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Integrated Wastewater Management and Valorization Using

Algal Cultures Goksel N. Demirer

Algal Green Chemistry. Recent Progress in Biotechnology

1st Edition Edition Rajesh Prasad Rastogi

Plant and Algal Hydrogels for Drug Delivery and

Regenerative Medicine Tapan Kumar Giri And Bijaya Ghosh

Handbook of Algal Biofuels Mostafa El-Sheekh

Silicon Carbide Biotechnology, Second Edition: A
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and Nanostructures Valentina Grumezescu
ALGAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
 ALGAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Integrated Algal Engineering
for Bioenergy, Bioremediation,
and Biomedical Applications

Edited by

ASHFAQ AHMAD
Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia

FAWZI BANAT
Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

HANIFA TAHER
Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
Elsevier
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 Contributors

Teh Sabariah Binti Abd Manan Institute of Jerusa Souza Andrade National Institute of
Tropical Biodiversity and Sustainable Develop- Amazon Research, INPA, Brazil
ment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Fawzi Banat Department of Chemical Engineer-
Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul Iman; Civil ing, Khalifa University of Science and Technology,
and Environmental Engineering Department, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
Juan C. Castro Unidad Especializada de
PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul
Biotecnologı́a, Centro de Investigaciones de
Ridzuan, Malaysia
Recursos Naturales de la UNAP (CIRNA),
Hasdianty Abdullah Institute of Bio-IT Se- Universidad Nacional de la Amazonia Peruana
langor, Universiti Selangor, Shah Alam; Faculty (UNAP), Iquitos, Peru
of Engineering & Life Sciences, Department of Giovanna Chianese National Research Council,
Science & Biotechnology, Universiti Selangor, Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent
Selangor, Malaysia Systems, Unit of Naples, Naples, Italy
Muhammad Afzaal Sustainable Development Marianela Cobos Laboratorio de Biotecnologı́a
Study Centre, Government College University, y Bioenerg
etica, Universidad Cientı́fica del
Lahore, Pakistan Perú, Iquitos; Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas,
Amirrudin Ahmad Faculty of Science and Universidad Nacional San Luis Gonzaga de
Marine Environment, and Institute of Tropical Ica (UNICA), Ica, Peru
Biodiversity and Sustainable Development, Jorge Alberto Vieira Costa Department of
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology,
Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul Iman, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná;
Malaysia Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Col-
Ashfaq Ahmad Department of Chemical Engi- lege of Chemistry and Food Engineering,
neering, Khalifa University of Science and Tech- Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande,
nology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Mohd Fadzli Ahmad Institute of Bio-IT Se- Mariany Costa Deprá Bioprocess Intensifica-
langor, Universiti Selangor, Shah Alam; Faculty tion Group, Federal University of
of Engineering & Life Sciences, Department of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, Rio Grande
Science & Biotechnology, Universiti Selangor, do Sul, Brazil
Selangor, Malaysia angela Rodrigues Dias Bioprocess Intensifi-
Ros^
Sahib Alam Department of Agricultural Chem- cation Group, Federal University of
istry and Biochemistry, The University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Santa Maria, Rio Grande
Agriculture Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, do Sul, Brazil
Pakistan Denys Dutykh Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Sa-
Higo Forlan Amaral Department of Agronomy, voie Mont Blanc, CNRS, LAMA, Chamb
ery,
Philadelphia University Center, UniFil, France
Londrina, Parana, Brazil A.S. Fernandes Department of Food Science
Diva Souza Andrade Paraná Rural Develop- and Technology, Federal University of
ment Institute, IAPAR-EMATER, Londrina, Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande
Parana, Brazil do Sul, Brazil

