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 ‘A treasure-trove for any w ord sm ith .’
W R I T I N G MAGAZI NE

dictionary of

english down
the aees
words & phrases born out o f
historical events great & small
 dictionary o f
english down the ages
Linda Flavell completed a first degree in modern languages and has subsequent
qualifications in both secondary and primary teaching. She has worked as an
English teacher both in England and overseas, and more recendy as a librarian
in secondary schools and as a writer. She has written three simplified readers for
overseas students and co-authored, with her husband, Current English Usage for
Papermac and several dictionaries of etymologies for Kyle Cathie.
Roger Flavell’s Master s thesis was on the nature of idiomaticity and his
doctoral research on idioms and their teaching in several European languages.
On taking up a post as Lecturer in Education at the Institute of Education,
University of London, he travelled very widely in pursuit of his principal
interests in education and training language teachers. In more recent years, he
was concerned with education and international development, and with online
education. He also worked as an independent educational consultant. He died
in November 2005.
By the same authors

Dictionary o f Idioms
Dictionary o f Proverbs
Dictionary ofW ord Origins
 dictionary of

english down
the ages
words & phrases born out of
historical events great 6c small

Linda and Roger Flavell

Kyle Books
This edition reprinted in 2011 by Kyle Books
23 Howland Street
London W IT 4AY
[email protected]
www.kylebooks.com

First published in Great Britain in 1999 by Kyle Cathie Limited

ISBN 978-1-85626-603-1

Copyright © 1999 by Linda and Roger Flavell

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this

publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of
this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with
written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright
Act 1956 (as amended). Any person who does any unauthorized act in
relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution or civil
claims for damages.

Linda and Roger Flavell are hereby identified as authors of this work in
accordance with Section 77 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Edited by Caroline Taggart

Designed by Gavin Pretor-Pinney
Typeset by Mick Hodson Associates, Whitton, Twickenham, Middlesex
Printed Gopsons Papers Ltd., Noida
To John and Anna
 C ontents

