the throne, uniting England and Scotland under a single British monarch. He ruled from
1603–1625. Oliver Cromwell took the title of Lord Protector. When he died in 1658, his
son Richard Cromwell who succeeded could not continue for long. The Commonwealth
collapsed in 1660 and monarchy was restored. Charles II returned to England to become
the King. Political parties were formed during the Restoration Period. Politically the
upper class was divided into two parties; WHIGS and TORIES. The Restoration Period
witnessed two great national calamities. The Plague of 1655 and The Great Fire of 1665.
In the 17th and 18th century England, Coffee Houses became popular places for people
from different walks of life to meet, interact, chat, gossip and have fun. During the reign
of Queen Anne, in the early 18th C, the coffee-houses became the centre of social life in
London. Coffee-houses encouraged an active social life in England during the rule of
Queen Anne. It was regarded as the cradle of British Democracy.
14

 The origin of English Literature is not well recorded. The earliest written records are
those of poetry written in the Old English Period in the 5th C.

 The period between 1450 and 1550 witnessed the renewed desire for learning and
discovery, in England and all over the world. By 1550, the Renaissance had a strong
impact in England.

 Renaissance was characterized with a spirit of inquiry and a spirit of freedom of thought
and action.

 The period of Renaissance brought in great changes in English educational systems.

 The Renaissance had an impact on maritime exploration.

 Architecture underwent a classical revival all over Europe during the Renaissance.

 Reformation (also referred as Protestant Reformation) is the term used to refer to the
religious revolution that took place in the western church in the 16th C.

 MARTIN LUTHER, an ex- Augustian German monk started the Reformation Movement
on October 31, 1517.

 King Henry VIII, had supported and wrote in defense of the Catholic Church to the Pope.

 Queen Elizabeth I of England died after 44 years of rule. King James VI of Scotland
ascended the throne, uniting England and Scotland under a single British monarch.

 The Commonwealth refers to the period (1649-1660) in the post-Civil War period

 Restoration England is the period between 1660 and 1688.

 All the institutions and practices which were shut down during the previous period were
restored.

 In the 17th and 18th century England, Coffee Houses became popular places for people
from different walks of life

1.9 Answers to Check your Progress

1. rebirth.

2. inquiry and freedom of thought and action

3. religious
 15

4. Martin Luther, an Ex Augustian Monk

5. 1649 to 1660

6. Oliver Cromwell

7. 1660 and 1688

8. Whigs and Tories

9. Coffee - Houses

1.10 Review Questions

1. Discuss in detail the impact of the Renaissance on England.

2. What were the causes and effects of the Reformation on England?

3. Give an account of the political developments during the Commonwealth.

4. Elaborate on the characteristic features of the Restoration Age.

5. What was the relevance of the Coffee-houses during the reign of Queen Anne?

1.11 Reference Books

 English Social History - A Survey of Six Centuries - Chaucer to Queen Victoria by G. M.
Trevelyan

E book - https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.273135

 History of English Literature by Edward Albert

E book - https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B07bsmb1gS38blMtS3B4TEtpYlU/edit

 E References

 https://www.britannica.com

 https://www.encyclopedia.com
16

UNIT - 2
PROSE

Learning Objective

After studying this Unit, you will be able to discuss:

 This unit will introduce you to the prominent English prose writers and their styles from
the 16th to 18th C.

 It will also provide a good base to the use of English language and vocabulary.

 The development of prose during the Elizabethan times

 The essay form, its beginning in the pamphlet, character-sketch and other miscellaneous
writing that was developed by Francis Bacon

 The Restoration Age and the emergence of the middle style in prose writing in the works
of Addison and Steele.

 The English prose language that acquired a distinct style with excellent choice of vocabulary
and clarity in the hands of Goldsmith.

Structure
2.1 Introduction

2.2 On Revenge - Francis Bacon

2.2.1 About the author

2.2.2 Detailed summary

2.2.3 Select Glossary

2.3 Sir Roger at the Theatre – Joseph Addison

2.3.1 About the author

2.3.2 Detailed summary

2.3.3 Select Glossary

 17

2.4 A City Night-Piece - Oliver Goldsmith

2.4.1 About the author

2.4.2 Detailed summary

2.4.3 Select Glossary

2.5 Check Your progress

2.6 Summary

2.7 Answer to check your progress

2.8 Key words

2.9 Review Questions

2.10 Reference Books

2.1 Introduction

The English Prose was nurtured and promoted by certain writers. You will be studying
three essays by three prose writers from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries respectively in this
unit. They are representative of their period and style which has contributed to the growth of
English Prose. During Elizabethan times the development of prose was slower than poetry.The
essay form, beginning in the pamphlet, character-sketch and other miscellaneous writing was
developed by Francis Bacon. The Restoration Age saw the emergence of the middle style in
prose writing in the works of Addison and Steele.The English prose language acquired a distinct
style with excellent choice of vocabulary and clarity in the hands of Goldsmith.

2.2 On Revenge - Francis Bacon

Bacon’s “On Revenge” was written in 1625. It appeared along with the other essays
“On Envy” and “On Deformity” in the third edition of his collection, Essays. All the three essays
raise questions on ‘revenge’ which was particularly relevant to popular plays of
Shakespeare;Hamlet,King Lear, Much Ado About Nothing and Richard III,during the Elizabethan
Age.

2.2.1 About the Author

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) as a philosopher, statesman and a prominent prose

writer of the Elizabethan Age.Bacon was born in London. He was educated at Trinity college,
18

Cambridge and Gray’s Inn. He became a Member of the Parliament in 1584. However he was
not duly recognized by Queen Elizabeth. During the reign of James I, from 1603, Bacon’s
political career prospered. He was Knighted (received the title Sir) in the same year and rose
high politically and was appointed Lord Chancellor in 1618. His involvement in cases of corruption
cut short his public life and he retired to write until his death.

 Bacon was born in London. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge and Gray’s
Inn. He became a Member of the Parliament in 1584. However he was not duly recognized
by Queen Elizabeth. During the reign of James I, from 1603, Bacon’s political career
prospered. He was Knighted (received the title Sir) in the same year and rose high politically
and was appointed Lord Chancellor in 1618. His involvement in cases of corruption cut
short his public life and he retired to write until his death.

 About the essayist :Bacon wrote both in Latin and English and in keeping with the
times, he valued his Latin works as more important. Bacon’s Essays first appeared in
1597. It included ten essays. The second edition was published in 1612 with thirty-
eight essays and the third edition in 1625 with fifty-eight essays. The subjects of his
essays are philosophical reflections on familiar aspects of life. They represent the richness
of Bacon’s wisdom from his experiences in life. This makes Bacon’s Essays one of the
most learned works in English. According to Edward Albert, Bacon is ‘one of the founders
of modern systematic thought” (117). Bacon,as an essayist,was impersonal, objective,
scientific and systematic in thought and expression. His arguments examined the subjects
from different angles rather than defend them as a single idea. The language and imagery
used is relatively ordinary. The essays are concise (epigrammatic) and therefore the
words are condensed into a proverbial kind of sentences, full of meaning.Foreg. “Revenge
is a kind of wild justice; which the more man’s nature runs to, the more ought law to weed
it out.” This is referred to as aphoristic style.

2.2.2 Detailed Summary of the essay “On Revenge”

“On Revenge” is a typical argument by Bacon on the nature and relevance of revenge.
The essay opens with the declaration that any act of revenge is against law and the morals of
God and humans. According to Bacon, the one who is taking revenge is seeking “wild justice”
and therefore the more humankind seek revenge, the more the laws should control them. In
 19

the first place, the act for which the avenger is seeking justice, offends the law. But when the
avenger takes revenge for it, on his own, then law is prevented from doing its duty. When
vengeance is taken, both the avenger and his enemy are equal. But when the avenger forgives
his enemy, he becomes superior, as only someone as noble as a prince can pardon. Bacon
refers to the wise king from the Bible, King Solomon, who said that it is a glorious act to
overlook an offense (Proverbs 19:11).

Bacon goes on to argue, how one’s past is gone and cannot be changed. Therefore wise
people will concentrate on their present than waste their time, laboring on past issues. Bacon
is of the view that no human does anything wrong for the sake doing something wrong. Instead
it is for some selfish pleasure, honour or something like that. In that case, Bacon wonders why
we should become angry with someone who selfishly loves his own self over others. On the
other hand, if a person does wrong because he is ill-natured, then we must understand that it
is his nature that is dictating his actions. They are “like the thorn or briar, which prick and
scratch,” because they cannot do anything other than that.

When a particular act of revenge is not punished by law, it may be considered tolerable.
But Bacon warns that such revenge is cyclical. In such instances, it is ‘two for one’ as one who
takes revenge must live in fear of the law and counter-revenge. Also the person who was
avenged may come back seeking revenge and the cycle will continue.

Some people when they take revenge want the party to know that they are going to be
avenged. This seems to be a generous act as they seem to be delighted not by the act of
revenge but by the repentance that occurs in their enemies.

Bacon argues that “base and crafty cowards” are like the arrows that are shot in the
dark. He refers to the lines of Cosmus, the Duke of Florence, who said that the disloyal and
neglecting friends are unpardonable. Cosmus pointed out, how it has been always commanded
that we must forgive our enemies but it has never been commanded that we forgive our friends.
Yet in the Bible, we read the experiences of a rich man, Job who lost everything, including his
friends, but was good in spirit to accept his fall and be blessed for it. So he questions if it is
right on our part to be contented to accept good from God but not evil. Therefore he argues, we
must be willing to accept our friends, both good and bad in equal proportion.
20

Bacon is certain that a person who keeps thinking of revenge is one who keeps his
wounds green and unhealed. If forgotten, those wounds would be healed and do good for all
involved.

Bacon concludes his essay, by explaining how public revenge is fortunate but private
revenge is unfortunate. Public revenges, for the death of Cæsar, the death of Pertinax, the
death of Henry the Third of France and many more turned fortunate in the interest of the
nation. However private acts of revenge leave the unkind avengers, like witches, in an unfortunate
state of life as their revenge is neither morally or legally unacceptable.

2.2.3 Select Glossary:

 Weed - remove an inferior or unwanted component of a group or collection.

 Irrevocable - not able to be changed, reversed, or recovered; final.

 Trifle - A thing of little value or importance or to talk or act frivolously.

 Briar - Any of a number of prickly scrambling shrubs, especially a wild rose.

 Crafty - clever at achieving one’s aims by indirect or deceitful methods.

 Perfidious - deceitful and untrustworthy.

 Vindictive - having or showing a strong or unreasoning desire for revenge.

 Infortunate - of a planet, etc.: exercising a malign influence

2.3 SIR ROGER AT THE THEATRE by Joseph Addison

 The Tatler and the Spectator: It is important to know about these two periodicals, for
Addison’s essays were mostly published here. Addison’s friend, Steele first published
The Tatler. It was at first a newspaper that presented the political, social and cultural
news of London. It soon carried analysis of the English manners and society. In course of
time, the general public depended on its reports to estimate ideal behavior and conduct.
The first issue of The Tatler appeared on April 12, 1709. Addison wrote more than 40
essays of the total 271 essays in The Tatler, which Steele brought to a close on January
2, 1711.
 21

 Addison published a new periodical The Spectator from March1, 1711 to Decemeber
6, 1712. It came out six days of a week. Addison contributed around 270 essays, discussing
both serious and light topics. The Spectator was hugely successful that it brought learning
“out of closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at
tea-tables, and in coffee-houses.” The Spectator sold more than 3000 copies daily. Its
555 essays were later collected and published as seven volumes. An eight volume with
an added 80 numbers was published.

 The Spectator was a daily paper founded by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in
England. It was first published in 1711. Through the essays that were published in the
paper, the eighteenth century readers were introduced to the members of “The Club”.
One of the most significant character among them was ‘a gentleman of Worcestershire’,
who was of ancient descent and a baronet, Sir Roger de Coverley .The Spectator is the
narrator in the essays who narrates the various events in Sir Roger’s life in
eighteenth century England.

2.3.1 About the Author

Joseph Addison (16 72 – 1719 ) was an English essayist, poet and dramatist during
the Restoration Period. Along with Richard Steele, he was a leading contributor to the
periodicals, The Tatler The Spectator. He did his schooling in Amesbury and Salisbury and at
Lichfield Grammar School. When he was 14 he enrolled in the Charterhouse in London where
he met Richard Steele. In later years their friendship led them to become literary collaborators.
After completing his masters from the Oxford University, Addison spent years as a tutor in
preparation to become a Man of Letters. “A Poem to His Majesty” written in 1695 and “The
Campaign” in 1704 brought him a lot of recognition. His scholarship was noticed by the Whig
leaders and they used his literary abilities in favour of their political ambitions. Addison soon
received a grant to travel and enter the government service. In 1708 Addison was elected to
Parliament for Lostwithiel in Cornwall, and later in the same year he was made secretary to the
Earl of Wharton, Ireland. He went on to receive many official appointments and pensions until
he died in 1719.

 Joseph Addison as an Essayist: Addison’s essays are categorized as ‘periodical essays’.

The periodical essay is a genre that flourished between 1709 1nd 1759 in England. It
22

reached its prime status through Addison and Steele’s TatlerandSpectator. His periodical
essays were social documents of the 18th C English life of the middle-class society.
Addison’s essays became highly influential particularly in the development of the English
Novel. The Spectator also became popular for Addison’s brilliant literary descriptions of
the members of the Spectator Club. He portrayed human characters realistically in figures
such as Roger de Coverley, Captain Sentry , Sir Andrew Freeport as the narrator and the
Spectator. Important sections of contemporary society were brought alive through these
depictions. According to English historian John Courthope , “He (Addison) perfected
English prose as an instrument for the expression of social thought.’’ Addison’s
language was refined like the kind used by the people in the clubs and coffee-houses.
Dr. Johnson said that, “His(Addison’s)prose is the model of the middle style; on
grave subjects not formal, on light occasions not grovelling; pure without
scrupulosity, and extra without apparent elaboration; always equable, and always
tempter, he performed; he is never feebler, and he did not wish to be energetic; he
is never rapid, and he never stagnates. His sentences have nether not diligently
rounded, are voluble and easy.”

2.3.2 Detailed Summaryand analysis

Sir Roger told the narrator (the spectator) that, he had a great mind to see a new tragedy
because he had not watched a play for the past twenty years. The last play that he watched
was ‘The Committee’ which he regretted and had gone only because he was told that it was a
good Church of England comedy. Sir Roger found out that the play that they were going to see
was ‘The Distressed Mother’ by Ambrose Philips. When Roger heard that the distressed mother
was Hector’s widow, he told that her husband was brave and that as a school boy he had read
about him.

Roger was then concerned about their safety while coming home late after the play. He
was scared of the Mohocks who almost attacked him the previous night. He had observed that
a few of them followed him half way up Fleet Street. He managed to dodge them and escape.
This incident made him remember an honest gentleman in his neighbourhood who had a
similar experience during the reign of King Charles II. After that the gentleman never went out
in the town alone. Roger then added, that as he was an old fox-hunter he was capable of
playing many tricks on the attackers.
 23

Roger then suggested that if Captain Sentry was free the next night, he could also join
him along with the narrator for the play. They could all reach Roger’s house at four o’ clock and
reach the playhouse before it was full. Roger offered to keep his coach ready as John, the
coach driver had mended the fore wheels and kept it ready.

As planned, the Captain met them at the appointed time. The captain assured Sir Roger
not to fear because he had worn the same sword that he had used at the battle of Steenkirk. Sir
Roger’s servants and the old butler were provided good oaken plants for protecting their master.
Roger was made to sit in the coach, with the narrator to his left, the Captain before him and his
butler at the head of his footmen behind. Thus they took him safely to the playhouse where
they marched up to the entry in order. The captain and the narrator made Sir Roger to sit
between them in the pit.

As soon as the house was full, the candles were lighted. Sir Roger stood up and looked
around with pleasure at all the people who gathered there to be part of the entertainment.
When Pyrrhus entered, Sir Roger told that he felt that he had a better manner of walking than
the King of France. The narrator listened to Sir Roger’s remarks as he felt they were ‘a piece of
natural criticism’. He was also pleased to hear him at the end of every scene wondering how
the play would end. Sir Roger was concerned for Andromache and Hermione and was extremely
puzzled about Pyrrhus’ fate.

As the play continued, Roger was annoyed to watch the adamant Andromache, a widow,
refusing to accept her lover, Pyrrhus’s pleadings to go with him. He whispered into the Spectator’s
ears that she will never get him and that it is difficult to handle a widow. When Pyrrhus threatened
that he was leaving, Roger nodded his head and said to himself, that he should leave if he
could. This portion of the play caught Roger’s imagination, which he kept thinking about even
at the end of the third act. Roger leant towards the narrator who was thinking of something
else, and remarked how widows are the most stubborn creatures in the world. After that, Roger
asked the narrator his opinions as a critic, whether the play was following the dramatic rules
and whether everything should be self-explanatory in a tragedy. Here, Roger was actually
critical that there was nothing left to his imagination in the play as he seems to have understood
each line that was spoken.
24

Before the Spectator could answer Roger’s question, the fourth act began. With great
satisfaction, he expected to see Hector’s ghost. He kept paying attention to the play and now
and then started praising the widow. Then, Roger made a mistake by wrongly identifying one of
her child assistants in the play as Astyanax but quickly corrected himself. Roger, however
wished he had seen Astyanax on stage, who from what he had read, is a very fine child. Finally
when Hermione goes with Pyrrhus, Roger commented that she was going to be a threat and a
burden to him.