ix
x Contributors

Suchitra Gaur TERI-Deakin Nanobiotechnology Mohd Asyraf Kassim School of Industrial Tech-
Centre, Division of Sustainable Agriculture, nology, University of Science Malaysia (USM),
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), George Town, Penang, Malaysia
Gurugram, Haryana, India Ashvinder Kaur Amity Institute of Biotechnol-
Mayurika Goel TERI-Deakin Nanobiotechnology ogy, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh,
Centre, Division of Sustainable Agriculture, The India
Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Gaganjot Kaur Amity Institute of Biotechnology,
Gurugram, Haryana, India Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ricardo Franci Gonçalves Department of Envi- Taimur Khan Civil and Environmental Engi-
ronmental Engineering, Federal University of neering Department, Faculty of Engineering,
Espı́rito Santo, Vitória, Espı́rito Santo, Brazil Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri
Mostafa M. Gouda College of Biosystems Engi- Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
neering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Waqas Ud Din Khan Sustainable Development
Hangzhou, China; Department of Nutrition & Study Centre, Government College University,
Food Science, National Research Centre, Dokki, Lahore, Pakistan
Giza, Egypt
Julia Krylova Saint-Petersburg Branch of the
Saman Hameed Sustainable Development Study Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution
Centre, Government College University, Lahore, “All-Russian Research Institute of Fisheries
Pakistan and Oceanography” (“GosNiorch” by L.S.
Noor Haza Fazlin Hashim Water Quality Labo- Berg), Saint Petersburg, Russia
ratory, National Hydraulic Research Institute Evgeny Kurashov Institute of Limnology,
Malaysia (NAHRIM), Seri Kembangan, Selangor, a separate subdivision of the St.
Malaysia Petersburg Federal Research Center of the
Abdul Karim Russ Hassan Universiti Kuala Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg,
Lumpur Royal College of Medicine Perak Russia
(UniKL RCMP), Ipoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Japareng Lalung School of Industrial Technol-
Malaysia ogy, University of Science Malaysia (USM),
Mohamed Hasnain Isa Civil Engineering George Town, Penang, Malaysia
Programme, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Paola Lasta Bioprocess Intensification Group,
Teknologi Brunei, Gadong, Brunei Darussalam Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM,
Mohd Hafiiz Jaafar School of Industrial Tech- Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
nology, University of Science Malaysia Amir Sharifuddin Ab Latip Centre of Studies
(USM), George Town, Penang, Malaysia for Surveying Science and Geomatics, Faculty
Eduardo Jacob-Lopes Bioprocess Intensification of Architecture, Planning, and Surveying,
Group; Department of Food Science and Tech- Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Se-
nology, Federal University of Santa Maria langor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
(UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Siew Yoong Leong Department of Petrochemi-
Guozhao Ji Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecol- cal Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and
ogy and Environmental Engineering, School Green Technology, Universiti Tunku Abdul
of Environmental Science & Technology, Da- Rahman, Kampar, Perak Darul Ridzuan,
lian University of Technology, Dalian, China Malaysia
Rishu Kalra TERI-Deakin Nanobiotechnology Muxuan Li Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecol-
Centre, Division of Sustainable Agriculture, ogy and Environmental Engineering, School
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), of Environmental Science & Technology, Da-
Gurugram, Haryana, India lian University of Technology, Dalian, China
 Contributors xi
Shaoyang Liu Department of Chemistry and Rodrigo Braga Moruzzi Universidade Estadual
Physics, Center for Materials and Manufactur- de São Paulo Júlio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP),
ing Sciences, Troy University, Troy, AL, United São Paulo, Brazil
States Siti Fatimah Zaharah Mustafa Institute of Ma-
Bárbara Franco Lucas Laboratory of Biochemi- rine Biotechnology, Universiti Malaysia Te-
cal Engineering, College of Chemistry and rengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul
Food Engineering, Federal University of Iman, Malaysia
Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, T.C. Nascimento Department of Food Science
Brazil and Technology, Federal University of
Yichao Ma Biosystems Engineering Depart- Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande
ment, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United do Sul, Brazil
States; Shanghai Institute of Quality Inspection P.P. Nass Department of Food Science and
and Technical Research, Shanghai, People’s Re- Technology, Federal University of
public of China Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande
Affiani Machmudah Industrial Engineering, do Sul, Brazil
Faculty of Advanced Technology and Ana Maria Pereira Neto Universidade Federal
Multidiscipline, Universitas Airlangga, Jalan do ABC (UFABC), São Paulo, Brazil
Mulyorejo, Kampus C, Surabaya, East Java,
ornberg Department of Food Science
M.L. N€
Indonesia
and Technology, Federal University of
Maegala Nallapan Maniyam Institute of Bio-IT Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande
Selangor; Centre for Foundation and General do Sul, Brazil
Studies, Universiti Selangor, Shah Alam, Se-
Sobia Qazi Department of Foundation Engi-
langor, Malaysia
neering and Physical Science, Advance
Márcio Ferreira Martins Laboratory of Com- Manufacturing Building, Jubilee Campus, Uni-
bustion and Combustible Matter (LCCm), versity of Nottingham, Nottingham, United
PPGEM, Federal University of Espı́rito Santo, Kingdom
Vitória, Espı́rito Santo, Brazil
Boyu Qu Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology
Habsah Mohamad Institute of Marine Biotech- and Environmental Engineering, School of En-
nology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, vironmental Science & Technology, Dalian Uni-
Kuala Nerus, Terengganu Darul Iman, versity of Technology, Dalian, China
Malaysia
Abdul Raheem Institute of clean coal Technol-
Zarimah Mohd Hanafiah Civil Engineering De-
ogy, East China University of Science and Tech-
partment, Faculty of Engineering and
nology, Shanghai, China
Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Ma-
laysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Monika Prakash Rai Amity Institute of Biotech-
nology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar
Michele Greque de Morais Laboratory of Mi-
Pradesh, India
crobiology and Biochemistry, College of Chem-
istry and Food Engineering, Federal University Rizwan Rasheed Sustainable Development
of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Study Centre, Government College University,
Brazil Lahore, Pakistan
Luiz Rodrigo Ito Morioka Pitágoras Univer- Ilaria Rea National Research Council, Institute
sity/North of Paraná, Campus Piza, Campus of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Systems,
Piza, Londrina, Parana, Brazil Unit of Naples, Naples, Italy
xii Contributors