Introduction 11

1066 T h e N orm an s begin to erect castles 17

c 1070 W illiam the C on q u ero r introduces the feudal system 19
1070 T h e construction o f C anterbury Cathedral is begun 25
1079 T h e N ew Forest is established as a royal hunting ground 28
1086 W illiam I com m issions the D om esday B o o k 32
1095 T h e C oun cil o f C lerm o n t: Pope U rban II preaches the
First Crusade 34
1105 T h e C o u rt o f E xch eq u er is established 35
1132 Fountains Abbey is founded 38
1133 St B arth olom ew ^ Fair is founded 41
1137 E lean or succeeds her father, W illiam X , to the D uchy
o f Aquitaine 44
c 1167 O xford University com es into being 49
1170 W illiam Marshal becom es a guardian o f the young P rin ce
Henry, heir o f the English throne 53
1173 T hom as a B eck et is canonised 57
c 1186 Giraldus Cambrensis writes his Topographica Hibernica 61
1192 R ich ard the L ionheart is taken hostage 63
1198 T h e Sheriff o f L on d on introduces measures to reduce the
risk o f fire 65
1204 Constantinople is conquered in the Fou rth Crusade 66
1236 W ater is first brought into L on d on through lead pipes 74
c 1250 Buttons are used to fasten clothes 79
1268 R o g e r B aco n com m ents on the optical use o f lenses 80
c 1290 T h e М арра M undi at H ereford is drawn up 82
1296 W illiam de Leybourne is appointed Admiral o f the Sea 83
1300 Pope Boniface V III proclaims the first Jubilee Year 85
1308 D eath o f the Scottish theologian Duns Scotus 86
1331 Edw ard III invites seventy Flem ish cloth-w orkers and their
families to settle in England 88
1340 The Ayenbite of Inwit appears 93
1346 Edw ard III uses cannon at C re cy 94
1347 T h e Black D eath sweeps across E urope 96
c 1350 T h e costum es o f the wealthy b eco m e m ore flamboyant
and varied
c 1350 Almost, every tow n n ow has a shop
1360 Edw ard III issues a royal edict protecting hawks and
their owners
1382 T h e first full translations o f the Bible into English appear
& 1388
1386 A m echanical clock is set up in Salisbury Cathedral
c 1390 The Forme of Cury, an early cook ery book, appears
c 1400 Tennis becom es know n in England
c 1410 W ire drawing is invented in N u rem berg
1465 English playing-card manufacturers call for restrictions on
foreign im ports
1474 W illiam C axto n prints the first b ook in English
1485 H en ry V II begins his reign with a N avigation A ct
1492 T h e M oorish K ingdom o f Granada is finally conquered
by the Spanish Kings
1492 C hristop h er Colum bus sails west and discovers the
W est Indies
1495 T h e first paper mill in England is buil
1496 W ynkyn de W orde publishes an edition o f The Boke of
St Albans
1509 A lexander Barclay4s The Ship of Fools appears
1512 H en ry V III founds the R o y al D ockyard at W oolw ich
1516 A Jew ish ghetto is founded in Venice
c 1518 Table forks are regularly used in Italy
1519 C ortes enters Tenochtitlan
1568 W illiam the Silent leads the D u tch revolt against
Spanish rule
1569 T h e first lottery in Englnad is organised
1588 T h e population o f Paris erect barricades against their K ing
1589 W illiam Lee invents the first knitting m achine
1597 The Essays, or Counsels, Civill and Morall, o f Francis B acon
are first published
1599 Edm und Spenser, the Elizabethan poet, dies
1600 W illiam Gilbert publishes his treatise De Magnete
1605 A plot to blow up the Houses o f Parliament and the
K ing is discovered
1607 Successful English settlem ent o f N o rth A m erica begins
1608 T h e p o et Jo h n M ilton is b orn
Holland becom es effectively independent from Spain 178
W illiam Shakespeare dies 181
Pope G regory X V sets up the Sacred C ongregation for
the Propagation o f the Faith 187
English colonists establish a settlem ent on Barbados 189
T h e first battle in the English C ivil W ar is fought 192
Skating becom es popular in England 196
T h e E d ict o f N antes is revoked 198
T h e secret form ula for the m anufacture o f porcelain
is discovered 199
T h e p oet W illiam C o w p er is b o rn 201
T h e first ‘Gin A c t’ is passed 203
‘G od Save the K in g’ is first p erform ed 205
M rsV esey begins h er famous literary gatherings 207
C on stru ction o f the B ridgew ater Canal is com pleted 208
T h e first public restaurant is opened in Paris 211
Jam es C o o k sails for the Pacific O cean in the Endeavour
on the first o f his three voyages 212
T h e rules o f crick et are laid dow n 215
Jonas Hanway, the first to carry an umbrella in
L ond on , dies 218
R o b e r t Barker exhibits the first panoram a 220
C aptain A rth ur Philip establishes a penal colony
in Australia 222
Luigi Galvani publishes his findings on ‘animal
electricity’ 225
M u ngo Park begins his expedition to the N ig er R iv er 226
Alessandro Volta invents the battery 228
B aron C agniard de la T our invents the siren 229
G ideon M antell finds a num ber o f large fossilised teeth
in Tilgate Forest 230
T h e S tockton and D arlington R ailw ay is com pleted 233
Frictio n matches are invented by British chem ist
Jo h n Walker 235
N iceph ore N iep ce takes the first photograph 237
Stanislav B aud ry starts his om nibus services in Paris 240
Gold is discovered at Sutter‘s M ill, n orth ern California 242
C ockfighting is m ade illegal in Great Britain 244
T h e A m erican C ivil W ar is fought 249
A m erica undergoes a period o f R eco n stru ctio n 252
1869 T h e first pedal bicycle is produced in England 253
187 1 T h e Treaty o f Frankfurt brings the Franco-Prussian W ar
to a close 258
1885 Gottlieb D aim ler and Karl B enz use light petrol engines
to propel m o to r vehicles 259
1885 T h e first skyscraper is built in the U n ited States 264
1888 A great blizzard sweeps across the eastern U n ited States 268
1901 Guglielm o M arconi successfully transmits radio signals
across the Atlantic 269
1914 C o c o C hanel opens h er couture business in Paris 272
1916 In the First W orld W ar tanks are used for the first time
as the British attack the G erm ans at the S om m e 277
1920 W eekly payments are m ade to the unem ployed from
national and local funds 278
1928 A lexander Flem ing discovers penicillin 279
1938 Laszlo B iro patents the first practical ball-point pen 281
1940 Vidkun Quisling assumes leadership o f N orw ay 283
1940 T h e Blitz begins 284
1946 A tom ic bom b tests are carried ou t in the Marshall Islands 285
1948 T h e first alterable stored-program com p u ter is b orn 286
1950 N o rth K orean troops invade South K orea 292
1957 T h e first E arth satellite is launched 294
1961 Joseph H eller’s novel Catch-22 is published 295
1969 T h e Stonewall R io t takes place in N ew York 296
1971 G reenpeace is founded 298
1989 T im B ern ers-L ee makes proposals that lead to the
W orld W id e W eb 300