There were long silence and stillness during the intervals between the acts in the play.
During this time the audience expressed between them their opinions of the actors and their
roles. When Sir Roger heard some of them praise the character of Orestes, he interrupted and
told them that he considered Orestes’ friend Pylades to be a more sensible man. Another time,
when they were appreciating Pyrrhus, Sir Roger, gave his opinion that he also liked the old
fellow with whiskers in the play, although he had only a few lines to speak. Captain Sentry
noticed two or three youngsters lean attentively towards Sir Roger. He pulled him away by his
elbow and whispered something into his ears, that kept him quiet until the fifth act of the play.
Sir Roger was very attentive to the scene where Orestes gave an account of Pyrrhus’ death.
He understood that it was violent and told the Captain that he was glad that they did not enact
it on the stage. Later on seeing Orestes’ angry and wild he became more serious and used the
occasion to moralize in his own manner about the effects of having an evil conscience. He
added that the angry Orestes appeared as though he saw something in front of him.

The play ended, and as Sir Roger and his company entered first they were the last to
leave the play house. They were careful to protect Sir Roger from the crowd. Sir Roger was
fully satisfied with the entertainment and he was taken to his home with the same care with
which he was brought to the play house. The narrator (the spectator) was also highly pleased
with himself not only because of the excellent performance of the play but for the satisfaction
it gave to the good old man, Sir Roger.

 In the Coverley Essays, Sir Roger has been characterized vividly by Joseph Addison and
Richard Steele. Sir Roger is presented in these essays as kind, generous, lovable and
sometimes as a peculiar person. Although he is gentle and mild in nature and lovable to
people, he has some eccentricities and oddities. But the main intention of Mr. Spectator
 25

was to correct the society, to reform every corner of life by presenting the character Sir
Roger. The essay“ Sir Roger at the Theatre” reflects the ‘society during the
Restoration Period’. The spectator describes the preparations and experiences
that involves Sir Roger’s visit to the theatre.

2.3.3 Select Glossary:

 Mohocks - one of a gang of aristocratic ruffians who assaulted people in London streets
in the early 18th century.

 Lusty -Healthy and strong; full of vigour.

 Mend - Improve (an unpleasant situation)

 Convoy -A group of vehicles travelling together, typically one accompanied by armed

troops, warships, or other vehicles for protection.

 Strut - A stiff, erect, and apparently arrogant manner of walking.

 Perverse - Showing a deliberate desire to behave in a way that is unreasonable or

unacceptable.

 Raving- Irrational or incoherent talk.

 Menace – a person or thing that is likely to cause harm; a threat or danger.

2.4 A CITY NIGHT PIECE by Oliver Goldsmith

2.4.1 About the Author

Oliver Goldsmith (1730-1774), was an Irish poet, essayist, dramatist and novelist of the
18th C. He belonged to the transition period before the Romantic Movement. There are doubts
about his birth place but it recorded that his father was a farmer and clergyman. After his early
education from home, a shy and awkward looking Goldsmith joined Trinity College in 1744
from where he just managed to graduate. He tried his hand at various careers and roamed
around unstable in manner and attire. When he returned to England in 1756, after being
unsuccessful in earning a living, he took to writing as a last chance. However his writings were
noticed by the renowned author-critic, Dr. Johnson and politician, Charles James Fox and that
brought him recognition. Horace Walpole described Goldsmith as an “inspired idiot”
26

 About the essay and essayist: Goldsmith was a prolific writer. Among his large collection
of prose works, The Citizen of the World (1759) - from a Chinese Philosopher Residing in
London to his Friends in the East is a series of imaginary letters from a Chinese traveller,
which was contributed to a popular magazine of that time, The Public Ledger. The letters
commented on the English society, its manners, literature, laws and institutions.
Goldsmith’s whimsical and satirical writing brought him recognition as a ‘man of letters’.
“The City Night Piece” is part of the Chinese letters. Just like the other letters, it is
noteworthy for its fine observation and kind satire. There is ease and elegance in his
language that it is natural in expression.

2.4.2 DetailedSummary of the essay with critical analysis

The essay opens with the descriptions of the scenes around a city in the middle of the
night. It was two in the morning. The burning candle was sinking into its wax socket; the
watchman missed the time as he slept; the hardworking and happy people were sound asleep
and nothing could wake them except deep thinking, guilt, merry making or despair. The drunkard
was repeatedly filling his bowl and destroying himself; the robber was doing his midnight round;
the one who was attempting suicide was feeling guilty and attacking his own self.

The essayist feels he should no longer waste the night writing a page about the past or
the activities of the genius of those days but instead follow the solitary night. He personifies
vanity as an ever changing woman who walked before him a few hours ago, displaying her
glory and soon like a difficult child seemed quiet and sulky with her demands. Just like that the
same city that lay quiet now, had displayed its greatness with pride and glory a few hours ago.

But now at night, gloom seems to be spread all around. The only light came from a dying
lamp was emitting a yellow ray of light. There was no other sound heard, except that of the
clock that struck the time or the growls of a dog far away. All the human activities of pride were
forgotten that the essayist observes that a midnight hour like this clearly displays the uselessness
of human pride and self-importance.

He feels there might come a time when this temporary loneliness may become permanent.
Then the city like its inhabitants may fade away and appear like a desert. The essayist exclaims
how cities as great as the one in which he is, have in the past have been successful and
 27

triumphant. They were proud of their victories which they celebrated with great joy. They saw
no end to their glories and foolishly assumed that their cities would enjoy its great status
eternally. The greatness of some of the cities which were as great as the one the essayist was
referring to can hardly be recognized today. So the essayist feels that the future generation
would never know the past glory of certain cities. A sorrowful traveller may wander over the
ruins of old cities and as he observes them learns the wisdom that all greatness is temporary.
He will understand that the life of all earthly possessions is short.

The traveller is excited to discover various spots in the ruins of the city where great
structures stood in the past. The beautiful citadel now has overgrown weeds over it. The majestic
senate house has become a place for poisonous snakes. The huge theatres which stood there
were reduced to a heap of stone and rubble. According to the essayist, all these structures
were destroyed mainly because they were made weak by the extravagance and greed of its
people. The rewards of the cities were given away for entertainment and not for good causes
to benefit society. The wealth and magnificence of the city attracted the invaders who were at
first defeated but after repeated attacks conquered the city and looted it to unrecognizable
destruction.

The essayist returns his thoughts to the lonely streets of the city which were crowded a
few hours ago. The people who were on the streets in the night moved around without pretense
or any attempt to hide their real self and sorrow.

Our attention is then drawn to those people in the night who sleep on the streets and find
a brief relief from their sorrowful condition as they lie down on the doors of the rich. The
essayist sarcastically remarks that they are the strangers, wanderers and orphans whose
conditions are too low to expect any compensation and their sorrows are so great that they do
not receive pity. In fact, he says, their pathetic condition horrifies others instead of being pitied.
Some of them are without clothes and some others and affected with disease. Unfortunately
the society is ignoring their distress and has allowed them to continue living naked and hungry.
Among these are the poor shivering women who lived happy lives and received praises for
their beauty. They gave pleasure to the young and jolly rich youth of that time but were now
thrown in the streets in the cold winter. Perhaps as they now lie on the doors of those who
cheated them, they may be appealing to them. In response either they are ignored by those
28

unreasonable people or are cursed by those who derived pleasure from them. None of them
show interest in saving them from their poor condition.

The essayist questions in desperation why in spite of being born as a human being he is
not able to save the poor from their sufferings. He pities the homeless people who are criticized
by the world but who are not offered any relief from their poor conditions. In contrast, the
smallest troubles of the great people or the imagined problems of the rich are exaggerated
through words and brought to the attention and sympathy of the world. Meanwhile, the poor cry
without being noticed and are oppressed by even the lowest human in power. Here every law
that protects others becomes an enemy to the poor.

The essay concludes with Goldsmith wondering why his heart was made to be so
emotionally sensitive or why he was not wealthy enough to do all that his heart wants him to do.
He tells how feeling sympathetic without the capability to help only makes the man who feels
sympathetic more worthless than the person who actually needs help.

2.4.3 Select Glossary

 Taper – a slender candle.

 Revelry - lively and noisy festivities, especially when these involve drinking a large amount
of alcohol.

 Sally - a sudden charge out of a besieged place against the enemy; a sortie.

 Froward - (of a person) difficult to deal with; contrary.

 Pageant - Something regarded as a series of interesting and varied events.

 Importunity - Persistence, especially to the point of annoyance.

 Chime - a melodious ringing sound produced by striking a set of chimes.

 Posterity - all future generations of people.

 Transience - the state or fact of lasting only for a short time

 Sublunary - Belonging to this world as contrasted with a better or more spiritual one.

 Noxious - Harmful, poisonous, or very unpleasant.

 29

 Avarice - extreme greed for wealth or material gain.

 Opulent – wealthy, costly and luxurious.

 Repulse -the action of driving back an attack or of being driven back.

 Defendant - an individual, company, or institution sued or accused in a court of law.

 Lewd - Crude and offensive in a sexual way.

 Redress - Remedy or set right (an undesirable or unfair situation)

 Emaciated - Abnormally thin or weak, especially because of illness or a lack of food.

 Debauchee - A person given to excessive indulgence in sex, alcohol, or drugs.

 Adieu- Goodbye.

2.5 Check your progress

1. Francis Bacon belonged to the______ age.

2. The essay “On Revenge” was published in ___________.

3. Joseph Addison belonged to the _____________ age.

4· Addison and Steele popularized the ___________ essay.

5· “Sir Roger at the Theatre” was published in the _____________

6· “The City Night Piece” is part of the _______ letters

2.6 Summary

“On Revenge” is a typical argument by Bacon on the nature and relevance of revenge.
The essay opens with the declaration that any act of revenge is against law and the morals of
God and humans. According to Bacon, the one who is taking revenge is seeking “wild justice”
and therefore the more humankind seek revenge, the more the laws should control them.Bacon
is certain that a person who keeps thinking of revenge is one who keeps his wounds green and
unhealed. If forgotten, those wounds would be healed and do good for all involved.

“Sir Roger at the Theatre” is a typical prose piece where sir Roger had a great mind
to see a new tragedy because he had not watched a play for the past twenty years. The last
play that he watched was ‘The Committee’ which he regretted and had gone only because he
30

was told that it was a good Church of England comedy.Sir Roger found out that the play that
they were going to see was ‘The Distressed Mother’ by Ambrose Philips.

“The City Night Piece” The essay opens with the descriptions of the scenes around a
city in the middle of the night. It was two in the morning. The burning candle was sinking into its
wax socket; the watchman missed the time as he slept; the hardworking and happy people
were sound asleep and nothing could wake them except deep thinking, guilt, merry making or
despair.The traveller is excited to discover various spots in the ruins of the city where great
structures stood in the past. The beautiful citadel now has overgrown weeds over it.He feels
ashamed to be called a man when he sees woman being sold on streets due to their poverty.He
prays to God that either his heart or fortunes should change so that he can do something for
the sufferers.

 The English Prose was nurtured and promoted by certain writers. The three essays by
three prose writers from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries respectively in this unit. They are
representative of their period and style which has contributed to the growth of English
Prose. As a literary form, English Prose came after Poetry. English Prose rose to a
position of importance during the period after Renaissance. Latin prose writing was
replaced by English prose which soon acquired a tradition and universal application. The
prose works in the Restoration Age of the 17th C were mainly on literary criticism, political,
historical, theological and other miscellaneous subjects. The 18th C was an age of great
prose writingswhen ornamental language was replaced with lucid prose.

 Of Revenge by Francis Bacon is a short but meaningful essay that carries the author
personal views about the great upsurge of nowadays society that is “revenge”. Bacon
starts the essay by calling revenge as animalistic behavior by using the words “wild
justice”. By ignoring or forgiving the wrong done to one by other makes a person superior
to other as it is the quality of kings and prince to forgive others. By forbearing others, one
makes a respectable place in the society.

 The essay “ Sir Roger at the Theatre” reflects the society during the Restoration Period’.
The spectator describes the preparations and experiences that involves Sir Roger’s visit
to the theatre.
 31

 “The City Night Piece” is part of the Chinese letters. The essayist feels he should no
longer waste the night writing a page about the past or the activities of the genius of
those days but instead follow the solitary night. He personifies vanity as an ever changing
woman who walked before him a few hours ago, displaying her glory and soon like a
difficult child seemed quiet and sulky with her demands.

2.7 Answers to check your progress

1. Elizabethan age

2. 1597

3. Restoration period

4. Periodical essay

5. The Spectator

6. Chinese

2.8 Key words

 Aphorisms are short sentences that express a truth in the fewest possible words.
Aphoristic style refers to a compact and epigrammatic style of writing.

 Periodical essay is an essay that is relatively short and published in a periodical or

paper. It mostly appears as part of a series periodically in a magazine or newspaper.
This type of essay flourished in the 18th C. Notable periodical essayists of the 18th century
include Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Samuel Johnson, and Oliver Goldsmith

2.9 Review Questions

1· Write a brief note on the theme of the essay, “On Revenge”

2· Comment on Bacon’s aphoristic style.

3· Sketch the character of Sir Roger.

4· How does Addison’s essay throw light on the society of his time?

5· How is vanity personified by Goldsmith?

32

6· What are Goldsmith’s comments on human values?

7· What are Bacon’s arguments about revenge in his essay “On Revenge”?

8· Write an essay on the contribution of Addison to the development of the English Essay.

9· How does Goldsmith describe the city and what is the significance?

2.10 Reference Books

 The Great English Essayists: With Introductory Essays and Notes-Lights of

literatureVolume 3 of Reader’s library. [vol. III], Editors William James Dawson, Coningsby
Dawson, Publisher Harper & brothers, 1909.

 English Literature: Writers and Literary Forms by Helen Hopkins Crandell

 Web source for Bacon’s “On Revenge” : http://www.bartleby.com/3/1/4.html

 Web source for Addison’s “Sir Roger..” : http://www.bartleby.com/209/673.html

 Web source for Goldsmith’s “A City…” :

http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Essays/Best/GoldsmithCity.htm

For a detailed account of the English social and political background and the authors you
can refer to https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/

https://www.britannica.com/biographyhttps://www.encyclopedia.com

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history

E Reference :

The Development of the Prose Style :

https://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/nael/noa/pdf 27636_16u71Topicin.1_
9.tp.pdf
 33

UNIT - 3
POETRY

Learning Objective
 This unit will help you to understand the dominant themes and the nuances of the English
language that ruled poetry during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

 The texts of representative prose writers from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

 The influence of Renaissance on English literature and the subsequent influence of

classicism.

 Poetry thrived through these three centuries, and saw the best of poets produce the best
of English poetry.

 The beginning of English poetry that grew to adapt classical poetic styles to influence
various poets.

Structure
3.1 Introduction

3.2 Prothalamion by Edmund Spenser

3.2.1 Detailed Summary and critical analysis

3.2.2 Select glossary

3.3 Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer’s Day by William Shakespeare

3.3.1 About the poem

3.3.2 Detailed summary of the poem

3.4 A Valediction Of Weeping by John Donne

3.4.1 Detailed summary of the poem

3.4.2 Select glossary

3.5 Paradise Lost – Book IX (Lines 799-833) by John Milton

3.5.1 Detailed summary of the poem

3.5.2 Select glossary

34

3.6 The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope (Canto III)

3.6.1 Detailed summary of the poem

3.6.2 Select glossary

3.7 Check your progress

3.8 Summary

3.9 Answers to check your progress

3.10 Key Words

3.10 Review Questions

3.11 Reference books

3.1 Introduction

The Renaissance introduced themes and verse structures from other European traditions
and the classical literature of Greek and Latin.Queen Elizabeth patronized poetry and this saw
the emergence of poems idealizing the courtly world.The sonnet as a poetic form acquired
popularity.The advances in science and philosophy and the religious conflicts were reflected in
the poems of the time.

 When poetry was restored, the classical form became a standard

 Satire and wit were used in poetry.

 The beginning of English Prosody.

3.2 PROTHALAMION by Edmund Spenser

 About the poet: Edmund Spenser (1552-1599)is ranked as the greatest Renaissance
poet of the 16th C. His parentage is unknown but is considered to be a part of the Spenser
family. He was educated at Merchant Taylor’s School and Cambridge. In 1579 he became
a member of a famous literary circle that included Sir Philip Sidney. Sidney encouraged
Spenser’s poetical skills and introduced him to the Queen. This gave Spenser the post of
secretary to Lord Grey de Wilton, Lord-Deputy of Ireland. For eighteen years he continued
to serve the English Government and witnessed the many outbreaks of misery, rage and
rebellion and ultimately became its victim.
 35

The Shepheards Calendar (1579) was the first of his poems. In 1591, a volume of
miscellaneous poems appeared. Eighty-eight Petrarchan sonnets written by Spenser
was published as Amoretti, in 1595 and in the same year came Epithalamion a
magnificient ode. The Faerie Queene(1590, 1596), an allegorical epic poem is the most
important of Spenser’s works.

 About the poem: Prothalamionappeared in 1596. It is referred to as a Spousall Verse.

It was written in honour of the double marriage of two honourable and virtuous ladies; the
LadyElizabeth and Lady Katherine Somerset, Daughters to the Earl of Worcester and
were getting married to two worthy gentlemen M. Henry Gilford, and M. William Peter,
Esquires. Spenser is making an attempt to please the Queen, through this poem.
“Prothalamion” is a classic example of a wedding song. It is modeled on Spenser’s first
wedding song “Epithalamion” which was written for his own marriage.