Reetu Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity Monica Terracciano Department of Pharmacy,

University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
Rafaela Basso Sartori Bioprocess Intensification Rodolfo Sbrolini Tiburcio Universidade Fed-
Group, Federal University of Santa Maria, eral do ABC (UFABC), São Paulo, Brazil
UFSM, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Chiara Tramontano National Research Council,
Aida Soraya Shamsuddin Department of Nu- Institute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent
trition Sciences, Kulliyyah of Allied Health Sci- Systems, Unit of Naples; Department of
ences, International Islamic University Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II,
Malaysia, IIUM, Kuantan Campus, Naples, Italy
Kuantan Darul Makmur, Pahang, Malaysia
Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar Civil Engi-
Gustavo Henrique Ribeiro Silva Universidade neering Department, Faculty of Engineering
Estadual de São Paulo Júlio de Mesquita Filho and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan
(UNESP), São Paulo, Brazil Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Fridelina Sjahrir Faculty of Engineering & Life Malaysia
Sciences, Department of Science & Biotechnol- Nadiah Wan Rasdi Institute of Tropical Biodi-
ogy, Universiti Selangor, Selangor, Malaysia versity and Sustainable Development; Faculty
Renan Barroso Soares Laboratory of Combus- of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Ma-
tion and Combustible Matter (LCCm), PPGEM; laysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu
Department of Environmental Engineering, Darul Iman, Malaysia
Federal University of Espı́rito Santo, Vitória,
Yi Wang Biosystems Engineering Department;
Espı́rito Santo, Brazil
Center for Bioenergy and Bioproducts, Auburn
Lais Galileu Speranza Universidade Estadual University, Auburn, AL, United States
de São Paulo Júlio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP),
Yifen Wang Biosystems Engineering Depart-
São Paulo, Brazil; Associação Oceano Verde
ment; Center for Bioenergy and Bioproducts,
(GreenCoLab), Faro, Portugal
Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
Luca De Stefano National Research Council, In-
stitute of Applied Sciences and Intelligent Sys- Nor Suhaila Yaacob Institute of Bio-IT Selangor;
tems, Unit of Naples, Naples, Italy Centre for Foundation and General Studies,
Universiti Selangor, Shah Alam, Selangor,
Musa A. Tadda College of Biosystems Engineer- Malaysia
ing and Food Science, Zhejiang University,
Hangzhou, China; Department of Agricultural Munise Zaparoli Department of Bioprocess En-
and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of En- gineering and Biotechnology, Federal Univer-
gineering, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria sity of Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