Bibliography 305
Index 309
 INTRODUCTION

A t the end o f a book (for that is w hen Introductions are w ritten),

it is always a good m om en t to take stock. In fact, it is really at the
end o f a series o f four dictionaries. T h e three previous ones, as
etym ological guides to idioms, proverbs and words, shared a lot
in com m on. Entries began with a particular term in the language,
and went on to trace its linguistic origins. W e did w hat most
dictionaries do: focused on the w ord and its linguistic origins,
and we brought in some o f the contem porary social, literary or
political history in so far as this was necessary to explain the
origin or use o f the expression.
T he book that you have in your hands is somewhat different.
Instead o f beginning w ith the word and perhaps going on to the
historical world for clarification, the direction here is from events
in the world to their im pact on language. O ne book that does this
type o f thing is Hughes (for details, see the Bibliography) and
another the estimable Baugh and Cable; but neither is in
dictionary form at. O th er books, such as Grun and Gossling and
the delightful Little, follow a tim e-line style o f presentation, but
do not con cern themselves w ith the linguistic implications o f
historical events. W h at this book sets out to do is to look at
historical events and investigate w hat the results were on the
English language. This led to a very simple plan o f presentation.
O ver ten centuries, we have chosen roughly ten dates per
hundred years, and explored the linguistic ramifications o f what
happened as a result. So it is chronology that organises the
material, and not an alphabetical list o f words. O f course, for ease
o f reference, we have provided at the back o f the book an index
o f main words within each entry.
12

Although there is this m ajor difference between T he

Chronology o f Words and Phrases and other dictionaries that we
have compiled, there is m uch that is in com m on. For instance, we
have tried to find interesting happenings, unusual word stories,
good quotations. W e have done our best to be scholarly, but have
tried to avoid pedantry. W e have sought to be reliable but not
dull. W e hope you agree!
So far, we have rather generally referred to an ‘event’ or
‘happening’ that triggered a w ord or expression. B u t what, in this
context, is an ‘event’?
Sometimes, it is possible to be very precise. In September 1653,
a wall some half a mile long was built across Manhattan Island in
N ew York. Its ditches and palisades were to provide protection
from the native Americans, and from Oliver CromwelTs troops,
who were imminently expected. Although we may not recognise
it, we hear o f this ‘event’ nearly every day in our news and financial
bulletins. As you have doubtless guessed, this wall was situated on
what we now call Wall Street. There are similar stories in our
Dictionary o f Word Origins - you might look at serendipity (which can
be pinpointed to 28 January 1754) or the engaging but sadly
apocryphal 2 4 -h o u r origin o f q u iz .T h e r e is no need to go to other
books, however. Some o f the entries in this one relate to very
specific events. If you browse through, you will find a number.
B u t an ‘event’ is rarely one specific incident, from w hich a
word or expression im mediately com es. O ften, it derives from an
evolving process.There is usually an on-going story which we try
to tell, frequently unfolding over decades. For example, N iepce
and Daguerre were early contributors to photography, and over
the next century their successors have given us the still and
m oving picture industries we know today. In a way, it is a little
arbitrary w hich o f a num ber o f key dates we actually chose. In
fact, the one we chose (1 8 2 7 - see page 20 0 ) is fundamental, but
there were other options. F o r quite a different approach, we
chose 10 9 5 as the date to talk about the influence o f the Crusades
on English, and then returned to the them e at subsequent
im portant m om ents (see 1192 and 1204, pages 5 4 and 57). W e
followed a similar procedure w ith one o f the most im portant
dates in world history: 149 2 . As every school child knows:
 13

In 1492,
Columbus sailed the ocean b lu e...

.. .and discovered A m erica. W e pick up the early influences o f the

N ew W orld directly for a second time in the entry for 1 5 1 9 , but
very many o f the subsequent entries up to the present day are
indebted in one way or another to events on the A m erican
continent.
Sometimes it is an individual w ho makes the impact. Many
literary ‘greats’ have marked our language. Obvious cases we have
treated have been Shakespeare and Spenser - selecting the year o f
their death to discuss their linguistic influence. O f course, there
are many others we could have chosen, but considerations o f
space forced some omissions. For those w ho are interested, our
other dictionaries look at some o f these.
Genius is manifest in other ways. Wycliffe provided the first
full translation o f the whole Bible into English, with immense
implications for life and language over succeeding centuries (see
1382 & 1388, page 9 2 ). C axton changed the world, too - we
choose the publication o f the first printed book in English (1474)
as the m om ent to celebrate. O th er flashes o f inspiration com e
from an unknown source. Around 1 4 1 0 , some anonymous person
in Germany worked out how to do wire drawing, making
possible the mass production o f pins. N obody knows precisely
w ho invented spectacle lenses (we deal w ith the story under
R o g e r B acon in 1 2 6 8 , see page 6 8 ), but so im portant was this
discovery that one authority recently rated it amongst the top ten
o f the millennium. It m eant, for instance, that leadership could
now remain with the over-40s. Failing eyesight was no longer a
bar.
In some instances, it was quite impossible to be precise. We
resort to ‘c 1 3 5 0 ’ as a general m id-century date, to signal two
changing social trends, the first concerning style o f dress, the
second the establishment o f shops in most towns. This is a device
we have used in various other places. Some ‘events’ simply do not
lend themselves to the discreteness o f a precise date.
T h e overall form at o f the book is very simple. T h e dates we
have selected appear in chronological order, over the last
14