3.2.1 Detailed Summary and critical analysis

“Prothalamion” begins with Spenser describing the calm day and its sweet air that played
gently on his spirit by keeping away the hot beams of the sun. It was a time when Spenser was
unhappy with his fruitless services in the royal court. His brain was numb with pain as his
expectations and hopes about life were shattered. It was in this state of mind that he walked on
the banks of the River Thames in London. The beauty of the day and the scene inspired him to
write this poem. The poet then proceed to describe the beauty of River Thames and its
surroundings. The water flowing in the river was silvery. The groovy bank bordered the river
and was filled with various flowers. The green meadows nearby were decorated with delicate
flowers that appeared like gems. These flowers were good enough to decorate the bowers of
maidens and could also be used to crown the heads of their lovers. The poet asks the river to
run softly through the wedding day, which is near and till he completes the wedding song.

The second stanza, introduces the nymphs. On the grassland, near the river, the poet
by chance noticed a flock of nymphs. They appeared to belong to the riverside. Each of them
had lovely greenish hair which was not tied, as if each were a bride. They all carried a small
closely woven cane basket, into which they put the gathered flowers until it was full. Their
lovely fingers cut the stalks of every kind of flower that grew there; like the pale blue violet, the
36

tiny daisy, the pure lily, the faithful primrose and the red roses. All these were meant to be used
for the bridegroom’s bouquet, for the wedding day was near. The poet ends the stanza with the
same request to River Thames to run softly until he ends the song.

In the third stanza, the poet describes the two swans of a heavenly kind that he sees on
the river. They seem to swim smoothly along the shadows in the river. He feels he has not ever
before seen two beautiful swans like them. They were as white as snow. And here he explains
that their whiteness was as intense as the snow found on the high peaks of Mount Pindus.
Here he makes an allusion to the Roman God of the sky, Jove. He says even Jove who disguised
as a swan to seduce Leda, would not have been aspurely white as these swans he spotted on
the Thames. The poet imagines that the gentle river on which they swam thought the river was
too rough for them. So it appears as though the river has asked its water vapours not to wet
and spoil their silky white feathers. The river did not want the not so clean waters to stain their
bright feathers that shone like the lights of heaven. Once again the stanza ends with the poet
asking the river to run softly until he completes his song.

Soon, in the fourth stanza, we are told that the nymphs who now gathered all the flowers
they needed ran quickly to see the silver white swans as they came floating on the sparkling
waters. When they saw the swans, they were amazed and their eyes were filled with wonder.
The beauty of the swans made them decide that they were from heaven, perhaps the same
heavenly pair of swans that drew the chariot of the Roman goddess, Venus. They were sure
that the swans were not born on earth, but were angels or born of angels. Yet it was said that
the swans were actually bred by the Somersets, in the best season when all the flowers and
weeds on earth were in fresh display. Even the wedding day seemed to be a day as fresh as
that and so River Thames is asked by the poet to run softly until he ends his song. It indirectly
indicates that the swans are the brides, the daughters of Somerset, Earl of Worcester.

In the fifthstanza, the poet narrates how the nymphs took their baskets full of sweet
smelling glorious flowers from the field and threw it on the heavenly swans. It was soon scattered
on the waves of the river waters. The river at that point appeared like the great river Peneus, as
it flowed through the Tempe valley. The allusion is to river Peneus, named after the Greek
River God, in Thessaly, Greece. The sight also looked like the floor of a bride’s room, all
scattered with flowers. Meanwhile two of the nymphs had tied two garlands from the fresh
 37

flowers they had found in the meadow. They had crowned their white foreheads with these
garlands. While one of them sang, in preparation for the wedding day which was not too far
away, the poet yet again requests the river to flow softly as he ends his song.

In the sixth stanza, it becomes clear that the poet was using the swans as symbols for
the beautiful brides. He addresses the birds (brides) as the most beautiful ornament of the
world and the glory of heavens. The poet announces that the happy hour would be leading
them to the happy homes of their lovers. One of the nymphs wishes them joy and a peaceful
heart which comes along with true love. Also they are wished to have the Goddess of Love,
Venus and her son, Cupid smile upon them. It is believed that Cupid’s smile can remove all evil
from them. They are further wished with eternal peace to hold their hearts and be blessed with
abundance. Finally, the nymph asks for marital pleasures that bless them with children who will
defend them and be the source of renewed happiness. This stanza also ends with the river
being asked to run softly till the song ends.

The nymph concluded her wish, and in the seventh stanza, all the other nymphs went to
her and repeated her song which said that the wedding day was not too far away. The echoes
of their song were heard in the surroundings. The joyous birds who flew across the meadowland,
chirped softly as if they had forgotten their language. The river showed its affection to the
brides by running slowly. Meanwhile all the other fowls in the river gathered around these two
swans. The poet describes how in the middle of all of them, the two swans put to shame, the
well-known beauty of the Greek goddess of Moon, Cynthia. Thus they arranged around the
swans and attended on them in good service. The description can be understood as the brides
arriving with their maids around them. As in the previous stanzas, even this ends with the
poet’s request to the river.

In the eighth stanza, the wedding party reaches London. This leads the poet to think
about his associations with the vibrant city, London. He refers to the city as a kind nurse which
gave him the first opportunities in life. Although he was not a native of London, as he belonged
to the house of Spenser from Althrop, he was treated well by the city. He remembers the
buildings of The Temple on the banks of Thames, where lawyers now stayed. Another grand
building that stood there was from where he received many gifts and recognition from the Earl
of Essex, when he stayed there during his early years. The poet openly states that he missed
38

the Earl’s warmth and friendship as he is had no friends now. Then quickly he warns himself
not to think of old sorrows but to speak of the joys of a wedding day. So as the wedding day is
almost there he asks the river to flow softly and as he ends the song.

The poet continues his thoughts about London, in the ninth stanza. He elaborates that
the Temple was now occupied by the second Earl of Essex and referred to him as the great
glory of England. His name was feared even in Spain that even the strong Pillars of Hercules,
the Greek demi-God, would shake in fear of his name. The poet, then showers praises on him,
calling the Earl, a noble branch of honour and a product of courage that brought England great
fame with his victories. He wishes the Earl, joy and happiness and through him the poet hopes
to see England saved from all foreign attacks. This will make the name of the great Queen
Elizabeth famous all over the world. And finally he hopes that some poet would sing the glory
for the next generations to know. He is once again reminded of the approaching wedding day
and his request to the river is repeated.

In the final stanza,the poet returns from his thoughts and praises. He compares the
arrival of the bridegroomsto the rising of the bright evening star, Hesper in the sky. The
bridegrooms appeared like a radiant star with golden hair and cleansed in the vapours of the
ocean. They came down to the river in full view with a long procession following them. Above
all theothers, the handsome faces of the bridegrooms, the two gentle knights, appeared princely
with all qualities required to marry the noble ladies. The poet further compares them to the
heavenly twins of the Sky God, Jove, who are bright representatives of the constellation Gemini
in the astrological calendar. The two bridegrooms, walked down and received their beautiful
brides, who were their love and happiness. At the decided time, the wedding will take place
soon and for one last time the poet asks the river to glide softly until he ends the poem.

 “ Prothalamion” (1596) was written by Spenser at a time when he was disappointed with
life and when his visits to London became rare.The poem at the surface level seems to
be celebrating the brides but it also refers to Spenser’s discontentment. Therefore the
tone varies from happy to pensive. The theme of the poem appears to be a pre-wedding
song, but it is a more personal one. Spenser directs his thoughts from the coming wedding
to his pain of being neglected by the new Earl. The references to the Earls reflect Spenser’s
discontent with the Temple and the achievements of the second Earl of Essex. It is clear
 39

that the poet through his lines of praise was trying to please the Queen and win her
favour. The poet who would sing the Queen’s glory to the next generation was none
other than Spenser.

 Although the poem is modeled on his marriage ode, “Epithalamion”, it does not possess
the same joyful tone. However the metrical quality of the poem is as good as the previous
ode. The stanzas are an adaptation of the Italian canzone which has 18 lines with a
varying rhyme scheme. Each stanza in “Prothalamion” has eighteen lines with the rhyme
scheme, abbaacdcddeefeffgg, and ends with a refrain. “Prothalamion” is highly lyrical
and the refrain adds to the effect. Spenser blends the allusions from mythology and
reality. These references exalt his poetic style. The poetic skills of the descriptions in
‘Prothalamion” has made it a memorable Spenserian poem.

3.2.2 Select Glossary

 Zephyrs

 Titan

 Rutty - long narrow cuts on the surface of the ground.

 Bowers – a pleasant shady place under the trees or climbing plants in a garden or wood

 Nymphs - a mythological spirit of nature imagined as a beautiful maiden found near rivers,

 woods, or other locations.

 Flasket - a long shallow basket

 feateously. - Skillfully.

 Lee- Meadowland. Hence the Thames Valley.

 Pindus - a high mountain range in central Greece

 Eftsoons - soon after

 Somersheat- A pun on the name Somerset.

 Shend- Put to shame.

 those bricky towers -The Temple, a group of buildings on the north bank of the Thames in
London, originally the residence of the Knights Templars (a military and religious order,),
and occupied, since 1346, by a society of lawyers.
40

 In November, 1596 Spenser was staying with the Earl of Essex, at Essex House, where
he had lived in former years, while it belonged to Leicester.

 that great lord - Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (1532-1588).

 a noble peer - Robert Devereux, second Earl of Essex (1567-1601), stepson of the Earl of
Leicester and his successor in the Queen’s favour.

 An expedition led by Essex captured Cadiz, June 22, 1596.

 Hercules’ two pillars - Gibraltar and Jebel Musa (Apes’ Hill); in classical geography, Calpe
and Abyla, the twin rocks which guard the entrance to the Mediterranean.

 Hesper - The planet Venus.

 The twins of Jove -Castor and Pollux. Also known as the Gemini twins

 Baldric - The reference here is to the zodiac.

3.3 SHALL I COMPARE THEE TO A SUMMER’S DAY

by William Shakespeare

 About the poet: William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was not only a dramatist but also a
poet of the Elizabethan Age. Apart from his poems, “Venus and Adonis” (1593) and “The
Rape of Lucrece” (1594) he has written almost 154 sonnets that were first published all
together in a quarto in 1609. He popularized the English sonnet form which also came to
be called as the Shakespearean Sonnet.

3.3.1 About the poem

“Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer’s Day”is Shakespeare’s Sonnet No. 18. His
sonnets reflect his personal life to some extent. The first 17 sonnets are considered to be
addressed to a young man. The last sonnets were written for Shakespeare’s mistress who was
unknown and was referredto as “Dark Lady”. The middle sonnets, which includes Sonnet 18
are love poems directed to a young man. Shakespeare’s relationship with this young man is
not clear. Therefore there is a lot of confusion regarding gender of the lover in the poem, and
so is usually referred to as ‘beloved’. Shakespeare integrates the theme of love, time and
nature in the sonnet.
 41

3.3.2 Detailed Summary and critical analysis:

The poet opens the poem, by asking whether he could compare his beloved to a summer’s
day. This doubt arises in his mind because although summer is the most loved season in
England, he considered the ways of his beloved far more superior than a summer day. Having
said this, the poet in the next eleven lines compares the summer and his beloved to prove his
argument. According to the poet, what mainly differentiated the two is that his beloved is
lovelier and of better temperament than summer days. Rough winds shake the delicate flower
buds in the summer month of May. Also summer is too short a season. And during summer, the
eye of heaven, that is the sun, keeps changing. At times it is very hot and at other times, dim.
So the poet argues that his beloved’s love is neither harsh like the summer winds or brief and
unpredictable like the sun. Further, the summer sun’s golden colour fades as autumn
approaches. All things beautiful lose their beauty either by chance or by the changes brought
in by the course of time. Unlike the summer season, the poet asserts that their love shall last
forever like an everlasting summer. He is equally confident that his beloved’s beauty will also
be not lost.

 Above all, the poet assures that even death cannot wipe his beloved from memory since
his beloved will continue to live through his lines of poetry. The poem concludes with the
poet’s declaration that, as long as humans live on this earth and be able to read, his
poem shall live and also give life to his beloved.

 This sonnet is one of the most loved sonnets of Shakespeare for its lyrical quality and
simplicity of theme. The various comparisons made between the summer and the beloved,
personifies summer.The reference to the rough shake of the buds by the winds, personify
the winds. The sun is personified as the “eye of heaven” with “gold complexion.

 Sonnet 18 is a typical Shakespearean sonnet with fourteen lines written in regular

iambic pentameter. It is divided into three quatrains and ends with a rhyming couplet.
The quatrains are expressions of love. The ninth line, like in all Shakespearean sonnets
shifts in tone to a philosophical thought in the final couplet. From his expressions about
the hot summer he shifts to describe the immortality of his beloved. The rhyme scheme
is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
42

3.4 A VALEDICTION OF WEEPING by John Donne

 About the poet: John Donne (1573-1631)was a leading English poet of the Elizabethan
age. He was born into a Roman Catholic family during an anti-catholic period in English
history. He went to the Oxford and Cambridge for his education but could not complete it.
He entered the Inns of Court to pursue a legal career which again became unsuccessful.
During these years he started writing his poetry. Although they were published only after
his death, they were widely circulated and won him a lot of recognition. He later joined
the Anglican church and became its first great preacher.

Donne was an Elizabethan poet who established a style of his own. He broke from the
earlier traditions of pastoral poetry that was popularized by Edmund Spenser. Donne was vivid
in his expressions and chose to be realistic in his thoughts. He has written many satirical
poems like “Of the Progress of the Soule”. Donne was also known for his religious poetry. His
Songs and Sonetswere love poems that expressed the different moods of a lover. Most of
them are personal and reflect his intense complex self. Donne’s poems like those of a few
others were highly intellectual and philosophical with the usage of unconventional figurative
language. Samuel Johnson termed his poetry as ‘metaphysical’. Donne is a representative of
metaphysical poetry.

 About the poem: “A Valediction of Weeping” (1633) is a metaphysical poem. The poem
was probably written by Donne after he met his wife Ann More or during the early years
of their marriage. It belongs to his collection of love poems Songs and Sonetspublished
in 1633 after his death. Like his other love poems, it dramatizes the scene of lovers
parting. It is noted for its use of conceit. Donne wrote other poems with “Valediction” in
the title, including “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” “A Valediction of My Name,” and
“Valediction to his Book.”

3.4.1. Detailed Summary and critical analysis :

 The speaker of the poem is perhaps leaving England by sea. The opening scene is that
of the lovers parting. The speaker wants to be allowed to shed tears before his lover’s
face before he leaves. That way his tears will bear her face, from its reflection. In this
exaggerated metaphor/conceit of the coins, the poet makes a comparison of his tears
 43

to the coins. Just as the coins are stamped with the face of a queen or any other ruler, his
tears are stamped with his beloved’s face. Therefore the tears become worthy and precious
like mintage. This is in reference to a traditional Elizabethan idea that tears of lovers
reflect the face of their respective beloved. Thus the speaker’s eyes brimming with tears
appear full like the womb of a pregnant woman.The speaker continues to elaborate that
his tears are also the fruits of great grief, just as they hold the shape of a fruit. Here the
poet combines the conceits of the coins and the fruit. So when the tears fall down, it is as
though his lover is falling too. The speaker is anxious that when that happens the tears
will stop reflecting each other and they may mean nothing to each other when he is on a
distant shore.

The metaphor/conceit of tears is used in the second stanza to describe the how the
lovers consider each other their world. The round tear is compared to the round world or
globe. In the Elizabethan times, mappers or cartographers made many spheres which had
representations of the various continents and seas of the world.Thus a dull leather sphere is
converted into a valuable copy of the earth. The lover’s reflected image in his tears becomes
a world of his own. Just as the sphere without the map is worthless, their tears without each
other’s reflection are worthless too. He further elaborates to say that when her tears fall on his
tears, they merge and overflow like a flood sent by God. This flood has the power to dissolve
his world of heaven which is in her happiness.

In the final stanza, the poet uses the metaphor/conceit of tides and seas. The speaker
compares his lover to a moon that brings the tidal force of the sea. During the high tides the
gravitational force of the moon pulls more water to drown the sphere of the earth deeper. But
he feels that the force of her weeping and tears seem to draw more water than the moon to
flood both land and sea. Here he emphasizes the actual reason for asking his lover not to
weep. Weeping is destructive and so pleads to her not to weep him to death. As he is going out
into the sea, he is likely to experience the dangers of storm and rains. So he warns her, that
her weeping may be a sign shown to the sea to do something that it may want to do. Even the
winds may take her weeping as a sign and become more rough that usual and cause him
harm. The speaker concludes by referring to the sighs of lovers. In grief it may become as
forceful as high winds. So he argues that since both of them are going to be separated they will
44

also be weeping over each other’s absence. But he warns her that if they did not control their
sighs, the one who sighs most will be cruel to cause the other’s early death. The poem ends
on a note that grieving can be destructive.

 The poem is an emotive expression to a moment that is autobiographical. The three

stanzas of the poem, “A Valediction of Weeping” refer to one conceit each, independent
of each other, to argue against weeping. However there is a clear development of thought
and one conceit leads to another. Donne has used many of the concepts that the
Renaissance introduced, like the human body reflected the physical world. Most of his
love poetry refers to the reflections in the eyes and tears. In “A Valediction of Weeping”,
Donne is referring to a spiritual rather physical aspect of love which is highly intellectual.
Also the lyrical quality of the poem despite the unconventional metaphors is striking.
Thus this is one of the many poems of Donne that earned him the tag of a metaphysical
poet. It was Dryden who first expressed the view that “Donne affects the metaphysics”.
This led Dr. Johnson to describe Donne and his followers as the metaphysical poets.