Hanifa Taher Department of Chemical Engi- Leila Queiroz Zepka Bioprocess Intensification
neering, Khalifa University of Science and Group, Federal University of Santa Maria,
Technology; Research and Innovation Center UFSM, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
on CO2 and H2 (RICH), Khalifa University, Q.Z. Zepka Department of Food Science and
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Technology, Federal University of
Tiago Santos Telles Paraná Rural Development Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande
Institute, IAPAR-EMATER, Londrina, Parana, do Sul, Brazil
Brazil
 C H A P T E R

1
Algal engineering for bioremediation,
bioenergy production, and biomedical
applications
Ashfaq Ahmada,*, Fawzi Banata, and Hanifa Tahera,b
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates bResearch and Innovation Center on CO2 and H2 (RICH), Khalifa
University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

O U T L I N E

1 Introduction 3 4.3 Biogas production 19

2 Industrial wastewater treatment 5 5 Biomedical applications 20
2.1 Removal of total nitrogen (TN) 5.1 Antioxidant activity 20
and total phosphorus (TP) 6 5.2 Anticancer, antiangiogenic,
2.2 Heavy metal (HM) removal by and cytotoxic activities 21
algae 9 5.3 Antiobesity activity 22
5.4 Antimicrobial activities 23
3 Algae for CO2 sequestration 11
6 Conclusion and future outlook 24
4 Bioenergy from algae 14
4.1 Biodiesel production 15 References 25
4.2 Bioethanol production 18

1 Introduction

Algae are photosynthetic aquatic plants that grow in ponds, streams, oceans, and even
wastewater. Algae have a high tolerance for high temperatures, salinities, pH, and different

*Correspondence to [email protected]

Algal Biotechnology 3 Copyright # 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90476-6.00015-7
4 1. Algal engineering for bioremediation

light intensities and can grow alone or with other organisms because of their symbiotic relation-
ship [1,2]. They are generally categorized as Rhodophyta (red algae), Phaeophyta (brown al-
gae), and Chlorophyta (green algae). They can be grouped by sizes, e.g., macroalgae
(seaweeds) are multicellular, large, and can be seen with the naked eye. In contrast, microalgae
are unicellular, smaller in size, and can only be seen microscopically. Like conventional food
crops, algae require water, sunlight, carbon dioxide (CO2), and nutrients to grow. However,
they have a higher growth rate than other plants and provide ecological benefits [3,4].
Microalgae can be prokaryotic such as cyanobacteria (Chloroxybacteria), or eukaryotic such
as green algae (Chlorophyta). Fig. 1.1 shows the green marine microalgae Nannochloropsis
oculata and the freshwater/terrestrial algae species Eustigmatos splendida and Eustigmatos
magnus [5].
Algae can potentially be used to produce biofuel, bioproducts, medicines, and cosmetics as
they are a rich source of carbon compounds [6]. Bioproducts produced by algae are polysac-
charides, lipids, pigments, proteins, vitamins, bioactive compounds, and antioxidants that
can be used for various purposes. Algae have extensive applications in industrial wastewater
treatment and CO2 sequestration [7]. Algae feedstock is deemed renewable and sustainable for
biofuels, which has encouraged setting up biorefineries. Integrated algal engineering ap-
proaches for improving their growth rate and genetic modification can enhance their future
applications for producing renewable bioproducts. Rapid climate change is being caused
due to the burning of fossil fuels, the release of anthropogenic CO2, and the increasing popu-
lation worldwide. Microalgae and cyanobacteria can be promising biological tools to tackle
these persistent problems [8,9]. Algal biotechnology aims to produce sustainable biofuels with
zero CO2 emissions. An algal strain can be modified through genetic engineering to enhance
biofuel production by targeting either a single gene or multiple genes [10]. Fig. 1.1 presents