millennium. T h e b rief summaries o f each historical event that

head each article appear in the Contents, also in chronological
order. This should make it easy for you to check w hether or not
we have covered a person or event that interests you. A t the end
o f the book is an index o f the key words we deal with. Mostly,
these are the headwords in each entry, but we add other
expressions that are dealt w ith in the text. There is also a
Bibliography at the end o f the book.
T he form at o f each entry is the same in each case. After the
date we have chosen, there is a summary phrase about the ‘event’.
T h e next section gives the historical context. It is deliberately
b rief - just enough to set the scene. In our anxiety not to w rite
an extended essay (which would have been very easy, given the
fascination o f the topic and the wealth o f sources we looked at),
we do hope that we have not made too many sweeping
generalisations. W e have listed some o f our sources in the
Bibliography, so if we have w hetted your appetite, you could take
it further from there.
T he entries go on to the expressions we deal with.
‘Expression’ covers phrases and sayings, as well as words. These
relate to the them e o f the event. T hey are not exhaustive entries,
in that we do not claim to look at all im ported Arabic words, for
instance, under 1 4 9 2 . T h e expressions we choose are
representative, but m ore im portantly they are interesting. At least,
we found them so, and hope that you do also. N o t every word
stems directly and immediately from the historical ‘event’. W e
gave ourselves discretion to range rather m ore widely. Clearly, we
would go backwards to look at the origins in Latin or O ld
English o f terms that might now be being used in a new way. W e
also on occasion go forward, to pursue the word down the
centuries, in its shifts o f meaning, until we reach its
contem porary senses.
As we trace the expressions down the years, we try to give a
flavour o f their uses by means o f quotations. Again, there is no
attempt to be comprehensive, by illustrating every sense or even
the use in every century. O u r goal has been to find a quotation
that appealed to us in some way, and again we hope that you
agree with us.
 15

You will sometimes com e across sh o rt‘postscripts’ in the text,

introduced by a bullet point (•).T hese are intended to take up
incidental com m ents related to the main words, but not quite
central to the them e o f the entry. T h ey act as an indication o f the
ever-increasing web o f connections that surround any
expression. Should you feel the urge, the Bibliography is a guide
to help you pursue the tantalising side issues and red herrings
that abound in etymology. It is n ot w ithout reason that one
em inent linguist described the subject as ‘the O ld Curiosity
Shop o f linguistics’.
Perhaps our favourite com m ent on our past books is one from
the editor o f an academ ic journal. W e were nom inated for an
annual book prize, w hich we didn’t win. However, he did say the
dictionary was the book on the short list that most kept him from
doing what he should have been doing! W e also know from
correspondence and from the feedback generated by previous
books that very many people take delight in the stories at the
back o f our language. In this book we have tried to tie these
m uch m ore firmly to the historical situation in w hich they were
coined. W e do feel that this must be done with care, however. We
have not indulged in our own speculation, unless we say so, and
we have tried to chart a safe course through the at times
conflicting origins, to the best o f our academic abilities. In that
respect, we hope you hold a sound guide in your hands. It is not
a perfect one, none the less! T hat is som ething else earlier books
has reinforced (although we knew it already). O ur
correspondents have been generous in helping us to get
something quite right, or to co rrect a mistake that has crept in.
O nce m ore, to these same ends we w elcom e your com m ents and
even your brickbats.
We alone are responsible for the book before you. B u t we are
indebted to so many others - our publisher, our encouraging
editor, and supportive friends and family. Perhaps especially we
owe a huge debt o f gratitude to those w ho have gone before, and
prepared the magnificent reference works that we could not do
w ithout. Every entry has called for extensive reading, to enable
us to grasp the historical and linguistic dimensions m ore
thoroughly. W e would like to pay special tribute to these (o f
16

w hich a selection is in the Bibliography), and we trust we have

never knowingly misused or m isquoted them . W e continue to
marvel at the depths o f scholarship and erudition in m ajor
sources, such as the O xford English Dictionary and the Encyclopedia
Britannica, and in the lesser known ones, such as Ayto and Skeat
(see Bibliography).
In sum, in the words o f a rather voguish m odernism that holds
some truth — enjoy!

L in d a and R o g er F lavell
August, 1 999
 IO 66
The N ormans Begin to E rect Castles

The early years o f Norman occupation saw a frenzy o f castle

building. Strategic sites in even the remotest regions o f the
kingdom were swiftly fortified using forced labour. Some were
military camps and lookout posts, others provided security for a
Norman lord and his henchmen:

[The Normans] filled the land fu ll o f castles. They cruelly oppressed the
wretched men o f the land with castle works and when the castles were
made they filled them with devils and evil men . . .
(A n g l o - S a x o n C h r o n i c l e , 1137)

Such fortified residences, centres o f military presence and local

administration, were a feature o f feudalism in western Europe and
particularly in northern France. The fact that the English possessed
no such easily defended strongholds is a contributing factor to the
success o f N orm an settlement. The .Bayeux tapestry depicts the
Normans in 1066, as they disembarked on the south coast, busily
constructing the first castle at Hastings as a defence against Harold
and his armies.