3.4.2 Select Glossary

 Valediction - act of saying farewell (Whilst I stay here… )

 Coins / Minting- making of coin by stamping metal

 mintage - the minting of coins and number of copies of a particular coin

 pregnant - here it means, filled with emotion or significance

 round - earth

 by waters sent from thee - Biblical reference to The story of Noah’s flood in Genesis 7:11
(‘the floodgates of the heavens were opened’).

 forbear - to avoid or stay away from doing something

3.5 PARADISE LOST – Book IX (lines 799-833) by John Milton

 About the poet: John Milton (1608-1674) is one of the greatest 17th century English
poets. His literary career covered three important eras of British history and is placed
next to Shakespeare in his literary achievements. Milton was born in London and had a
 45

fairly happy and prosperous childhood. He studied at the St.Paul’s school and then at
Christ’s College ,CambridgeHe became an accomplished poet , while in college with his
Christmas ode “On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity.” And L’Allegro and Il Penseroso. .
Although he was born into the Catholic faith, he later became a puritan which had a
significant impact on his writings. He proclaimed that God has called him to become a
poet and led a recluse life. One of his first great works, “Comus,” a Masque, was written
around this time. Milton travelled wide and was influenced by his experiences He was
fascinated with science and music and they reflect in his poems.

 About the poem: Paradise Lost (1667), an epic poem, is the greatest work of John
Milton. He began writing it in 1658, through the restoration of monarchy, and completed
in 1667. It is divided into twelve books and is written in the blank verse. The poem is
based on the biblical account of the temptation of Adam and Eve by the fallen angel
Satan and their expulsion by God from the Garden of Eden. The theme is the “fall of
man”. Milton states in Book I that his intention was to “justify the ways of God to men”.
Milton was extremely familiar with the classics,Illiad, Odyssey, Aeneid, The Divine Comedy,
and Jerusalem Delivered. This inspired him to write an English epic poem. Also his interest
in puritanism led him to choose a biblical theme. This work was followed with Paradise
Regained and “Samson Agonistes” in 1671.

This extract, Lines 799-833, is from Paradise Lost - Book IX in which the temptation of
Eve is described. Itoccurs just after the Eve is tempted.

3.5.1 Detailed Summary and critical analysis

Eve is tempted by the words of Satan and eats the fruit that God had asked them not to
eat from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. She believed Satan’s words that it would
give her the powers of God. After eating it, she started to address the tree with reverence. She
worshipped the tree and called it virtuous and the precious of all trees in Paradise, where they
lived. She considered herself blessed to have tasted the richness of the fruit, which until now
was misunderstood and remained unknown. She felt, the fruit was left to hang there without
any purpose for its creation. Eve promises the tree that henceforth each morning she would
sing songs of praise to the tree and nurture it with her loving care. Thereafter when the branches
46

of the tree become heavy with fruits she will eat them to grow morewise like the Gods who
knew everything. She makes an indirect reference to God who denied this wisdom to her and
thinks that he might now feel jealous to see her grow wise. Her argument is that if the fruit was
meant only for God, then it would not be growing in their garden.

Eve is then grateful for the experience for it seems to have given her knowledge of the
good and evil. She confesses that until she ate the fruit, she was innocent of the wisdom that
has now opened to her. However she had not revealed all this to Adam. Eve is also shown to be
worried if God would come to know of her disobedience. But she consoles herself that heaven
is so high above and God may not be able to see things clearly on earth from that height. Also
she assumes that other responsibilities may have diverted God’s attention from her action.
There is a tone of anger and disappointment in her voice when she refers to God as someone
who kept watch on them with his army of spies and prevented them from doing their will.

Eve’s thoughts then returnedto Adam. She wondered how she could present herself to
him. A confusion held her heart; whether to reveal the change in her to him and make him eat
the fruit to share her happiness or to hide it all from him. She considered hiding the power of
knowledge that she had now acquired from her partner. Eve argues that, she could display her
wisdom which the female sex never possessed and win more of Adam’s love. This might make
her equal to him, in fact better than the male sex. Eve imagined that she may even gain more
power . As these thoughts dominated her mind, she wondered what if God had come to know
of her actions. In such a case she knew she would have to face death. That reminded her that
if she died, Adam would be given a new partner. Eve was not able to accept another partner for
Adam and so decided that Adam shall share all her happiness and sorrows. Her heart filled
with love for Adam and felt assured that she could face any consequence in his company. Eve
decided that there was no life for her without Adam.

The first part of the section is addressed to the tree. Eve places the tree above God
during this period. In her song of praise she forgets to worship God. Eve is depicted as a
seeker of knowledge.In Milton’s theme of the ‘fall of man’, the woman is shown to fall first.
Ironically she describes her fall as experience. The thought of Adam having a new partner
makes her jealous. There are feminist suggestions in Eve’s arguments that reflect upon equality
between man and woman. She is shown to consider for a while to keep the benefit to herself
 47

and all womankind not just for equality but also for superiority over men. Eve is depicted in this
scene quite differently from the rest of the book. For a while she is in complete charge of
herself. Milton seems to depict Eve in a way similar to the fallen angels. Both met their fall
when they wanted to be like God.

3.5.2 Select Glossary

 Sapience –the quality of being wise. from Latin sapientia, “good taste, good sense,
intelligence,or wisdom.

 great Forbidder – God

3.6 THE RAPE OF THE LOCK – CANTO III (Lines 125-178)

by Alexander Pope

 About the poet: Alexander Pope (1688-1744) is regarded as one of the finest English
poets of the Augustan Age, between the middle of the 17th and 18th C. Born in London into
a wealthy Catholic family he grew up in Windsor Forest. An early attack of tuberculosis
left him with physical disabilities. His religion and his disability had a deep influence on
his literary career. He was privately educated. Very early in his teens he started writing
verses and swiftly rose to fame. Pope published his first major work, An Essay on Criticism
(1711), at the age of 23. His friends, periodical essayists and editors of The
SpectatorJoseph Addison and Richard Steele, published his essays and poems and the
publication of The Rape of the Lock(1712) made him famous in wider circles.TheDunciad
(1728), and An Essay on Man (1733–34) are his other noted works.

 About the poem: “The Rape of the Lock” (1712-14), is a long witty narrative poem
written in the classical epic style based on a true event. It was first published in 1712 and
a revised version in 1714. The incident that inspired Pope to write the poem involved one
of his friends, Robert, Lord Petre who cut off a lock from ArabellaFemor’s hair without
her permission. ArabellaFermor and her suitor, Lord Petre, were both from aristocratic
Catholic families and they became enemies after the incident. John Caryll, a common
friend, asked Pope to write a humorous poem about the incident and lighten the minds of
the families. Pope made fun of this minor incident in the poem by writing about it using
epic conventions. So the poem came to be referred as a mock-epic.
48

The character Belinda in the poem is based on ArabellaFermor. The Baron is Lord Petre,
who insulted Arabella and her family. Canto III takes place at the royal palace at Hampton
Court. It is here that the heroes and the nymphs gathered to gossip. It was evening time and
Belinda was getting ready to play cards with the baron and others. Her sylphs kept a watch
upon her. Belinda wins the game of cards and becomes excited. Coffee was served to ladies
and gentlemen at Hampton Court. The aromatic vapours of the coffee provoke the Baron to
think of new ways to cut Belinda’s hair. The Baron who did not enjoy her affection was offended
and the poet warns about Belinda’s fate. Canto III Lines 125-178 is where the actual rape of
the lock is described.

3.6.1 Detailed Summary and Critical analysis:

Lines 125 begin just after Belinda won the card game.The poet remarks how when
human minds decide to do something wrong, they receive the right assistance. Here when the
Baron decided to cut off Belinda’s hair to insult her, Clarissa, one of the attendants at the party,
assist him by handing over a pair of scissors to the Baron for the act. She extended the scissors,
like how a woman would hand over the spear to a knight who was starting out to fight a battle.
The Baron accepted the scissors readily and made an attempt to cut Belinda’s hair from behind
as she bent her head. The sylphs guarding Belinda were upset on seeing his intention. They
made the winds to blow away her hair. The Baron tried doing it thrice but all the three times, the
sylphs pulled her earrings and made her turn around. Ariel, Belinda’s guardian sylph, tried to
control her mind in order to warn her about the danger. But Ariel was surprised that Belinda’s
mind was occupied with thoughts of a lover and therefore loses power to enter it. The Baron
makes another attemptand finally succeeds. As he clipped the lock, a sylph who came in
between to prevent the act was cut into two, but as they are supernatural elements it was
instantly repaired. But Belinda lost her lock of hair forever. When Belinda realized her loss, she
screamed in horror. The poet describes how heavens may never have heard such a loud cry
from earth asking for pity;women who lost their husbands or pet dogs may not have cried
louder than Belinda; and the sound of ceramic china ware when it fell on the ground and broke
would not have had a louder sound than Belinda’s wails.

Pope takes a very silly incident in the life of an upper class girl who becomes the subject
of a rich boy’s mischief as the subject of his poem. It parodies the serious lofty style of the
 49

classical epic poems like Homer’s The Illiad and The Odyssey. The standard rules of an epic
were followed to write the poem. Like an epic, the poem was divided into sections (cantos).
The reference to cutting the hair as ‘rape of the lock’ gives it an epic significance. Even the
details of the act is discussed as if it a war. Ordinary objects like the scissors are treated like
weapons. The Baron’s act is described like a heroic act and Belinda’s agony is described in
epic proportions. The presence of the supernatural elements like Ariel, in the action adds to the
epic style. As the entire poem adopts a tone of mockery, at the epic form of poetry it is referred
to as a mock-epic.

“The Rape of the Lock” is also a satire on the contemporary society of the 17th and 18th
C. It has many details that describe the people of the age. The upper class spent a lot of time
in leisure pastimes and took a lot of interest in their looks, just as Belinda and the Baron are
depicted in the poem. The references to women having pet dogs reflect the practice of the age.
The attitudes of men and women are also described. The society had become class- conscious
and that forms the background of the poem. In short it showcases the lifestyle of the people of
that age.

“The Rape of the Lock” was written in heroic couplets. It consists of one heroic couplet
followed by another. Each line in the couplet has ten syllables in a pattern of accented and
unaccented pairs following one another called the iambic pentameter.

3.6.2 Select Glossary

 Rape - in 1714, when Pope published The Rape of the Lock, the term “rape” had a
broader meaning. It also referred to any act of seizing or taking anything by force

 Sylph –an imaginary supernatural spirit of the air. Here a guardian spirit.

 Ariel - the chief sylph

 The little engine– the pair of scissors. It was fairly a new tool during that period.

3.7 Check your progress

1. Prothalamion was written in honour of the double marriage of _______ and _________.

2. The bridegrooms were compared to the _______ of Jove.

50

3. Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18 is addressed to an ___________

4. John Donne is a ______________ poet.

5. According to Donne, weeping is _____________.

6. Paradise Lost is an __________ poem.

7. Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock – Canto III” takes place in the __________ court.

8. ____________ handed over the scissors to the Baron.

3.8 Summary

 Prothalamion is Spenser’s second wedding song. In this poem he celebrates the occasion
of the marriage of the daughters of Earl of Worcester.Prothalamion (1596) was written at
a time in his life of disappointment and trouble when Spenser was only a rare visitor to
London.The poem Prothalamion is a spousal verse that follows the loveliest wedding
odes. It revolves around the wedlock of twin sisters Lady Elizabeth and Lady Catherine
with William Peter and Henry Gilford. He has used a beautiful and strong atmosphere in
the poem. He has put a great emphasis of a renaissance on Prothalamion that brings a
tinge of mythological figures Titan, Cynthia and Venus.

 The eighteenth of the 154 sonnets of Shakespeare, “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s
Day” is one of the most loved sonnets that celebrates love and the timelessness of
poetry, while addressing a young man, presumably his male friend.

 “A Valediction of Weeping” embodies John Donne’s ability to unite form and content in
the beauty and intricacy of his metaphysical conceits. By closely interpreting these conceits,
or complex extended metaphors, the reader is able to appreciate and understand many
underlying themes of sorrow and consolation within the lovers’ parting.

 Paradise Lost (Book IX) by Milton deals with the most significant issue of impending fall
of man from Heaven due to his disobedience to God. The poem narrates the entire
incident of Adam and Eve falling into the evil temptation of Satan by eating the fruit of
Forbidden Tree to bring the wrath of God upon them losing Heaven and all its pleasures.
 51

 Rape of the Lock (Canto III) by7 Alexander Pope the scene takes place at the royal
palace at Hampton Court. It is here that the heroes and the nymphs gathered to gossip.
It was evening time and Belinda was getting ready to play cards with the baron and
others. Her sylphs kept a watch upon her. Belinda wins the game of cards and becomes
excited. Coffee was served to ladies and gentlemen at Hampton Court.The Baron who
did not enjoy her affection was offended and the poet warns about Belinda’s fate.

 Prothalamion : Prothalamion, is a wedding song written as a SpousallVerse in Honourof

the Double Marriage of Lady Elizabeth and Lady Katherine Somerset, is a poem by
Edmund Spenser.The word ‘Prothalamion’ was coined by Spenser and means ‘a betrothal
song’.It is a nuptial song that he composed that year on the occasion of the twin marriage
of the daughters of the Earl of Worcester; Elizabeth Somerset and Katherine Somerset on
8th November, 1596.The poem begins with a description of the River Thames and
Lee where Spenser finds two beautiful swans.It has the refrain which is 18th line of each
stanza “Sweet Thames run softly till I end my song.”

 Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day : The speaker opens the poem with a question
addressed to the beloved: “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” The next eleven
lines are devoted to such a comparison. In line 2, the speaker stipulates what mainly
differentiates the young man from the summer’s day: he is “more lovely and more
temperate.” Summer’s days tend toward extremes: they are shaken by “rough winds”; in
them, the sun (“the eye of heaven”) often shines “too hot,” or too dim. And summer is
fleeting: its date is too short, and it leads to the withering of autumn, as “every fair from
fair sometime declines.”

 A Valediction of Weeping : The poem denotes the grief of separation. The poet is about
to go on a voyage and he is trying to console his beloved. He consoles her by saying that
she should not weep, as her sighs will result in the death of other. He asks her to be calm
so that he can have a safe voyage and return safely.

 Paradise Lost (Book IX) : Adam loves Eve and so, by joining her in eating the apple,
sacrifices his own happiness for love. This, in itself is good act, motivated by love. A true
humanist would say that Adam is acting freely and he has done a good thing. Milton,
52

however, shows that even good acts are evil and corrupt if not done in line with God’s
will.

 “The Rape of the Lock” is also a satire on the contemporary society of the 17th and
18th C. It has many details that describe the people of the age. The upper class spent a
lot of time in leisure pastimes and took a lot of interest in their looks, just as Belinda and
the Baron are depicted in the poem.

3.9 Answers to check your progress

1. LadyElizabeth and Lady Katherine Somerset

2. Twins of Jove

3. young man

4. Metaphysical

5. destructive

6. conventional epic

7. Hampton court

8. Clarissa

3.10 Key Words

 Blank Verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter.
In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter);
where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones, five of which are stressed but
do not rhyme. It is also known as “un-rhymed iambic pentameter.”Miltin revived it in
Paradise Lost.

 Conceit is a highly imaginative or fanciful comparison or metaphor

 Heroic couplet is a unit of two rhyming lines in iambic pentameter

 Iambic Pentametre– An iamb is a metrical foot that consists of an unstressed syllable

followed by a stressed one,as in dah-DUM, dah-DUM dah-DUMdah-DUMdah-DUM. Penta-
means five. Meter refers to a regular rhythmic pattern in poetry.So iambic pentameter is
a kind of rhythmic pattern that consists of five iambs per line.
 53

 Metaphysical - a combination of two words – Meta, meaning over and beyond – and
physics.-referred to as a branch of philosophy that deals with cause and the nature of
being.

 Metaphysical poetry refers to a type of intellectual poetry that was common in the 17th
century. The works of the metaphysical poets had certain features in common.i) mostly
lyrical poetry ii) subject is religious or amatory iii) metrical verses iv) unconventional use
of language, diction and figures of speech which have a beauty of their own.

 Mock epic –also referred as mock-heroic. It is a form of satire that adapts the elevated
heroic style of the classical epic poem to a trivial subject.

 Personification is a figurative language that gives human traits (qualities, feelings, action,
or characteristics) to animals, non-living objects, or ideas (like things, colors, qualities,
even abstract ideals).

 Prosody is the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry.

 Quatrain is a stanza of a poem with four lines.