FIG. 1.1 Microalgae convert CO2 into carbohydrates, lipids, and other valued bioproducts by using sunlight. From
M.I. Khan, J.H. Shin, J.D. Kim, The promising future of microalgae: current status, challenges, and optimization of a sustainable
and renewable industry for biofuels, feed, and other products, Microb. Cell Fact. 17 (1) (2018) 36.

I. Environmental sector
 2 Industrial wastewater treatment 5
the conversion of CO2 into carbohydrates, lipids, and other valued bioproducts by using
sunlight.
Commercial algae cultivation for generating biofuels and bioproducts has significantly in-
creased recently [4]. An enormous amount of algae is being produced and sold for different
purposes, such as the production of food and nutrient supplements. Algal extracts and
by-products can be used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [5–7]. Algae feedstocks
are proficient and desirable for biofuel production. They do not require vast lands for cultiva-
tion and can quickly grow in industrial wastewater. Algae do not contest human and animal
food chains and mitigate atmospheric CO2 [11–13]. Microalgae do not have lignocellulosic ma-
terials in the cell wall. This facilitates the pretreatment method and reduces production costs.
Algae can grow in industrial wastewater and require less energy for their cultivation than the
energy they can produce [14–16]. Production of second-generation biofuels from terrestrial
plants is an immensely debated issue because biofuels’ production from such food crops is ex-
pensive and competes with food and feed requirements. Moreover, crop foods need arable land
and an enormous quantity of water, making biofuel production unsustainable. Therefore, liq-
uid fuels from algae are an incomputable alternative [17,18]. Biofuel generation from
microalgae is still in the developing phase, and a significant improvement is essential for its
commercial application and attracting investors and consumers.

2 Industrial wastewater treatment

Several physical, chemical, and biological treatment techniques have been used for indus-
trial wastewater treatment. Conventional methods for wastewater treatment involve inten-
sive aeration for the oxidation of organic carbon and removal of other contaminants using
microorganisms. An enormous amount of energy is required for the aeration of wastewater
treatment plants, accounting for 50% or more of the total energy costs [19–21]. Numerous
studies have suggested that algae can use various types of wastewater such as industrial, do-
mestic, municipal, or agricultural wastewater. Combining sewage with the flue gas (atmo-
spheric CO2) enhances microalgae biomass productivity [22,23]. Organic carbon oxidation
directly emits CO2 into the atmosphere, whereas the energy used for the aeration of treatment
plants can indirectly emit CO2 [24,25].
Additionally, substantial quantities of potent greenhouse gases, such as nitrous oxide
(N2O), are also discharged in the latter case. One of the main constraints for traditional waste-
water treatment is the recovery of N and P after the treatment [24,25]. Therefore, the algal
wastewater treatment approach can be economical and ecologically friendly, mainly for re-
moving and recovering N and P. Algae can produce oxygen (O2) through photosynthesis and
assimilate CO2 during the photosynthetic process. They have a symbiotic relationship with
bacteria. During the oxidation of organic carbon, the bacteria utilize the O2 produced by pho-
tosynthetic algae, and the algae simultaneously assimilate the CO2 generated by bacterial res-
piration. Therefore, the integration of algae in wastewater treatment can decrease aeration
requirements and CO2 emissions. Algae absorb N and P and photosynthetically fix carbon
during their growth. This reduces the bacterial requirements for N and P removal and the
associated aeration demands and N2O emissions [21]. Another study has reported that algae