CASTLE were stored and the inhabitants would

The early castles were raised in a hurry crowd to defend if the castle were
and were not permanent structures. under attack. Adjacent to the motte was
Most of them were o f the motte-and- the ‘bailey’, a spacious enclosure which
bailey type. The ‘motte’ was a great contained outbuildings, byres and
mound o f earth and rubble with very stables. The bailey, too, had steep sides
steep sides and a flattened top. The and was protected by a ditch and a
mound was surrounded at the bottom palisade. Entry to the bailey was over a
by a deep ditch and protected at the top timber bridge. The motte could only be
by a stout palisade o f earth and timber. reached by a second bridge spanning
A wooden tower was built within the the ditch between it and the bailey.
palisade. Here supplies and weapons Should an enemy manage to penetrate
18

the bailey, this second bridge could be royal, military or administrative

raised or destroyed, thus isolating the significance were replaced by
motte for its easier defence. permanent structures. Local materials
The trouble with these earlier castles gave way to stone, sometimes brought
was that the wooden palisades were in from a distance. Wealthy barons
relatively easily breached by chopping began to construct mighty square
them down or by fire. Later castles used tower-keeps of dressed stone to
stone, which made them much more accommodate their households. Such
impregnable. With subsequent towers were known as donjons.This word
refinements to the art of castle building, goes back to Latin dominus,‘lord’, from
most sieges were concluded not by which the noun dominium, meaning
direct assault but by hunger or sickness, ‘domain, possession’, was derived. In Late
or even by treachery. Latin this had evolved into dominio or
The word castle reflects this notion of domnio and denoted ‘the lord’s tower’.
fortification for it goes back ultimately Old French borrowed the term as
to Latin castrum, which meant ‘fortified donjon, which initially signified ‘the lord s
place’. A diminutive noun castellum, keep-tower’ and later also ‘a dark
‘fortress’, which was derived from this, underground prison’, because not only
found its way into Old Norman French was the tower the lord’s ultimate security,
as castel. The rapid construction of but while he lived protected above,
castles throughout England in the years prisoners of war languished in the
immediately after the Conquest made chambers beneath. The Old French word
such an impact on the population that donjon together with its two meanings
within a year or two the Norman word was borrowed into Middle English in the
castel had passed into English: fourteenth century. Here the spelling
dungeon soon began to evolve (found
When the king was informed that the early in Chaucer) but is now only
people in the north had gathered applied to ‘an underground prison
together and would oppose him if he chamber’.The archaic spelling donjon is
came, he marched to Nottingham and reserved to denote ‘a castle keep’.
built a castle there, and so on to York,
and there built two castles, and also in •The English word keep began to be
Lincoln, and in many other places in used for ‘a donjon-tower’ during the
that part of the country. sixteenth century and was possibly a
(Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1068) direct translation o f the Italian word
tenazza.
DUNGEON
The great White Tower at the Tower of B ELFR Y
London and the keep at Colchester are Castle defences were difficult to break
unusual for being constructed of stone through, and a number of siege-engines
during the reign ofWilliam the were devised for this purpose. The
Conqueror. In the early twelfth century, ‘trebuchet’, which worked by means o f
however, when the urgency to impose counterweights and was designed to
Norman rule had passed, many of the hurl stones, was one such. A belfry was a
wooden fortifications which were of wooden siege-tower, originally a simple
 19

structure intended to shield soldiers thirteenth century. It soon evolved into

attempting to penetrate a fortification, belfry for phonetic reasons, and the
but later to carry an array o f offensive connection of the first syllable with
equipment. The term belfry was ‘bell’ led to a siege tower becoming a
borrowed into Middle English as berfrey ‘bell tower’. A similar change, in form
by way of Old French berfrei in the and meaning, happened in French.

c 10 70
W illiam the C onqueror Introduces
the F eudal System

William of Normandy’s conquest o f England in 1066 met strong

opposition, particularly in the north. W hen it was finally complete in
1070, William set about imposing the feudal system of his homeland
upon his conquered territory.
Regarding all land as his own by divine right, he confiscated the
holdings of Saxon landowners and distributed them amongst his loyal
Norman barons. In return the barons swore allegiance to the king and
pledged to serve him by supplying him with a number o f knights
according to the terms o f the grant. In order to meet these obligations
the barons, in turn, might divide their estates, using grants of land to
secure the loyalty and service of a knight. Indeed a tract o f land, thus
divided and subdivided, might support several such contracts.
Feudalism, then, was a pyramid system o f interdependent political and
military relationships, each guaranteed by oaths of loyalty and
homage; William granted directly fewer than 180 land holdings, yet
he had on call over 4,000 knights.