 Refrain isa phrase or verse recurring at intervals in a song or poem, especially at the end
of each stanza

 Spenserian Stanzais averse form that consists of eight iambic pentameter lines followed
by a ninth line of six iambic feet (an alexandrine); the rhyme scheme is ababbcbcc. The
first eight lines produce an effect of formal unity, while the hexameter completes the
thought of the stanza. Invented by Edmund Spenser for his poem “The Faerie Queene”

3.11 Review Questions

1. What is a Spenserian Stanza?

2. Write a note on the imagery in “Prothalamion”.

3. Comment on the use of personification in Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18.

4. What is a conceit? Give examples from Donne’s “A Valediction of Weeping”

5. Comment on the title of the poem, “A Valediction of Weeping”.

6. Why does Eve decide to share the fruit with Adam?

54

7. Bring out the humour in Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock – Canto III, Lines 125-178.

8. How does the poem “The Rape of the Lock – Canto III, Lines 125-178, reflect the
contemporary society?

9. Critically analyse Spenser’s “Prothalamion” as a wedding song.

10. Analyse “Shall I Compare Thee To A Summer’s Day” as a Shakespearean sonnet.

11. Justify John Donne as a Metaphysical poet.

12. Evaluate Eve’s character as presented by Milton in “Paradise Lost – Book IX (Lines 799-
833)”.

13. Discuss the epic features in the prescribed lines of Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock.

3.12 Reference books

1) FORD, B. (ed) The Pelican Guide to English Literature. (8 vols)

2) STAPLETON, M. (ed) The Cambridge Guide to English Literature. Cambridge.

3) DRABBLE, M. (ed) The Oxford Companion to English Literature.

4) M.H. ABRAMS (ed) A Glossary of Literary Terms

E Book

https://mthoyibi.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/a-glossary-of-literary-terms-7th-ed_m-h-abrams-
1999.pdf

E References

 A History of British Poetry from the earliest times to the beginning of the twentieth century
by Corbett, Frederick St. John -https://archive.org/details/historyofbritish00corbuoft

 Web source for the poems : https://www.poetryfoundation.org

 For a detailed account of the English social and political background and the poets you
can refer to https://www.britannica.com&https://www.encyclopedia.com
 55

UNIT - 4
DRAMA

Learning Objective
 The study of Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus is meant to achieve an understanding of the
founding of the English school of drama.

 The English Tragedy developed from the classical models of the 1stC Latin dramatist,
Seneca. Such was his influence that by 1581 all his plays were translated into English.
From the universities they reached the popular stage.

 The Pre-Shakespearean drama that was represented by the University Wits which included
Christopher Marlowe.

Structure
4.1 Introduction

4.2 Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe

4.2.1 Marlowe as a dramatist

4.2.2 Characters in the Play.

4.2.3 The Plot of Doctor Faustus

4.2.4 Act -Wise Summary of Doctor Faustus

4.3 Marlowe and the Renaissance

4.4 Doctor Faustus as a tragedy

4.4.1 Character analysis

4.5 Doctor Faustus as a Morality play

4.6 Check Your progress

4.7 Summary

4.8 Answer to check your progress

4.9 Key words

4.10 Review Questions

4.11 Reference Books

56

4.1 Introduction

Drama also became one of the literary features of British Literature in the 16th C after the
Renaissance.It soon dominated the literary achievements of the Elizabethan age.The Middle
Ages saw the growth of native drama. The drama grew inside the churchyard and moved out
to the courtyard. The earliest English dramas began to appear in the 1550s. It brought a
renewed interest in classical drama. English drama matured in the hands of the University Wits
and later Shakespeare.Shakespeare succeeded Marlowe on stage from 1595.

4.2 Doctor Faustus by Christopher Marlowe

 About the author:Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593)was the greatest pre-

Shakespearean dramatists. Born as the second child of a Canterbury shoe maker, he
attended King’s school after getting a scholarship. From there he moved to Cambridge
by obtaining a scholarship, mainly with an intention to take up Holy Orders. Marlowe
qualified for Master’s degree, but failed to take Holy Orders ever after a struggle of six
years. While after Cambridge, he is supposed to have had the company of great men
and writers like Sir Walter Raleigh, Nash and Chapman. He ran into trouble and was
accused of blasphemy. However hehada tragic death before the punishment could be
pronounced.

 His works include Tamburtame. Doctor Faustus, The Jew of Malta Edward II, The
Massacre st Pans. He worked together with Nash on the Tragedy of Dido. Marlowe is
also believed to have assisted Shakespeare in his King Henry IV. His poems were ‘Hero
and Leander’ and “Come live with me and be toy Love”. Marlowe also translated Ovid’s
Elegies and Book I of Lucan’s Pharsalia.

4.2.1 Marlowe as a dramatist

Marlowe is a forerunner of Elizabethan drama. He is one of the University Wits, who had
University education. A man of great originality, he had contributed to the development of
drama much more than any of his contemporaries. Marlowe popularized the use of blank
verse for play writing. He also brought in power and lyrical intensity into his verse. Before
Marlowe’s times, drama was completely different – it was not a refined art - the Moralities and
 57

Interludes were considered to be the dramatic performances and the Interludes were mostly
just a comedy.

4.2.2 Characters in the Play.

 Dr. John Faustus

 Wagner - His servant

 Good angel and Bad angel

 Valdes and Cornelius magician and other friends of Faustus

 Three scholars - Students of the University

 Lucifer, Mephistophilis and Beelzebub - Devils

 Robin and Dick - rustic clowns

 The Seven Deadly Sins

 Pope Adrian

 Raymond - King of Hungary

 Bruno - a rival Pope appointed by the Emperor

 Cardinals of France and Padua

 Archbishop of Rh emis

 Martino, Frederick and Benvolio - Gentlemen at the Emperor’s court

 Caroms (Charles) the fifth, Emperor

 Duke of Saxony

 Duke and Duchess of Vanholt

 Horse - Courser

 Carter

 Hostess of a Tavern

 Old man
58

4.2.3 The Plot of Doctor Faustus:

Faustus, the German Scholar becomes dissatisfied with his studies of medicine, law,
logic and theology; therefore, he decides to turn to the dangerous practice of necromancy or
magic. He has his servant Wagner summon Valdes and Cornelius, two German experts in
magic. Faustus tells them that he has decided to experiment in necromancy and needs them
to teach him some of the fundamentals.When he is alone in his study, Faustus begins
experimenting with magical incantations, and suddenly Mephistophilis appears, in the form of
an ugly devil. Faustus sends him away, telling him to reappear in the form of a friar. Faustus
discovers that it is not his conjuring which brings forth Mephistophilis but, instead, that when
anyone curses the trinity, devils automatically appear. Faustus sends Mephistophilis back to
hell with the bargain that if Faustus is given twenty-four years of absolute power, he will then
sell his soul to Lucifer.Later, in his study, when Faustus begins to despair, a Good Angel and a
Bad Angel appear to him; each encourages Faustus to follow his advice. Mephistophilis appears
and Faust agrees to sign a contract in blood with the devil even though several omens appear
which warn him not to make this bond.Faustus begins to repent of his bargain as the voice of
the Good Angel continues to urge him to repent. To divert Faustus, Mephistophilis and Lucifer
both appear and parade the seven deadly sins before Faustus. After this, Mephistophilis takes
Faustus to Rome and leads him into the pope’s private chambers, where the two become
invisible and play pranks on the pope and some unsuspecting friars.After this episode, Faustus
and Mephistophilis go to the German emperor’s court, where they conjure up Alexander the
Great. At this time, Faustus also makes a pair of horns suddenly appear on one of the knights
who had been skeptical about Faustus’ powers. After this episode, Faustus is next seen selling
his horse to a horse-courser with the advice that the man must not ride the horse into the water.
Later, the horse-courser enters Faustus’ study and accuses Faustus of false dealings because
the horse had turned into a bundle of hay in the middle of a pond.After performing other
magical tricks such as bringing forth fresh grapes in the dead of winter, Faustus returns to his
study, where at the request of his fellow scholars, he conjures up the apparition of Helen of
Troy. An old man appears and tries to get Faustus to hope for salvation and yet Faustus
cannot. He knows it is now too late to turn away from the evil and ask for forgiveness. When
the scholars leave, the clock strikes eleven and Faustus realizes that he must give up his soul
within anhour.As the clock marks each passing segment of time, Faustus sinks deeper and
 59

deeper into despair. When the clock strikes twelve, devils appear amid thunder and lightning
and carry Faustus off to his eternal damnation.

4.2.4 Act -Wise Summary of Doctor Faustus

Prologue

 The drama begins with the song of the Chorus. The audience is told about the writer’s
intention that the writer does not wish to write about the past battles; not about matters of
love and not about the courtly matters. He wishes to inform about the fate of learned
Faustus who was born to a poor man and brought up by his relatives. Faustus became
Doctor in divinity. This made him proud and he stood against God and he took the side of
devils.

Act I

Faustus in his monologue analyses the uselessness of the knowledge that he wants to
get further. He rejects all of them and adopts the black magic as his best choice. He wishes to
get Godlike powers through magic. His soul is filled with the marvels of the magic. For this he
calls his magician friends Valdes and Cornelius at his home. Two imagery characters in the
form of Good and Evil Angels try to have their impact on Faustus. Evil angel wins and Faustus
is seen determined to acquire black magic. His friends instruct him the art of black magic and
Faustus tries the ugly art in a wood.

Faustus calls Mephistophilis by abusing the prophet and holy books. Faustus is ready to
sell his soul in order to get the company of devils. He sends Mephistophilis back to hell so that
Lucifer might make him his friend and gave him Mephistophilis as his servant.

In this act the Good and Evil angels appear again and Faustus faces mental conflict
about adopting the black magic but in the end Evil angel attracts the soul of Faustus. He writes
an agreement with the devils with his own blood that he will live in all luxuries for 24 years and
after that the devils will take his soul in hell. After agreement, Faustus feels deceived when he
orders Mephistophilis to work but his Mephistophilis did not act according to his will. He was
not satisfied by the information that was delivered by Mephistophilis.
60

Act II

Faustus repents and faces mental conflict. Once again good and evil angels appear and
Faustus is made terrified by the evil angel that the devils would destroy him if he repented.
During this conflict Lucifer himself appears to rebuke Faustus for his wrong behaviour towards
devils. Lucifier shows a delightful show of seven deadly sins like Pride, Covetousness, Wrath,
Envy, Gluttony, sloth and lechery.

Act III

This act opens with the song of Chorus in which the audience is told about the adventures
of Faustus that he had enjoyed on the back of dragons. He has acquired knowledge of universe
and astronomy and now he is in the private room of Pope in Rome. Here Faustus makes fun of
Pope and his followers.

Once again Chorus sings about the fame of the Faustus that has spread from land to
land. He has become a juggler who shows tricks to amuse people and through which he
gathers money.

Act IV

Faustus is seen showing tricks to amuse the Emperor and Queen. He calls the souls of
Alexander and his wife. He deceives poor horse dealer just for money. Now Faustus has become
a devil and his endless punishment becomes beyond doubt. Faustus meets Duke and Duchess
and amuses them by giving them grapes out of season.

Act V

Faustus is shown in his home back. He brings Helen of troy before his fellow scholars
and kisses that most beautiful lady. The advice of the old man falls flat on him and after that at
the appointed hour the devils come and snatch him away to hell. His endless punishment
became sure due to his disappointment over the mercy of God. His belief was weak on the
Christ and God.

About his fall the Chorus warns the all learned men not to fall prey to pride and be
humble as that branch bores fruit that is weighed down. The play ends with a moral lesson and
with the down fall of a hellish character Doctor Faustus.
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4.3 Marlowe and the Renaissance

Christopher Marlowe can rightly be referred as the true Child of Renaissance. Renaissance
was a period of literary and philosophical movement that completely revamped European thought
and sowed the seeds of a new era, which led to the beginning of the modern age. The movement
had its birth in Italy.The birth of the Renaissance completely shifted the notion on religion in the
Middle Ages. People were strictly taught to consider life as a period of expiation. Man who was
considered to be a fallen, sinful creature was thought to shun the love of riches and pleasures
of the world to reach God. He was expected to prepare for the next world and aim at salvation
and renounce this world of sin and suffering and should only think of the world after death. All
these emphasis got crushed with the advent of Renaissance.

The spirit of Renaissance completely changed the very concept of man’s life. Unlike the
thought of Middle Ages, man came to be considered not as a helpless victim with Renaissance.
Like the Greek, the people of the Renaissance period found life acceptable with all its riches
and joy. They found bliss in the natural world around them and trusted that God made this
world beautiful and good only for man to enjoy. In short, the Renaissance released man from
the tight rules of blind religious belief.

If the impact of the Renaissance was great on Marlowe, equally important was the impact
of the Reformation. The Reformation sought to rid the Roman Catholic Church of its corrupt
practices. It upheld the justice of God, His merciful nature. It aimed at removing the
misconceptions about religious institutions and aimed at establishing the individuals relationship
to God as something private. In other words, it tried to make religion eschew the threat and
fear by which it held its sway over the innocent people. It even at times is supposed to have
encouraged atheistical tendencies. All these we find reflected in Marlowe’s works. In fact the
fear of damnation and the hope for salvation, the threat of hell’s horrors which sway the mind
of the sinful and the righteous are nowhere better illustrated than in the life of the German
scholar Faustus. Thus we see in him a fine blending of the Renaissance and the Reformation
He is the very embodiment of the spirit of the age. He is one of the University Wits, a blessed
one who possessed the gift of University education. A man of great originality, he had contributed
to the development of drama much more than any of his contemporaries. Marlowe was proudly
the one and only to introduce blank verse for play writing. He also brought in power and lyrical
intensity into his verse. Marlowe’s dramas were away from religion and morality.
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4.4 Doctor Faustus as a tragedy

European drama followed the classical Greek division of a drama into tragedy and comedy.
In literary terms, tragedy is a form of drama in which there is a display of human suffering and
often ending in death and catharsis (purification) for the audience. Therefore it evokes pity and
terror. Aristotle’s views about tragedy had influenced European dramatists. He described tragedy
as “an artistic imitation of an action that is serious, complete in itself, and of adequate magnitude.”
Some of its features are

o The hero must have a high stature

o The hero’s moral decisions contribute to the tragic effect

o The hero leads to his own destruction because of a flaw in his character (tragic flaw)

o The struggles of the hero prove the audience a chance to examine their lives (catharsis)

Faustus was a well read and learned man. He was a scholar at Wittenberg University (in
Germany) and someone specialized in logic and analytics, medicine, law and theology. But
unsatisfied,he craved for greater power. He was very much aware of the limitations and wanted
to dabble in necromancy and metaphysics of magicians. Too much knowledge can be heady
like wine and intoxicate man, which Faustus was unaware of. Faustus wanted to enter the
forbidden world of magic.

O, what a world of profit and delight, Of power, of honour, of omnipotence, Is promised to

the studious artisan. He exclaims, “A sound magician is demy god” and that is what he wants
to be. His presumption led him astray.

Knowledge is desirable and good but when it leads a man into forbidden paths, it completely
ruins him. According to the Christians, magic and drawing of “lines, circles, letters and characters”
are forbidden in the Bible. Human beings are expected to trust in God and not magic and obey
commandments and injunctions. Faustus, a Christian scholar from a Christian country who is
very much aware of the Bible well, fails to realize that what he is seeking is wrong and harmful.
Yet he gives himself in a forbidden art.

A good angel and a bad angel shadow Faustus. The good angel persuades him to pause
and consider where his decision would lead him and urges him to look up to the mercy of God.
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The bad angel pleads with him to move unhesitatingly forward along the path, which leads to
power and pleasure.

After a little hesitation in the beginning, Faustus decides to follow the path of magic. He
presents himself before with Valdes and Cornelius and learns more about this ‘concealed art,’
By magical incantations, sacrifices to devils and anagrammatizing the names of Jehovah and
the saints, Faustus acquires the power to conjure (call up) devils at his wish. He asks the King
of the underworld to give Mephistopheles as his chief servitor.

Once Faustus decides to follow the path of darkness, he makes a secret deadly contract
with the devil. He sells his soul to the devil for twenty four years of unrestricted power and
executes a written bond with his blood. From that moment on, his moral degradation begins.

Faustus wants to fulfil most of his desires with his deadly powers. He wishes to travel to
the various European countries with the help of his devilish assistants and to meet in particular
the Holy Father, the Pope at Rome. So he enters the Vatican (the Pope’s palace in Rome) in
disguise and plays mischief during a respectable banquet. His later visits the German Emperor’s
place and tricks him too! If only this clowning scenes and tricks on Benvoliois were omitted,
Faustus will appear more respectable.

The tragic fall of Faustus becomes more interesting with the close of the twenty four
years’ contract with the devil. Each time he remembers God or thinks of repentance, we see
the devil threatening him with dangerous consequences. As the eleventh hour of the last day
strikes, Faustus is shown to be in a state of extreme horror. He pleads with Christ to have
mercy on him and wash him with at least half a drop of His precious blood shed on Calvary
cross, but nothing happens. But his heart is too hard to repent because he had wilfully sold his
soul to the devil. He is finally dragged away from this world in a state of deep anguish. Only the
mangled remains of his body are gathered by a few young scholars of Wittenberg.