I. Environmental sector
6 1. Algal engineering for bioremediation

FIG. 1.2 An integrated approach of microalgae cultivation in different wastewaters for bioproducts application.
From R.K. Goswami, et al., Microalgae-based biorefineries for sustainable resource recovery from wastewater, J. Water Process.
Eng. (2020) 101747.

could be cultured via an integrated cultivation system using wastewater from the food indus-
try and CO2 from the atmosphere. Further, biomass can be used to produce bioenergy and
bioactive compounds [22].
Moreover, algae biomass produced in the wastewater treatment process could be recycled
for diverse applications, as shown in Fig. 1.2. Algal biomass contains lipids, carbohydrates,
and proteins with high nutritious and calorific value. After its harvesting, it can be used as
animal feed [26], slow-release fertilizer [27], or biofuel [28,29], thus turning waste into valu-
able resources. Biogas, such as biomethane and biohydrogen, can be produced through an-
aerobic digestion from wastewater. The biomass can also be utilized as supplementary feed
for aquaculture and animals and as fertilizer for crops.

2.1 Removal of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP)

Fig. 1.3 explains the standard wastewater treatment process, including primary, second-
ary, and final processing stages. Raw wastewater usually comprises organic N that can
quickly degrade into ammonium. Organic N and inorganic N, including urea, and such
wastewater could be used to grow filamentous algae. Putatively, it is favorable to cultivate
freely suspended cells of filamentous algae in raw wastewater. However, the existence of
a suspended substance in wastewater makes it too turbid and blocks light penetration,
inhibiting algae’s photosynthetic activity. The solid wastes present in the wastewater can
be typically removed through the primary process of sedimentation or dissolved air flotation
to get a relatively perfect effluent that has soluble organic carbon and ammonium [21].

I. Environmental sector
 2 Industrial wastewater treatment 7

FIG. 1.3 Wastewater treatment process (orange boxes, gray in print version) and the different wastewater streams
(blue boxes, dark gray in print version) in which algae could be cultivated. From J. Liu, et al., Wastewater treatment using
filamentous algae—a review, Bioresour. Technol. 298 (2020) 122556.

Wastewater contains organic, and inorganic P. Algae utilize orthophosphate, polyphosphate,

pyrophosphate, and metaphosphate for their growth [30]. N and P are important nutrients re-
quired for algal growth and are assimilated instantaneously. Table 1.1 presents the wastewater
contamination removal rate for different species of microalgae. An N to P ratio (N:P ratio) is usu-
ally defined to identify whether they are the limiting nutrients for algal growth in certain waste-
water. Microalgae Pantanalinema has been reported for N and P removal from wastewater under
the dark-light condition. Around 86% of P was removed within a dark-light cycle of 6 h. Cellular
and polyphosphate mechanisms of microalgal-bacterial granules were responsible for accumu-
lating P. Approximately 70% of soluble P removal was reported due to polyphosphate develop-
ment in Pantanalinema algal cells [31]. The algal-bacterial symbiosis (ABS) system has been
reported to improve the removal of nutrients using a sequencing batch biofilm reactor
(SBBR). The total N’s elimination efficiencies increased from 38.5% to 65.8% and P from 31.9%
to 89.3% using the algae-assisted SBBR. Moreover, chlorophyll-a (3.59 mg/g) production in-
creased at a stable stage and was 4.07-fold higher than that of freely suspended cells. An analysis
of the mechanisms proposed that the high removal of N and P is mostly due to enhancing both
algal biomass and total biomass in the biofilm [32]. Chlorella vulgaris and Neochloris oleoabundans
have been reported to remove the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), inorganic N, and total
dissolved P at 36°C from primary and secondary effluents and centrate (CEN). The efficiency
of COD’s removal achieved with C. vulgaris was 51% from primary effluent, 55% from secondary
effluent, and 80% from CEN. In contrast, the efficiency of COD’s removal achieved with
N. oleoabundans was 63% from primary effluent, 47% from secondary effluent, and 72% from
CEN. Simultaneously, ammonia removal efficiencies (70%–84%) were obtained with both