HOMAGE Latin homo (stem homin-)/man’. It came

A vassal was granted a fief (a grant of into English by way of Late Latin
land) only on condition that he paid hominaticum,1the service o f a vassal’, and
homage to his lord. In a formal ceremony Old French homage. In modern English
the vassal, kneeling, declared himself the homage is used figuratively to denote
lord’s ‘man’ by pledging fealty (loyalty) to ‘respect or reverence publicly manifested
him and undertaking to fight for him. for a person or an idea’:
Indeed, the word homage derives from
20

Call it a homage, call it parody (though word, as in drug baron or, in the case of
heaven knows how you could tell), Fowler Henry Clay Frick (founder of the Frick
has written a damnedfine Vonnegut novel Collection in New York), robber baron:
- audacious, sparky and veryfunny. Nice
one, Kurt. Henry Clay Frick was the bête noire of
(Review of The Astrological the robber barons, which is a bit like
Diary of God in The Times, being Satan amongst so many devils.
10 April 1999) The Pittsburgh Gradgrind made his
millions out of steel, coke and beating
BARON up the labor unions. The mostfamous
In Norman England a baron was a man, instance is thefive-day sit-in that took
of whatever rank, who was vassal to the place at the Homestead steel mill in
king himself He was a tenant-in-chief 1892. Frick simply sent in 300 of his
who ruled his estates much as the king thugs, provoking a bloody scrimmage in
ruled the country and whose wealth which 14 people were killed.
enabled him to run his household on a (Vanessa Letts, Cadogan Guide to
lavish scale. Baron like homage is derived New York, 1991)
from a term that means ‘man’, in this
case medieval Latin bard. The term came FEE
into Middle English through Anglo- In the eleventh century a knight was no
Norman barun and Old French baron. more than a lowly military retainer in
The particular sense of bard was a ‘man’ the service of a baron but, under the
in relation to another person. It could, feudal system, the reward of a fief, or fee,
for instance, mean ‘husband’ as opposed from his lord raised his status to that of
to ‘wife’. In a feudal context it meant landowner. In Anglo-Norman and then
‘servant’ as opposed to ‘king’ and was a Middle English,fee denoted ‘a grant of
statement o f feudal relationship. Baron land bestowed upon a vassal by a lord in
did not become a title until 1387 when return for loyalty and service’. It was the
Richard II created John Beauchamp equivalent of Old French fé, fié, fief
Baron o f Kidderminster. Over which came from the medieval Latin
subsequent centuries, the title lost some feodum,feudumfthe use of land or
o f its great prestige (Henry VI created property of another granted as a payment
large numbers, thus rather debasing the for service’. The source of these words
currency), but it still retains today was Germanic, possibly the unattested
considerable cachet. Baroness was the Frankish fehu-dd. This was a compound
honour the former British Prime ofJè/zw,‘catde’,and dd,‘wealth’. Since the
Minister Margaret Thatcher was granted ownership of cattle indicated wealth,
in 1992. derivations from fehu developed the sense
Barons constitute the lowest order of o f‘possessions, property’.
nobility. More impressive these days are Besides land, a man might be given
commercial barons.The terms modern the heritable right to a paid office (the
application to a ‘magnate’ or ‘influential keeping o f prisons, for instance) which
businessman’ arose in America in the was held in or offee in return for feudal
first quarter of the nineteenth century. loyalty. The remuneration such an
Its use is usually defined by a qualifying officer was entided to claim for his
 21