4.4.1 Character Analysis

 Faustus, John (Doctor):The main character of the drama, Faustus is a professor of

divinity at Wittenberg, as well as a renowned physician and scholar. Not satisfied with the
limitations of human knowledge and power, he begins to practice necromancy. He
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eventually makes a deal with Lucifer (commonly referred to as the “Faustian bargain”),
whereby he exchanges his soul for twenty-four years of the devil’s service to him. In the
next twenty-four years, Faustus obtains all kinds of knowledge and power through his
devil-servant, Mephistophilis. They travel all over the world, playing practical jokes on
peasants and even the Pope, displaying magical powers to the emperor and the nobility;
Faustus wishes and whims are played out in his various adventures. At times Faustus
experiences doubt and despair over having sold his soul to the devil. He comes close to
repenting at several crucial points in the story, but never follows through. Even to the
end, Faustus refuses to fully repent, and he is eventually taken by the devils to hell. The
character of Faustus comes from a well-known legend of a German physician who reported
sold his soul to the devil in exchange for magical powers. In Marlowe’s rendition, he is
portrayed as a tragic hero in that his unbridled ambitions lead him to an unfortunate end.
But at a deeper level, the tragedy is twofold. First, there is a clear devolvement of his
character, from a confident, ambitious scholar, to a self-satisfied, low-level practical joker.
Although he makes a name for himself as an expert magician, Faustus never accomplishes
the lofty goals he initially sets for himself. Second, there are times when Faustus despairs
over his decision and comes close to repenting, only to back away at the last moment.
On the other hand, Faustus can be seen as a hero in that he rejects God’s authority and
determines his own course of life. Faustus is the paragon of the Renaissance Man-
turning away from the religious strictures of the Medieval Age (God-centeredness) in
favor of the enlightened age of reason and human achievement (man-centeredness).

 Wagner: Faustus’ servant and eventual heir of his fortunes, Wagner is a pale reflection
of Faustus; he displays a nature similar to his master, even trying to obtain his own
servant through the practice of magic. Wagner’s background is not known, but it is clear
from his language and demeanor that he is a young servant who looks up to Faustus.
Wagner tries to imitate Faustus in many ways, in the way he talks and even in his taking
up of magic. Wagner is Faustus’ image-bearing progeny. That he inherits Faustus’ fortunes
suggests he might even be of physical progeny. At several points, Wagner acts as a
narrator, filling in gaps in the story.

 Good Angel: An agent of God who appears in pair with the Evil Angel, the Good Angel
tries to make Faustus think about God and of heavenly things. The Good Angel represents
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the good side in the good/evil dichotomy. In a literary sense, the Good Angel reflects the
good side of Faustus’ conscience, for Marlowe tries to show that Faustus, like every
human being, has two natures, both good and bad. What the Good Angel says mirrors
what Faustus’ good nature is thinking. Thus, the interchanges between the Good Angel
and the Evil Angel reveal Faustus’ inner struggles with himself. The Good Angel’s main
message to Faustus is that it is never too late to turn to God.

 Evil Angel:An agent of Lucifer who appears in pair with the Good Angel, the Evil Angel
tries to keep Faustus focused on power, wealth, and worldly pleasures. In direct contrast
to the Good Angel, the Evil Angel represents the evil side in the good/evil dichotomy. In a
literary sense, the Evil Angel reflects the evil side of Faustus’ conscience, for Marlowe
tries to show that Faustus, like every human being, has two natures, both good and bad.
What the Evil Angel says mirrors what Faustus’ evil nature is thinking. Thus, the
interchanges between the Good Angel and the Evil Angel reveal Faustus’ inner struggles
with himself. The Evil Angel main message to Faustus is that God will not accept his
repentance.

 Mephistophilis: The devil that appears before Faustus, Mephistophilis makes the deal
where he is to serve Faustus for twenty-four years in exchange for Faustus’ soul.
Mephistophilis is the main antagonist in the story, but he is also a conflicted character in
his own right. As part of the rebellion of heaven, Mephistophilis was cast out with the
other angels and sent to hell. When Faustus inquires about hell, Mephistophilis admits
that he regrets forgoing the joys of heaven for the torment of hell. Mephistophilis tries to
talk Faustus out of making a pact with Lucifer. But when Faustus makes the deal,
Mephistophilis dutifully fulfills Faustus’ wishes, whims, and desires for the next twenty-
four years. Although Mephistophilis warns Faustus about the torments of hell, once the
deal is made, Mephistophilis uses his power and cunning to prevent Faustus from
repenting.

 Lucifer: The Prince of the Devils, Lucifer was once an angel of God who was cast out
of heaven with other rebel angels because of their pride and insolence. Lucifer authorizes
the deal between Faustus and Mephistophilis. If Mephistophilis is a conflicted devil, Lucifer
shows no such weaknesses or signs of remorse for having been cast out of heaven.
66

When Faustus cries upon the name of Christ, Lucifer comes, as though Mephistophilis is
not crafty enough in such urgent cases. Lucifer masterly prevents Faustus from turning
back to God at key points in the story.

 Minor Characters

Chorus: A stage and literary device associated with Greek tragedy, the Chorus narrates
and fills in parts of the story.

Valdes and Cornelius: Friends of Faustus, they are reputed to be practitioners of magic.
Faustus calls on them to teach him the black arts. Valdes and Cornelius tell Faustus that with
his wit, he will be powerful, and together they will be famous all over the world.

Belzebub: A companion prince of Lucifer, Faustus refers to Belzebub when he denounces

God.

Clown: A poor, beggar-like character, the Clown is threatened by Wagner to be his

servant. When the clown refuses, Wagner conjures up some spirits to scare him. The Clown
follows Wagner, but asks Wagner to teach him magic.

Baliol and Belcher: Two spirits that Wagner conjures up to scare the Clown into serving
him, Baliol and Belcher is a he-devil and a she-devil respectively.

Seven Deadly Sins: At the request of Lucifer, the seven deadly sins namely, Pride,
Covetousness, Wrath, Envy, Gluttony, Sloth, and Lechery appear before Faustus. Faustus is
delighted by their presence. They appear before Faustus in the representation of their individual
sin or nature. Each of this sin symbolize the sin after which they are named. They also indicate
Faustus’ indulgence in these sins and his sinful personality. Although he enjoys their sight he
does not realize that he was committing all those sins. It demonstrates that in the twenty four
years ahead of him he would be part of activities that are sinful. Lucifer presents the sins as it
was presented in the medieval morality plays. The scene also served as a comic relief. The
scene reveals that Faustus is trapped in his own sins. .

 Cardinal of Lorrain: The Pope’s guest when Faustus enters the privy-chamber, the
Cardinal thinks the invisible Faustus is a ghost from purgatory.
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 Emperor Carolus the Fifth: Faustus visits the German Emperor, Carolus the Fifth, who
makes a request to see Alexander the Great and his paramour in person.

 Robin the Ostler: An employee of an inn, Robin steals one of Faustus’ magic books and
makes Mephistophilis appear. He is turned into an ape by Mephistophilis.

 Ralph: A fellow employee with Robin at the inn, Robin is turned into a dog by
Mephistophilis.

 Vintner: The Vintner, a wine merchant, comes to collect from Robin a silver goblet that is
owed him. Robin tries to elude the Vintner by conjuring up a spirit, but it backfires.

 Knight: The Knight, who serves in the court of Emperor Carolus the Fifth, is skeptical
about Faustus’ magical powers. In spite, Faustus makes horns grow on his head.

 Alexander the Great: Alexander the Great, the famous Macedonian conqueror, and his
Paramour are the two figures of the past that the Emperor Carolus the Fifth wants Faustus
to produce.

 Paramour: Emperor Carolus the Fifth is curious to know if Alexander the Great’s lover,
the Paramour, has a mole or a wart on her neck.

 Horse-Courser: The Horse-Courser purchases a horse from Faustus. He is warned by

Faustus not to ride the horse through water, but does not listen. When the Horse-Courser
rides into water, the horse turns into a bottle of hay. The Horse-Courser tries to get
Faustus’ attention by pulling on his leg while he is sleeping. But Faustus plays a joke on
him by making his leg fall off, scaring the Horse-Courser away.

 Duke of Vanholt: Faustus visits the court of the Duke of Vanholt. The Duke is impressed
with Faustus’ magical powers.

 Duchess of Vanholt: The Duchess of Vanholt, who is pregnant, desires ripe grapes in
the dead of winter. Faustus is able to get her the best grapes she has ever had. The
Duke and Duchess agree to reward Faustus handsomely.

 Helen of Troy: The figure over which the Trojan War was fought, Helen of Troy is deemed
to be the most admirable beauty in history. Faustus makes her appear before his
colleagues. Faustus’ last request to Mephistophilis is to have Helen of Troy as his lover.
68

 Old Man: The Old Man appears to Faustus in order to convince him to repent and turn to
God. A contrast to Faustus, the Old Man keeps his faith even through persecution from
devils.

4.5 Doctor Faustus as a Morality play

Doctor Faustus belongs to this morality tradition but with a difference.The Morality tradition
in the play can be seen only in the personification of good and evil angels, the seven deadly
sins and in some of the comic Interludes. These are the elements noticed in the crude native
comedy. Even the devil was a stock character in the early Mystery plays but in Marlowe,
Mephistophilis is more than a mere stock character. Marlowe’s Mephistophilis has a personality
of his own. Marlowe took from the earlier Moralities and Interludes, elements which were
appropriate and necessary to his plot and moulded them according to his needs. The influence
of classical drama brought in the element of plot, absent in native English drama. The division
of the play into various acts and scenes also must have come from the classical influence
because the Interlude was lacking in order and harmony. Though blank verse had been used
first by Surrey, it was only in Marlowe’s that we find a fine lyrical element coming into it. The
aspirations of Dr. Faustus in Act I and the passionate burst at the sights of Helen of Troy reveal
the remarkable mastery of the poet as well as the adaptability of the metre in his hands.
Though he introduced the element of character as something new in the development of plot,
he hasnot carried it to perfection. What Marlowe made began was continued and excelled by
Shakespeare.

4.6 Check your progress:

1. Doctor Faustus is a scholar from_________________

2. Mephistophilis is first asked to appear as a ___________

3. Doctor Faustus offers his soul for _______ years.

4. Doctor Faustus visits the country of __________

5. Doctor Faustus uses his magic to bring ______ for the Duchess.

6. Doctor Faustus conjures the historical figure,_________ for the Emperor.

7. Doctor Faustus is ___________ away at the end of the play.

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4.7 Summary

TheTragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus,was first performed
between 1588 and 1593. The legend of Faust was prevalent during the medieval period. The
story of a man who sold his soul to the devil to get supernatural powers was well known those
days. German dramatist Goethe was one of them who adapted it to make it a successful play
Faust. Marlowe may have been influenced by Goethe’s work. The play apart from the legendary
story is based on the Christian doctrine of eternal damnation for the soul for those who lead an
evil life. Marlowe’s Doctor Faustuswas a huge success in England and Germany.

Faustus, the German Scholar becomes dissatisfied with his studies of medicine, law,
logic and theology; therefore, he decides to turn to the dangerous practice of necromancy or
magic. He has his servant Wagner summon Valdes and Cornelius, two German experts in
magic. Faustus tells them that he has decided to experiment in necromancy and needs them
to teach him some of the fundamentals.When he is alone in his study, Faustus begins
experimenting with magical incantations, and suddenly Mephistophilis appears, in the form of
an ugly devil.The Good Angel and the Bad Angel vie for Faustus’ conscience, but Faustus
ignores the Good Angel’s pleas. Faustus summons Mephistophilis and bargains to surrender
his soul in exchange for twenty-four years of easy living. Faustus performs marvelous deeds
with the Devil’s help. Faustus dies and is taken away by devils.

4.8 Answers to check your progress:

1. Germany

2. Ugly devil

3. twenty four

4. Rome

5. Grapes out of season

6. Helen of Troy

7. an hour away
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4.9 Key words

 Blank verse - Blank verse is a type of verse written in a regular meter that does not
contain rhyme. Blank verse is most commonly found in the form of iambic pentameter.
Many famous English writers have used blank verse in their works. Marlowe used it in his
plays which was later perfected by William Shakespeare.

 Catharsis - When used in literature, catharsis is the release of emotions such as pity,
sadness, and fear through witnessing art. Catharsis involves the change of extreme
emotion to lead to internal restoration and renewal. Catharsis was first linked to drama,
especially to tragedy, by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. The theory was that, through
viewing tragedy, people learned to either purge or get relief from pit and terror.

 Necromancy - the practice of communicating with the dead, especially in order to predict
the future. Black magic/ witchcraft.

 Tragedy - In literary terms, tragedy is a form of drama in which there is a display of

human suffering and often catharsis for the audience.

 Tragic flaw - A tragic flaw is an attribute of a character that ultimately leads to the tragic
hero’s demise. This literary devce is commonly found in tragedies. Some definitions of
tragic flaw maintain that this characteristic must be a weakness or a failing. However,
some tragic flaws can instead be elements of someone’s personality that force them to
do wrong.

4.10 Review Questions

1. How was Faustus’ first meeting with Mephistophilis?

2. What are Dr. Faustus’ arguments for choosing to pursue necromancy?

3. What is the role played by the Old Man in Dr. Faustus.

4. What are the conditions of the contract that Faustus makes with Lucifer?

5. What does Faustus learn about Hell?

6. How poetic is Faustus’ speech in the presence of the vision of Helen of Troy”
 71

7. Who are the Seven Deadly Sins?

8. How do Lucifer and company successfully prevent Faustus from his thoughts to seek the
mercy of God?

9. Is Faustus a Renaissance hero?

10. What is the relevance of the chorus in the play Doctor Faustus?

11. Consider Doctor Faustus as a tragedy.

12. Analyse the character of Doctor Faustus as a Renaissance hero.

13. Discuss Marlowe as a dramatist.

14. Critically analyse the role of Mephistophilis.

15. Bring out the elements of a morality play in Doctor Faustus.

4.11 Reference Books

 Doctor Faustus -The Revels Plays by Christopher Marlowe, Editors David Bevington,
Eric Rasmusse.

 Christopher Marlowe by Colin Teevan, Oberon Books

 Doctor Faustus: A critical guide, Sara Munson Deats, Bloomsbury Publishing

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UNIT - 5
FICTION

Learning Objective
 to give you an understanding of fiction as a literary form and how it can make use of a
simple and effective plot, human characters, dramatic dialogues and humourfor effective
literary expression.

 to give an insight into the social conditions that prevailed in the 18th century.

 Prose, poetry and drama of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Unlike the other literary
forms, the English Novel had its beginning only in the early 18th century.

 the novel evolved from the essays, particularly the periodical essays and serialized stories
that were popular in the 18thC.

 how drama had a decline before the Restoration period and the human desire for a story
made this absence a suitable time for the novel to grow.

Structure
5.1 Introduction

5.2 Refer to Unit 2 for the biographical introduction.

5.2.1 About the novelist
5.3 Summary of the Novel
5.4 Character Sketches
5.5 The Vicar of Wakefield by Oliver Goldsmith as Sentimental Fiction
5.6 Structure of the novel
5.7 Check Your progress
5.8 An outline of the novel
5.9 Answer to check your progress

5.10 Key Words

5.11 Review Questions

5.12 Reference Books

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5.1 Introduction

The early English novels were about complex characters from the middle-class who
struggled with issues of morality and trying circumstances.The early novelswere Daniel Defoe’s
Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Moll Flanders (1722) although they are not regarded as full
length novels.The first real English novel was Pamela, a series of fictional letters written in
1741 by Samuel Richardson.The middle of the 18th c saw the growth of the English novel to the
rank of one of the major literary forms. The popularity of Sentimental Novelblinds the character
to realize the truth in the novel.

5.2 Refer to Unit 2 for the biographical introduction.

5.2.1 About the novelist

Oliver Goldsmith was one of the most popular 18th century Anglo-Irish novelist, whose
only novel, The Vicar of Wakefield (1766) remains one of most read novels in English literature.
It was with the support of Dr. Samuel Johnson that that novel was published. The novel thus
has an added significance in Goldsmith’s life as the money he received from it saved him from
going to the debtor’s prison.

5.3 Summary of the Novel

Dr. Primrose, the vicar narrates his past by presenting his family in whom he takes much
pride.They live in an elegant home and are loved and respected by all in the parish. Deborah,
the vicar’s wife is introduced as a good natured woman, good at cooking and housekeeping,well
known for her homemade gooseberry wine. The Wakefield family never turned away any of
the travellers or the strangers who knocked at their door but was extremely hospitable. They
had six children (George, Olivia, Sophia, Moses, Dick and Bill). The Vicar took content that his
family was equally generous, simple and kind.

 The Vicar had fortunes of his own and therefore donated his clerical income to the widows
and the orphans. Meanwhile his eldest son George fell in love with Arabella Wilmot the
daughter of Mr. Wilmot, a clergyman in the neighborhood. Wilmot did not reject the
match knowing his daughter can get a fortune through this relationship. Both the families
spend happy times together until a day when the opinions of the two clergies on matrimonial
74

sermons rise to an argument. In the middle of the argument, the vicar is informed by his
relative that he has lost his fortunes, and cheated by a merchant. Upon hearing this,
Wilmot called off the wedding and it shocked the Wakefield family.

 The Vicar’s family became poor and they decide to leave Wakefield to a nearby county,
where the vicar was offered a job.The vicar reminded the family to stay humble in the
new situation.It was decided to send George to London to earn and support the family as
he was fairly educated.

 The Vicar and his family start on their journey and eventually stop at an inn to spend the
night. They meetMr.Burchell who is poor but intelligent. Burchell accompanies them to
the new neighborhood. They discuss philosophy and about their new landlord Squire
Thornhill who loves worldly pleasures and women. At one point, when the vicar’s daughter
Sophia falls into the stream due to the floods, Mr. Burchell swiftly rescues her leaving a
good impression in the minds of all in the family.