I. Environmental sector
8 1. Algal engineering for bioremediation

TABLE 1.1 Microalgae species and their removal rate of contamination from different wastewater.
Wastewater Microalgae N (%) P (%) A (%) COD (%) Ref.
Industrial Spirulina platensis – 93 99 94 [40]

Scenedesmus sp. 90 89 – 87 [41]

Chlorella sp. 30–51 45 69–90 8–44 [42]
Municipal Coelastrum microporum 35–88 42–89 – 60–80 [43]
Chlorella sp. 89 81 94 91 [44]
S. obliquus – 55–83 97–100 – [45]
Blue-green algae 77–98 55–73 100 98 [46]

Agriculture Chlorella sp. 76–83 63–75 100 28–38 [47]

C. vulgaris – 88 54 – [48]
Isochrysis galbana 58 – – 77 [49]
Pavlova lutheri 60 – – 80 [49]
From N.S.M. Aron, K.S. Khoo, K.W. Chew, A. Veeramuthu, J.S. Chang, P.L. Show, Microalgae cultivation in wastewater and potential processing
strategies using solvent and membrane separation technologies, J. Water Process Eng. 39 (2021) 101701.

species in different wastewaters. High P concentrations that were removed from primary efflu-
ent were >84%. These were moderate in CEN (>22%) and less in secondary effluent (<15%).
These studies confirmed that algae could grow in wastewaters at a hot temperature of 36°C
and remove contaminants such as organic carbon, N, and P [33]. Algae-based membrane biore-
actor (A-MBR) has been reported to cultivate algae with high cell density to remove P. The con-
centration of algae cells was increased from 385 to 4840 mg/L, and the average solids yield
production rate of 32.5 g
3/day was attained. Total P removal of 66% was achieved from waste-
water in A-MBR. This study suggested that algae-induced phosphate precipitation is the key to
removing P. The high-cell density of algal cultivation can produce P-rich biomass with brilliant
harvesting properties [34]. The discharge of excessive P causes extensive eutrophication and wa-
ter pollution that threatens both ecological and human health. However, P is an important com-
ponent for all living microorganisms, but it is nonrenewable. Further, its natural reserves are
depleting rapidly. Algae can sustainably reuse P from wastewater for their growth. Ultra-
membrane-treated landfill leachate can be utilized as a nutrient medium for culturing indige-
nous algal species with immediate elimination of P and N. Maximum N removal of 69% and
P removal of 100% were achieved from 100 mg/L P-PO4
3 -supplemented medium. Algae
can be grown and used to sustain P and N from landfill leachate [35]. A study has recommended
natural algae granulation in open sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) for treating synthetic waste-
water to overcome the high separation cost of algae. High removal of P content (33 mg-P/g-TSS)
with higher P bioavailability (92%) was achieved with algae granules as compared to seed algae
(20 mg-P/g-TSS). The algae granules have a rich perspective for P rescue and reuse [36]. The
anaerobic-aerobic-anoxic sequencing batch reactor (AOA-SBR) system has been suggested for
instantaneous carbon, N, and P removal. High removal proficiencies of COD (97%), TN
(96%), and TP (94%) were achieved with the AOA-SBR system in 6-h cycles [21]. Algae

I. Environmental sector
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 Pharmacy - Lab Report
Summer 2024 - Research Center

Prepared by: Associate Prof. Brown

Date: July 28, 2025

References 1: Literature review and discussion

Learning Objective 1: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 8: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 2: Practical applications and examples
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 11: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 13: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 18: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 19: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Section 3: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 28: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 4: Current trends and future directions
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 31: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 32: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 36: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 37: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Background 5: Current trends and future directions
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 41: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 6: Ethical considerations and implications
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 52: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 53: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 59: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Discussion 7: Historical development and evolution
Example 60: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 61: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 62: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 63: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 69: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Chapter 8: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 72: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 78: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 79: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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