services was also called a^ee.Thus, from horse and armour and for the expenses
the second half o f the sixteenth century, o f his armour-bearer or squire. He
the term came to denote ‘a charge devoted forty days each year to military
made for an occasional service training or, if his lord was called to war,
rendered’. the knight served him on the battlefield
for an equivalent period at his own
• Feudal came into English in the expense. Once the feudal system
seventeenth century as a term used by became fully established, however, knight
commentators on the system it took a further shift in meaning when it
describes. It was derived from medieval was applied to ‘one raised to noble
Latin feudalis from feudum. military rank’.
At the age o f eight or nine a lad of
• Feud meaning ‘ongoing hostility good birth intended for a military
between two parties’ is unrelated to career would be sent from home and
feudal.Their spellings coincided in the apprenticed to a knight in another
seventeenth century. Feud comes from household. Here he would serve first as
the unattested prehistoric Germanic a page, attending to his master’s personal
faikhitho which meant ‘in a state of needs and learning the genteel manners
enmity’. From this, Old High German and values expected of a knight (see
derived Jehida, ‘enmity, hatred’, which courtesy, page 46).Then in his teens
was borrowed into Old French as fede he would become a squire, maintaining
or feide, and from there into northern his lord’s horse, armour and weapons
Middle English around the turn of the and accompanying him into battle until
fourteenth century. During the eventually, around the age of twenty, he
sixteenth century the term became ‘won his spurs’ and was dubbed a
current in English but was differently knight (see chivalry, page 44).Thus
spelt, inexplicably appearing as food or military knighthood was not a
fewd. hereditary rank but one achieved
through merit, even by princes.
KNIGHT During the fifteenth century,
Knight is Germanic in origin. In Old however, warfare began to change for
English the word simply meant ‘a the mounted knight in armour. English
youth’, but by the tenth century it had bowmen helped ensure victory at
come to denote ‘a male servant’. Just Agincourt, cannon were being
after the Conquest knight was more developed (see 1346, page 94) and the
specifically applied to ‘a military feudal custom of knight service was
retainer’ o f the king or a nobleman but, dying out, with lords accepting payment
as the feudal system got underway, fiefs instead and using it to hire professional
were offered to retainers in return for men. From the sixteenth century
specified periods o f military service and onwards the rank o f knight ceased to be
the term came to denote ‘one who a military one and instead became an
serves as a mounted soldier in return for honour used by the monarch to reward
land’. A knight in receipt o f a fee from a services to the sovereign or country.
baron or subtenant was responsible for The person thus elevated was entitled
the purchase and maintenance of a war- to prefix his Christian name with Sir
22

(a shortened form of sire).This is still 50). Its application to ‘an unmarried

the case. In modern Britain pop singers, man’ dates from the late fourteenth
sportsmen and, of course, civil servants century (see spinster, page 89). Let the
commonly bear the illustrious title. old knight in Chaucer’s Merchant’s
Tale ( c 1387) have the last word as he
BA CH ELO R woefully laments his unmarried state:
A knight rich enough to lead a
company o f vassals into battle under his ‘Noon oother lyf’ seyde he, (is worth a
own banner was known as a knight bene;
banneret. The term knight bachelor was For wedlock is so esy and so dene,
reserved for a young knight who was That in this world it is a paradys . . .
not experienced or wealthy enough to And trewely it sit wel to be so,
lead a fighting force and did not, That bacheleris have often peyne and
therefore, merit a banner. Instead he was wo .. /
distinguished by a pennant whose point
was ceremoniously lopped off when his • Feudalism was supported by the
fortunes changed. The comparative manorial (or seigneurial) system. This
inferiority of the rank has led to was an economic and social
speculation that bachelor was derived arrangement in which peasants were
from bas chevalier, literally ‘low-ranking bound to their lord, receiving his
knight’. However, all that can be stated protection and holding their land in
with certainty about the origins o f the perpetuity in exchange for labour,
word is that it was borrowed from Old produce and taxes. The manor (from
French in the thirteenth century. The Old French manoir, ‘dwelling’, from
earliest record of Old French bacheler Latin manere,*to remain’) was central to
dates back to the eleventh century the system. Typically it comprised an
when it appears in La Chanson de estate o f arable land, meadows, pasture
Roland.To account for the term, and woodland. It had a fortified manor
etymologists have postulated an house (with its kitchens, bakery,
unattested Vulgar Latin baccalaris which brewhouse, cellars, stables and
was in some way connected to Latin workshop) and at least one village of
baccaldria/division o f land’, and the peasant dwellings, often with a church
derived adjective baccalarius, used to and a mill. Altogether this formed an
describe ‘one who worked for the economic unit that was almost
farmer’, but this too is speculative. completely self-sufficient.
Whatever its origins, bachelor is alive
and well in modern English. From its VILLAIN
beginnings as a ‘young knight’ the word The manorial system had originated
went on to denote a ‘j unior’, as opposed on the great estates o f the late R om an
to a ‘master’, in other fourteenth- Empire, where labourers were allotted
century institutions: in the trade-guilds, their own parcels o f land to work on
for instance, and also in the universities behalf o f their master. The peasants
where bachelor still refers to ‘one who were eventually compelled by
has graduated with the lowest or first imperial decree to remain on those
degree of a university’ (see degree, page lands in perpetuity but in return,
 23