 The family reaches their new little neighborhood that is pleasant and beautiful. Their
new house is small but beautiful with twenty acres of fine land. On the first Sunday, the
Vicar restricts his daughters from wearing fancy clothes and immediately they alteredtheir
gowns to a simpler fashion and with the bits from gowns; they also stitched waistcoats
for Dick and Bill

 The family started to enjoy the new landscape and spent quality time together in their
leisure with songs and music. One day they noticed a young man, from a distance.aiming
at a stag and soon they find him to be their new acquaintance and landlord, Squire
Thornhill. He joins the glad occasion and requests a song from the daughters which
seems odd to the vicar but his wife, was happy to see his interest in her daughter. Sophia
disliked him in the heart but Olivia started to like him. The vicar instructs them not to gain
friendship with anyone different from their social status but circumsatnces drew the family
closer to the Squire who even sent them venison (deer’s meat).

 The daughters cooked the venison and this was noted by Mr. Burchell who visited them.
The vicar took a great liking for Mr.Burchell as he was a ‘poor gentleman’ who is known
in the neighborhood for singing ballads to children. Soon Mr.Burchell’sinterest for Sophia
 75

became obvious when he helped her in all her tasks. This the vicar did not much entertain,
for Mr. Burchell was a man of broken fortune.

 The next morning they prepared venison pasty for the landlord, his chaplain and agents.
The Squire showcased his knowledge through his fluency in religious debates. Mr. Burchell,
the day before had hinted on the Squire’s marriage proposal toArabella, the former fiancée
of George but the vicar notices that the Squire was showing interest in Olivia. The family
debated over the merits of the young landlord upon his departure, with the vicar considering
the landlord to be a free- thinker to whom he would not give his daughter; and his wife
counter arguing that many happily married young women married free thinkers.

 The next day Mr.Buchell visited the family again. The vicar seemed to enjoy his company
a lot though he hated him becoming friendly with Sophia. Mr.Burchell recited a ballad
which told of a hermit who invites a sad traveller to spend the evening. The traveller is in
fact a woman who had lost her only true love, Edwin. Her father insisted her to marry
wealthy suitors but she refused by remaining faithful to her only true love who eventually
seemed to have died in solitude. The hermit then reveals himself to be the very Edwin
and the lovers unite. Just as they were deeply immersed in the ballad, a gunshot frightens
Sophia who turns to Mr.Burchell’s arms for protection. The chaplain who had shot a
blackbird apologizes for the trouble and conveyed the Squire’s message that he intended
to have a ball the next night to which he expected the family’s presence. The Chaplain
asks Sophia to grant her hand in first dance but she in turn wishes to dance with
Mr.Burchell, who politely refuses.

 The Landlord brings two fashionable ladies in the town- Lady Blarney and Miss Carolina
WilelminaArmeliaSkeggs. They practice some country dance and after supper, the ladies
talk of high life which leaves the vicar’s daughters confused. The vicar notes that his
daughters envied the fashionable life and talk of the ladies. The ladies grew fond of
Sophia and Olivia and invited them to walk to their house. The vicar politely refused
which made his daughters angry.

 The Vicar observed that his family had forgotten his lectures on simplicity. They hadspent
a shilling each to have their fortune told and were glad with what they heard. The gypsy
told them that Olivia would marry a Squire and Sophia would marry a Lord. Towards the
76

end of the week the ladies hoped to see them in church and therefore, to maintain
standards the daughters intended to take their horses instead of walking. The horse did
not move and caused thousands of misfortunes. They were unable to go to church and
visit the ladies. The vicar, in humour and irony, mentions how their attempts to be refined
failed.

 On Michelmas eve, the Flamboroughneighbours invited them for games and snacks.
They were shocked when the two ladies came there and found them playing silly games.
The ladies were worried about their absence in church and were highly concerned. Olivia
explainedthe incident saying they were thrown from the horses. They spend their evening
together and discussed about two open positions in town. Deborah secretly hoped that
these two positions might suit her daughters. The vicar tells the ladies that he would send
his daughters to town. They agreed but said they also needed to confirm and examine
the girls’ reputation as it is mandatory. Deborah believed that Squire Thornhill,who was
Lady Blarney’s cousin might speak well of her daughters and give a good reference.

 The family decides and plans together on how to make use of this opportunity. They
send Moses to buy a more attractive horse for the girls in exchange for a colt, one of their
horses. The family comes to know that the Squire has spoken well of the daughters to
the ladies. Meanwhile, Moses returns with silver rimmed spectacles in exchange for the
colt but soon they learn it was not silver and that someone had cheated Moses.

 The vicar mentions that the family had made several unsuccessful attempts to be fine.
He makes Dick read a fable and as the vicar was about to moralize the fable, when they
hear the quarrel between Deborah and Mr. Burchell. She accused Mr. Burchell for his
disagreeable advice and insulted him. Mr. Burchell declares that he will never come back
except to say goodbye. The vicar scolded his wife but she labels Mr.Buchell as a poor
man who could never be a good choice for Sophia. Hearing this Sophia insisted that she
has known him to be “sensible, modest and pleasing.”

 The vicar travels to the fair to sell his horses in order to send his daughters to town. To
his disappointment, his five customers refuse to buy his horse. He then makes a deal
with his old acquaintance who takes him to a room where he finds an old gentleman,
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Ephraim Jenkinson. The old man showed thathe had heard about the vicar’s matrimony
sermons and the vicar enjoyed his company. The Old man wanted a horse and so makes
a deal with the vicar. Since he did not have any change for thirty five pounds, the old man
signs a bond upon the vicar’s neighbor, Solomon Flamborough. Later the vicar feared
about the honesty regarding the transaction and learns through Solomon Flamborough
that Ephraim Jenkinson was a rascal. At home, his daughters and wife were in tears after
hearing that the Squire would not sponsor for their trip after someone had spoken wrong
about the girls’ reputation.

 The family becomes furious to find the person who had spoiled their daughters’ reputation.
One day the younger boy finds a letter that read about Olivia and Sophia. The letter
talked ill of them and the handwriting belonged to Mr.Buchell. When Mr. Burchell stopped
by, the family shouted at him with harsh criticisms. Mr.Buchell also grew angry and
threatened to arrest the vicar for opening the mail that did not belong to him.

 The Squire continued to pay frequent visits regardless of the terrible rumour that he was
going to marry Arabella. The daughters wanted a family portrait and while the family
discussed their characters to pose, the Squire also wanted a place in the portrait. He
posed as Alexander the Great under the feet of Olivia. Deborah wanted to confirm the
Squire’s feelings for Olivia and therefore asked him if Farmer Williams would be a good
suitor for Oliver. He immediately said no and the family understands that the Squire
wanted to marry Olivia.

 The Squire was bothered by Farmer Williams who was passionate about Olivia. The
family sets a date by which the Squire was expected to propose to Olivia and intentionally
they let him know about the date. The expected dated passed by and the family was sad
that the proposal was not made. They had no other choice but to marry Olivia to the
Farmer. Then, Dick arrives suddenly with the disturbing news that Olivia has eloped with
a gentleman. The vicar loses his temper and sets out in search for his daughter.

 The vicar initially suspects the Squire but he finds him to be alone at his house. He then
suspects Mr. Burchell since of late he has seen him engaging in a conversation with
Olivia. He leaves his home and after seventy miles, he falls ill and stays over three weeks
78

at an inn. Later on his way, he meets a company of actors and goes with them to a
village where he meets a man who takes the vicar to his house to dine.

 The vicar is taken into a great mansion and soon learns that the man was only a butler
who pretended to be the master. He meets the real master, Mr. Arnold and shockingly
finds Arabella Wilmot at the house. Mr. Arnold was the uncle of Arabella and she enquired
about George. The vicar sadly replied that he has not heard from him for over three
years. Mr. Arnold insists him to stay and buys tickets to a play where Horatio is played by
a young man. Miss Wilmot and the vicar are shocked to see that the young actor was
George. Immediately, George bursts into tears and unites with the vicar and Arabella.

 George sums up his unfortunate story and the vicar is discouraged to know that his son
is poor. George narrates how he was asked to take up writing by his cousin and later he
ran into his Oxford classmate Ned Thornhill who is actually Squire Thornhill. The Squire
hired George as his personal assistant. When the Squire was leaving town, he sent him
to his uncle Sir William Thornhill who rejected his proposal. He went to several places
seeking for a career eventually coming back to England where he landed with the actors
and was offered the role of Horatio.

 The vicar was informed by the Butler that the Squire will soon visit Arabella. The Squire
was surprised to see the vicar and also saw that George and Arabella were once again
getting close. In order to get rid of George he chooses to help him with a future. The
Squire announces that an ensign’s commission in a regiment was traveling to the West
Indies and suggests that George can go along. George leaves happily and the vicar sets
off for his home.

 On his way home, the vicar halts at an inn where he hears that the Squire was hated by
his tenants. By coincidence, he comes across a young woman pleading the landlord’s
wife to keep her in the house. The vicar recognizes the girl as Olivia and he was overjoyed
to see her. He immediately forgives her and Olivia narrates her tale. Olivia was in fact
taken away by the Squire who seemed to have treated her badly. The Squire already had
a wife and the two fashionable ladies were actually his assistants who played a trick on
the vicar to send his daughters to London. The ladies put up a fake appearance being
 79

tramps. The Squire had charmed her and married Oliviawho was threatened that she
would be moved to a brothel. Olivia had escaped and taken refuge in the public house
where she was rescued by the vicar. Mr.Burchell’s letter about which the family was
upset was in fact about the reputation of the two ladies and not of Olivia and Sophia.

 The vicar prepares to take Olivia home and makes her stay at an inn to prepare the
family upon her arrival. On reaching his house, he finds it in flames and rushed inside to
save his two younger sons. The vicar bruises his arms and they suffer severe loss. Yet
they were happy to be safe and alive. The neighbors, especially the Flamboroughs and
Farmer Williams helped them in their crisis. In these circumstances the family easily
forgave Olivia although Deborah refused to greet and welcome Olivia at first.

 Olivia, however continued to feel miserable and recollectedevery terrible incident that
had led their family to crisis. Farmer Williams continued to like Olivia despite her fall, but
she did not reciprocate his feelings. One day, when the family spent their usual family
time enjoying nature, they noticed the Squire coming. The vicar was furious and called
the Squire a “poor pitiful wretch’’. The Squire warned the vicar of consequences but the
family expressed their anger.

 The next day, the Squire sent a steward demanding the rentfrom the vicar which was
more than he could pay. The Squire accused the vicar for debt and he was arrested. The
family prepared themselves to send the vicar to the prison. The officers took the vicar to
the prison while his family found a small apartment near the prison

 On arriving at the prison, the vicar was shocked to see the prisoners happy instead of
lamenting. One of the fellow prisoners came to the vicar and offered him some blankets.
The vicar was thankful and realized he was familiar with the prisoner’s voice. The fellow
prisoner was then discovered as Ephraim Jenkinson, the rascal who cheated him.
Jenkinson disguised himself as old and young to suit the occasion. He apologized from
his heart and the vicar forgives him.

 The vicar’s family visited him the next day and the vicar instructed Sophia to take care of
her sister who was ill, Moses to support his family by working, Deborah to take care of
the vicar and the young boys to read to him. The vicar began to preach sermons to the
80

prisoners who were violent and impolite. The family invitedJenkinson to dine with them
but Moses accused him as the person who sold him the fake spectacles. Jenkinson begs
for pardon and was forgiven.

 The vicar continued to preach to the prisoners asking them to stay away from wickedness
and dishonesty. Though he was ridiculed at first, they later subjected to his teachings
and respected the vicar. Olivia, for the first time visited her father in prison and begged
him to submit to the Squire to which he disagrees. When the vicar is asked for a reason,
he explains to Jenkinson that the Squire had already married Olivia and therefore cannot
marry Arabella. The vicar had the reasons to object the marriage.

 The vicar wrote to Sir Williams about his nephew, the Squire and waited for his reply.
During these days he suffered from pain in his burnt arm and received the disturbing
news that Olivia had died heartbroken. The vicar submits himself to the Squire and
becomes humble after suffering such a great loss. He is also informed that Sophia is
kidnapped by a group of ruffians. Meanwhile, Deborah tells the vicar that the letter she
wrote upon Olivia’s shame had not reached George. Just as he was thanking God for
protecting George, from the family’s misfortune, a bloody prisoner was dragged in and
they find out it was George. He was wounded when he had tried to attack the Squire as
he was in turn attacked by his servants. George asked the vicar’s advice and he delivered
a sermon on fortitude to all the prisoners.

 Moses brings the news that Sophia was rescued by Mr.Burchell, who noticed her being
kidnapped. When they arrive, a grateful vicar apologized for his former behavior. Sophia
explained how she was captured by the ruffians and screamed for help when she saw
Mr.Burchell in the coach who came to her rescue. Sophia was sad to learn about her
brother’s story from the vicar. Mr.Burchell and George recognized each other and
Burchelltoldthe vicar that George’s attack was a crime and there was a letter to prove it.

 The vicar offers Sophia to Mr. Burchellalthough he was poor.Burchell does not reply but
orders a grand feast for the family. As they dine, they hear that the squire had arrived and
wished to see Mr. Burchell. It was then revealed that Mr. Burchell was actually Sir William
Thornhill.
 81

 Sophia describes the one who kidnapped her and Jenkinson felt it could be Timothy
Baxter and went in search of him.

 Meanwhile, Sir William Thornhill ordered the Squire to enter who had been waiting in the

coach to meet him. The Squire defended himself by stating that he had not seduced

Olivia. Sir William Thornhillcould not make him accept his crime, until Jenkinsonarrived
with Baxter who told him that the Squire had orderedhim to abduct Sophia and that later

he would rescue her himself to gain appreciation and prove him innocent.

 Mr.Wilmont and Arabella arrive at the prison on hearing about the vicar’s arrest.

They soon come to know of many truths. Sir William released George and informed

about the Squire’s true self to Arabella. The Squire was annoyed and challenged his

uncle that he had already signed the contract to the fortunes of Arabella and that it now
belonged to him .Jenkinson then revealed that the contract was invalid. As he was asked

by the Squire to arrange the fake marriage with Olivia, he reveals that he had purchased

an original marriage license knowing about the Squire’s craftiness to blackmail him later.
So the marriage to Olivia was not fake and therefore the contract to the Wilmot fortune

was negated.

 Olivia surprisingly returns and it turned out that Jenkinson was lying about her death just
to make sure the vicar submitted to the Squire. The Squire begged for mercy but his

uncle gives him only a small allowance. The Squire leaves and the family rejoiced with

the new discoveries. Sir William intended to marry Sophia and told her that she was the
most graceful woman he had ever met in his life and one who was not after his fortune

but for his character.

 The vicar’s stolen fortune was retrieved and he married Arabella to George and Sophia

to Mr. William Thornhill. The vicar rejoiced in God and thanked Him for the blessings that
he found from misery.
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5.4 Character Sketches

 The Vicar

The vicar is known by the name Dr.Primrose who is the protagonist and the narrator of
the novel. He is a man of virtue, honesty, forgiveness and devotion. He does not much enjoy
the pleasures of the world and therefore delivers sermons and advises to those committing
arrogant sins. He is a monogamist who believes in the principle that a widower must not remarry.
He often boasts about his sermons on matrimony and likes people who recognize and value
his sermons. He grooms his daughters in such a manner as to accept whatever changes life
brings. The vicar tends to misjudge the people around him. He is wise enough to maintain a
distance with the people he meets but not cunning to escape deceit. He is struck by many
misfortunes but does not drown in his sorrows but instead seeks divine providence. Towards
the end, the vicar gathers courage to face pain and adversities in his life.

The Vicar’s character is also compared to Job from the Bible, who suffered a lot but
never lost faith, and whose continued devotion is ultimately rewarded by God.

The Vicar’s character and experiences reflect those that happened in Goldsmith’s life
thereby making the novel autobiographical. The value of fortitude and humility is emphasized
through the character.

 Deborah

Deborah is the wife of the vicar who believes in standards. She values high life and
sophisticated living. She strives to marry her daughters to a man with perennial fortune. Though
she fails at first, her dreams and hopes come true in the climax of the novel. She cares about
her daughters’ appearances and complexion and therefore does not allocate them any chores
being concerned their hands may go rough and their noses may go red. Despite the vicar
instructing Deborah and the daughters to conform to the humble circumstances, they deliberately
seek fashionable and luxurious living. Deborah is a typical woman of the age, who is torn
between the values of the past and the materialistic interests of her times.

 George

George is the eldest son to the vicar who is very unfortunate to settle down with his
career. In the beginning of the novel he loses his sweetheart Arabella Wilmot (daughter of Mr.
 83

Wilmot, a clergy) but their wedding planned was called off deliberately by Mr. Wilmot after
learning that the vicar’s fortune is looted by a merchant. George is an Oxford scholar who is
sent to London to earn before the family sets off to a distant neighborhood. He does not appear
in the novel until later. He reunites with his father and Arabella while he was enacting a play.
George was ignorant to realize that he was misguided by the wrong persons at the wrong time.
His cousin convinced him to take up writing which failed him and then he approaches his
classmate Ned Thornhill whom the vicar recognizes to be Squire Thornhill; meets with Sir
William Thornhill, the Squire’s uncle who rejects his proposal after learning that George had
fought a dual for Squire Thornhill. He then returns to Mr.Cripse who hires poor Englishmen to
work as servants overseas and then meets with a drama company and plays the role of Horatio.
George reacts on his sister Sophia’s abduction but turns to the prison for committing crime by
attacking the Squire. His act is justified by Sir William and thereby released. He later reunites
with his lost love Arabella Wilmot.

 Olivia

Olivia Primrose is the Vicar’s elder daughter. Olivia is very much concerned about her
social status. She fancies Squire Thornhill and believes him to be a good man who would care
for her and tend her with benevolence. She is struck by grief when she almost becomes desolate
after a close and intimate encounter with the Squire. She elopes and marries the Squire who
ill-treats her and betrays her feelings. She is found by the vicar in a public house and immediately
accepted by her family. She feels remorse and miserable pondering over her life’s miseries.
She fakes her death in the end in order to persuade her father to submit to the Squire.However
it is her affection for her father and the values she had learnt from him that comes to her aid.
Olivia represents those young women who are unable to take the right decisions.

 Sophia

Sophia Primrose,is the youngerdaughter. She believed in character than in fortune, which
is clear from her relationship with Mr.Burchell. He is financially dependent and yet she turns
her attention towards him. However it is her graceful nature and wisdom that protected her
from the wrongs that fell on her sister. She was prudent in all her moves and never let other’s
influence her thoughts. Sophia is representative of all virtues that a woman must possess.
84

 Moses Primrose

Moses Primrose is their second son who is easily deceived especially when it comes to
trade. He is not good at understanding religious debates which sounds silly and funny to him
since he cannot perceive the concepts. He is unlucky with certain things as he lacks proper
knowledge and maturity. Later when the vicar is imprisoned, the vicar leaves Moses in charge
of the family.

Dick Primrose and Bill Primrose are the younger sons who are kids.

 Mr. Burchell

Mr. Burchell is a seemingly poor but intelligent gentleman whom the vicar and the family
meets during their stay at an inn on their way over to the new neighborhood. He is liked by
everyone and a bit more by Sophia. He is known as a gentleman who sings ballads to children.
The vicar likes him and enjoys his company but does not like him moving friendly with Sophia.
When Mr. Burchell argues about the daughters going to London, Deborah insults him labeling
him poor and not suitable for her daughter. He storms out promising never to return. The family
then finds a letter that reads ill of Olivia and Sophia and again turn their anger towards Mr.
Burchell since it belongs to him. Mr. Burchell grows angry and threatens the vicar of having
arrested for opening his mail without his knowledge. He later reveals his true identity to be Sir
William Thornhill, the uncle of Squire Thornhill and marries Sophia.

 Squire Thornhill

Squire Thornhill appears to be a kind and benevolent young landlord who actually betrays
the whole family. The family likes him except the vicar and intends to marry Olivia to him. They
find his feelings for Olivia to be Obvious but he elopes with her and spoils her reputation and
her life by bringing her down to nothing. He is crafty and vicious and turns in the innocent vicar
over to the officers and troubles them with miseries. He is later withdrawn from his fortunes by
his uncle and begs for mercy.

 The Chaplain

The Chaplain is a friend of Squire Thornhill. He fancies Sophia but the vicar made sure
he did not make a move to his daughter.
 85

 Solomon Flamborough

Solomon Flmborough is the vicar’s neighbor who is honest, good and helpful. He informs
the vicar that Jenkinson is not a worthy man but a rascal. He helped the vicar’s family when
they were in crisis as their house went up in flames.

 Miss Flamboroughs

Miss Flamborughs are the daughters of Solomon Flamborough. They play games and
spend times with the Primrose daughter who considered them (Flamboroughs) to be of lower
standards after mingling with the ladies.

 Farmer Williams

Farmer Williams was a leverage to find out about Squire’s true feelings for Olivia. They
fixed a date and let Squire know about it. When he did not respond past the date, Olivia and
Williams were engaged until Olivia eloped. Williams forgave her and still continued to express
his concern but Olivia was too depressed to even care about his concerns. Williams also
helped the family in their crisis.

 Ephraim Jenkinson

Ephraim Jenkinson is a scoundrel and a trickster who tricked the vicar and his son Moses
at the trade with the horses. He disguises himself as old and young to cover his true identity but
he is a young handsome man who shows hospitality to the vicar at the prison. He eventually
turns to be the vicar’s friend and assistant after seeking pardon from his heart. He is initially an
accomplice of the Squire but later discloses the Squire’s intentions and helps the vicar come
out of trouble.

Lady Blarney and Miss Carolina Wilelmina Amelia Skeggs

These two ladies are said to be the fashionable women in town. They are brought to the
vicar’s house by Squire. The ladies grow fond of the two daughters and spend quality times
together. They show concern and draw attention. It turns out that these ladies are just tramps
who are employed by the Squire to entice the two daughters falling for the Squire’s crafty plan.
Their true role is revealed by Jenkinson who knows all about their pretence.
86

 Timothy Baxter

Timothy Baxter is the captor of Sophia. Jenkinson finds him and makes him spill the
truth. Baxter opens up when he comes to know his master is caught. He reveals that it was the
Squire’s plan to abduct Sophia so that he could save her by himself and gain appreciation and
pretend to be good.

 Mr.Wilmot

Mr. Wilmot is a clergy who does not share the vicar’s opinion on matrimony since Wilmot
has married more than once. He calls off the wedding after learning the vicar’s fortune is gone.
However, later he accepts George as his son in law.

 Arabella Wilmot

Arabella Wilmot is the sweetheart of George. She is modest, loyal and prudent. The
lovers were separated but then united. She married George and the lovers start a happy life
together, Arabella being the heir to a great fortune.

 Mr. Arnold

Mr. Arnold is the uncle of Arabella Wilmot. He is the owner of a great mansion and insists
the vicar to stay for the sake of Arabella

 Mrs. Arnold

Mrs.Arnold is Arabella’s aunt and Mr. Arnold’s wife.

 The Butler

The butler pretends to be the master of the house while inviting the vicar to the mansion.
He then becomes friends with the vicar saves him from being fired.

 Mr.Cripse

Mr. Cripse is a slave driver who hires poor men to work as servants overseas. George
almost works for him but goes in search of a dignified and better career.

 The Gypsy

The gypsy is a fortune teller who foretells happy incidents to Olivia and Sophia. Olivia is
told she would marry a Squire and Sophia is told she would marry a Lord.
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5.5 The Vicar of Wakefield by Oliver Goldsmith as

Sentimental Fiction

Sentimental fiction is a term that may be applied to any novel that exploits the readers’
sentiments for sympathy, compassion and mercy to an exaggerated level by presenting an
unrealistic view of its subject. It was a term that was used to refer to almost all the novels
published in Europe in the 18th century. These novels had conventional situations, stock
characters, melodrama and rhetoric to invoke the sentiments of the readers. Here emotions
are regarded higher than reason. The 18th century society believed in the purity of human
nature.

The Vicar of Wakefieldhas the features of a sentimental novel. At the same time it may
also be considered as a satire on sentimental fiction. All the characters in the novel are shown
as virtuous. They are forced to face an evil world. However their emotions and wisdom help
them to survive and remain righteous. The novel has many morals to convey and is didactic.

 The Vicar of Wakefield at the same time may also be considered as a satire. Goldsmith
uses humour and dramatic irony to defend the sentimentality as a satire. There are many
portions in the novel which does not conclusively explain if Goldsmith was favouring
sentiments or whether he was mocking them.

5.6 Structure of the novel

The novel has 32 chapters which may be divided into three parts.

 chapter 1 – 3: beginning

 chapter 4 – 29: the main events of the plot

 chapter 30 – 32: ending

chapter 17 is a turning point, where Olivia is reported to have eloped. From there the
novel moves to melodrama and pathos.

The narrative includes poems, histories or sermons which shifts the focus away from the
narrator’s voice. The plot is mostly autobiographical.
88

5.7 Check your progress:

1. The Vicar of Wakefield is a ____________ novel.

2. The Vicar of Wakefield was published in _____

3. Mr. Burchell rescues _________ from drowning.

4. George wanted to marry ___________

5. Squire Thornhill seduced and cheated __________

6. ____________ was the Vicar’s wife.

5.8 Summary
The Vicar of Wakefield was published in two volumes in 1766. It idealized rural life,
sentimental moralizing and melodramatic incidents with humour and irony. The events and
incidents that occur in the novel are mostly autobiographical.The novel opens with the vicar
and his family. Dr. Charles Primrose lives in his country parish with his wife, Deborah, and their
children, among whom are George, Olivia, and Sophia. They can afford their comfortable
lifestyle because Charles wisely invested inheritance he received from a relative. Charles’ son
George is set to marry Arabella Wilmot the next day. Arabella comes from a wealthy family, so
the match is considered beneficial to both families until the vicar’s investor goes bankrupt and
loses all of the vicar’s money before leaving town in a rush.

In their new neighborhood, the vicar works as a curate and farmer. The family sends
George, who had been educated at Oxford, to London in hopes that he can earn a living there
to supplement the family’s income.The vicar befriends a handsome, erudite, and poor young
man named Mr. Burchell.The squire introduces the vicar’s daughters to two fashionable ladies,
who suggest they might find positions for the girls in the city. The vicar sets out after her,
hoping to save and forgive her. He finds Squire Thornhill at home, and then suspects Mr.
Burchell of the crime.Olivia surprisingly returns and it turned out that Jenkinson was lying
about her death just to make sure the vicar submitted to the Squire. The Squire begged for
mercy but his uncle gives him only a small allowance.The vicar’s stolen fortune was retrieved
and he married Arabella to George and Sophia to Mr. William Thornhill.

Dr. Primrose, the Vicar of Wakefield, is a wealthy man who lives in a peaceful community
with his family. He has two daughters, Olivia and Sophia, and his four sons, George, Bill,
 89

Moses, and Dick, and his wife, Deborah. His son George is engaged to Arabella Wilmot, but on
the night of their wedding, Dr. Primrose loses all of his money after his broker declares
bankruptcy. Arabella’s father subsequently cancels the wedding.

George is then sent to London, and the family is forced to move to a parish on Squire
Thornhill’s lands. Mr. Thornhill has a reputation of being a ladies’ man who is living off of his
wealthy uncle, Sir William Thornhill. At first, the family has trouble fitting into the new, less
fashionable region. Shortly after moving to the area, Mr. Primrose meets Mr. Burchell and
Squire Thornhill.

Mr. Burchell saves Sophia from drowning, and both show attraction to one another. The
vicar discourages the romance because Mr. Burchell is a poor young man. Squire Thornhill
seems courteous, charming, and friendly, despite his poor reputation. Thornhill shows an interest
in Olivia, which pleases Mr. Primrose. For a brief time, the family lives happily. Squire Thornhill
continuously encourages the Primrose family to go after social ambitions that exceed their
class status, and this leads to many embarrassments.

Eventually, Mr. Primrose discovers that Squire Thornhill has been deceiving the family.
Olivia leaves with him instead of marrying the man her family chose for her, thus sacrificing her
reputation. The Vicar goes after her and falls ill during the trip. After a series of unfortunate
events that ruin the family’s reputation, Mr. Burchell saves the family from disgrace and reveals
himself as the gracious Sir William Thornhill.

British literature is the literature in the English language from the United Kingdom. In the
early period, English was the primary language of Northern European and Germanic extractions.
In the 19th C, Alfred the great insured that English would remain the dominant language.

During the reign of Elizabeth I and her successor James I of England saw a flowering of
Renaissance. Printing press was introduced into Europe by John Guttenberg of Germany in
1454. There are many writers who have pushed the language to its limits, and ultimately into
what we now call Modern English. They were Sir Thomas Moore, Francis Bacon, William
Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and John Donne and so on. Renaissance
witnessed the revival of science and an amalgamation of foreign words and phrases into English.

Reformation is a religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th C.
Martin Luther, an ex- Augustian German Monk started the Reformation Movement. Queen
90

Elizabeth I, founded the church of England. She died after 44 years of rule. The common
wealth period was started in 1649 under the rule of King James VI of Scotland. The Common
wealth collapsed in 1660 and monarch was restored.

Politically, the Restoration refers to the re-establishment if the house of Tudor through
King Charles II. It represents the first period of modern English prose writing, witty comedies
and poetry. The writers were Joseph Addison, Alexander Pope, Oliver Goldsmith and so on.

The coffee houses became the center of social life in London during Queen Anne’ s
period. The first coffee- house in England was opened in Oxford in 1652.

Although, Elizabethan age is called The Golden Age of English poetry and drama, it
should also be regarded as a glorious age of English prose. Francis Bacon a great scholar
contributed a great deal to the enrichment of English prose. He was the first to introduce in
English the literary genre known as the essay. He introduced intellectual, impressional and
reflective essays in a style which is inimitable.

The most important contribution in the 18th C prose has been made by Joseph Addison
through the well known periodicals The Tatler and The Spectator. The best of his essays are
centered round the imaginary character of Sir Roger de Coverly and hence known as Coverly
papers.

Oliver Goldsmith’s prose writing is of astonishing range. “The Citizen of the World” (1759)
is a series of imaginary letters from a China man whose comments on the English society are
both simple and shrewd.

Poetry was the chief form of literature along with drama. William Shakespeare was the
most admired poet and playwright in the field of literature. Infact, the Elizabethan age is also
known as the “Age of Shakespeare”. The spirit of Renaissance had conquered England and
inevitably there was a profound interest to borrow from classical text. Poetry and plays were
written in a blank verse. Some of the best works of poetry by Spencer was the Faerie Queen,
Epithalamion, Prothalamion and so on.

The age of John Donne was an age of Transition. Donne makes use of metaphysical
features in his poems.
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John Milton can be recognized as the greatest of all English poets. His Paradise Lost and
Paradise Regained are the major epic poems in Blank verse.

Alexander Pope was an 18th C English poet best known for his satirical works that includes
Essays on Criticism, The Rape of the Lock and The Dunciad.

Christopher Marlowe “ a Renaissance Man” has accomplished in many areas of his life
including arts, learning and personal pursuits. In Doctor Faustus he projects Doctor Faustus as
a Renaissance Man. The play outlines the key areas of learning, citing Aristotle, Galen, Justinian
and the Bible.

English novel had its beginning in the 18th C. Goldsmith wrote the novel “The Vicar of
Wakefield” during a period of personal problems. It also gained the popularity of the sentimental
novel.

In the second Semester, the students will come to know about the different revolutions
that took place in England, the romantic and Victorian writers and their contributions in the field
of literature.

5.9 Answers to check your progress

1. Sentimental Novel

2. 1766

3. Sophia

4. Arabella Wilmot

5. Olivia

6. Deborah, a good natured English woman

5.10 Key words

 Vicar - a priest in the Church of England who is in charge of a church and the religious
needs of people in a particular area (called the Parish).

 Irony – asituation in which something which was intended to have a particular result has
the opposite or a very different result. It is used as a literary device. The definition of irony
can further be divided into three main types: verbal, dramatic, and situational.
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5.11 Review Questions

1. What were the events that forced the Vicar’s family to migrate?

2. How did Squire Thornhill deceive the Primrose family?

3. What led Olivia to flee from home?

4. What were the misfortunes that George faced?

5. How did Moses get cheated?

6. What is the role played by Mr. Jenkinson?

7. Who kidnapped Sophia?

8. Who is Arabella?

9. How did the vicar get imprisoned?

10. What is the identity of Mr. Burchell?

11. Discuss the themes in The Vicar of Wakefield

12. How does The Vicar of Wakefield reflect the 18th century society in England?

13. AnalyseThe Vicar of Wakefield as a sentimental novel.

5.12 Reference Books

 Oliver Goldsmith by William Black.

 Portraits: Character Sketches of Oliver Goldsmith, Samuel Johnson, and David Garrick
by Joshua Reynolds.

Web References

Web source for the text:http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2667/2667-h/2667-h.htm

http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/oliver-goldsmith

http://www.poetry-archive.com/g/goldsmith_oliver_bibliography.html

https://www.britannica.com/art/sentimental-novel

http://www.literarydevices.com
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MODEL QUESTION PAPER

BA English

First Year - First Semester

CORE PAPER I

BRITISH LITERATURE - 1

Time: 3 hours Max.Marks:75

SECTION A (10 x 2 = 20marks)

Answer any TEN Questions out of TWELVE questions
All questions carrry equal marks

1. Name the person with whom Renaissance literature began in England.

2. Write a brief note on the Renaissance Parliment.

3. Write a note on the Restoration Period.

4. What is the period of ‘the Age of Queen Anne”?

5. Name the favourite resort of the learned literary men in London.

6. How was the two gentle knights in “Prothalamion” described?

7. Who lends the scissors to the Baron to cut Belinda’s Locks?

8. How does Eve refer to God?

9. What is the name of the ruler of hell in ‘Doctor Faustus’?

10. What is the meaning of the words that appear on Faustus’ arm in Latin?

11. Name the two great acquaintances from town who were introduced to the Primrose family.

12. Who does reveal himself as the wealthy Sir William Thornhill?
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SECTION B ( 5 x 5 = 25 marks)
Answer ANY FIVE of the following in 200 words each:

11. How according to Bacon, is revenge against the law?

12. Analyse the theme of vanity and pride in Goldsmith’s “A City Night Piece”.

13 Several lines in “Prothalamion” are devoted to the beauty of nature. Explain.

14. Bring out the metaphysical elements in Donne’s “A Valediction of Weeping”.

15. Discuss the role of the chorus in Doctor Faustus.

16. Comment on the Helen of Troy scene in Doctor Faustus.

17. Critically evaluate the character of Mr. Burchell in The Vicar of Wakefield.

SECTION C (3x10=30 marks)

Answer ANY THREE of the following in 300 words each.

18. Discuss in detail Sir Roger’s experiences at the theatre.

19. How is “The Rape of the Lock” a satire on the contemporary society?

20. Analyse Shakespeare’s “Shall I Compare thee to a Summer’s Day” as a sonnet.

21. Examine the play Doctor Faustus a tragedy.

22. Assess Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield as a sentimental novel.