although they came under the control his most famous fictional character, in
and authority o f the landowner who print and on television:
directed many aspects o f their lives, he
had no power to evict them. Estates I have written elsewhere of the Timson
were centred around the villa, the family, that huge clan of South London
landowner’s ‘country-house’ or ‘farm’. villains whose selfless devotion to crime
It is suggested that Vulgar Latin had has kept the Rumpoles in such luxuries
the unattested term villanus which as Vim, Gumption, sliced bread and
literally meant ‘one who belongs to a saucepan scourers over the years, not to
villa’ and hence ‘one who works on mention the bare necessities of life such
an estate’. as gin, tonic and cooking claretfrom
Feudal manors operated along the Pommeroy’s Wine Bar.
same lines as the Rom an villas, and (John M ortim er, ‘Rum pole and the
the term villanus was borrowed first Age for R etirem ent’, in The
into Old French and then into Anglo- Trials of Rumpole, 1979)
Norman as vilain, vilein, to denote ‘a
feudal serf’. Both forms were absorbed B Y H OO K O R B Y CROOK
into Middle English in the fourteenth The forests that belonged to a manor
century and were used were set apart for the lord’s hunting and
interchangeably. Since those who peasants were forbidden any activity
occupy the lowly ranks o f society are that would disturb or reduce cover for
generally despised, they soon became the deer. There were, however, tracts of
terms of reproach passing from ‘one common woodland where villeins were
who has base manners and instincts’ permitted to gather dead wood and
eventually to denote ‘a person with whatever small branches and brush they
criminal tendencies’. In order to could pull down with hooked poles
discriminate between the ‘serf’ and the (hooks) and lop with their sickles
‘scoundrel’, the two forms began to (crooks), to supply their daily needs.
part company, such that villein was The Bodmin Register o f 1525 tells us
applied to the former while villain that Dynmure Wood was ever open and
became the rogue. common to the inhabitants of Bodmin, to
By the mid-nineteenth century the bear away on their backs the burden of lop,
word had gained a literary twist. The crop, hook, crook and bag wood.
villain had become a character in a The feudal right to firewood is the
novel or play whose base motives were source of the expression by hook or by
central to the plot, hence the phrase the crook, meaning ‘to go to any lengths,
villain of the piece. More recently still, legitimate or otherwise, to achieve
since the mid-twentieth century villain something’. The earliest records of the
has been something of a vogue word in idiom date from around 1380, when the
the vocabulary of television policemen form appears to have been with hook or
and detectives. After all, it carries with it with crook. In Confessio Amantis
a whiff of something more sinister than (c 1390) John Gower writes:
the humble criminal. John Mortimer is So what with hoke and what with croke
a playwright, a novelist and a former They ¡false witness and perjury] make
practising lawyer and QC. Rumpole is her maister ofte winne.
24

The idiom may have strong while as late as the 1830s Thomas
implications of procurement by fair Carlyle was writing of bovine, swinish
means or foul, but under the feudal andfeathered cattle (Critical and
system strict adherence to the terms of Miscellaneous Essays, 1839).The
the concession was expected. The term did not begin to apply more
improper gathering o f firewood and specifically to ‘domesticated bovine
kindling was regarded as a criminal animals’ until about the mid-sixteenth
offence and was tried in the manor or century:
forest court (see 1079, page 28).
A charm tofind who hath bewitched
CATTLE your cattle. Put a pair of breeches upon
The medieval Latin term capitate the cow's head, and beat her out of the
denoted ‘property, principal stock of pasture with a good cudgel upon a
wealth’. It was the neuter form of the Friday, and she will run right to the
Latin adjective capitalis (the source of witch's door and strike thereat with her
English capital) which meant ‘chief, horns.
principal’, being derived from the noun (Reginald Scot, The Discovery
cdpMi,‘head’. Capitate was borrowed into of W itchcraft, 1584)
Old French as chatel and from there
passed into Old Northern French and Meanwhile Old French chatel had been
then into Anglo-Norman as catel, a term borrowed directly into Anglo-Norman
denoting ‘personal property’. Since, as a legal term denoting ‘personal
under the feudal system, the only property’ and in this context soon
property that could properly be termed superseded the Norman form catel. By
personal consisted o f movable goods, the sixteenth century, since cattle was
and since domesticated animals tending to denote ‘livestock’, chattel
represented wealth, cattle was passed from legal into everyday
increasingly understood to mean language to refer to ‘a piece of movable
‘livestock’. A late thirteenth-century property’ in general. Today chattel is
manuscript includes under the term most commonly found in the phrase
horses, asses, mules, oxen and camels. It goods and chattels which refers to
might also apply to cows, calves, sheep, personal property o f all kinds. In legal
lambs, goats and pigs. Over several English chattel still denotes ‘an article o f
centuries even chickens and bees were movable property’ and, in past centuries,
included. In Plaine Percevall was used as an emotive term for ‘a slave’
(c 1590) Richard Harvey warns Take by those who abhorred the trade in
heed, thine owne Cattaile sting thee not, human beings.
 25

1070
The C onstruction of Canterbury
Cathedral Is Begun

There is a story that one day a monk named Gregory came across some
beautiful children for sale in a Rom an slave market. He made enquiries
and found out that they were Angli, ‘Angles’, from England, a pagan
land (see under angling, page 141). ‘They are not Angles,’ Gregory
replied,‘but Angels.’With this incident in mind, when Gregory became
Pope he dispatched a group o f monks to England under the leadership
of Augustine to evangelise the Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
Augustine and his companions landed in Kent in the spring of
597. King Ethelbert was already well disposed to Christianity since his
Frankish wife, Bertha, was a Catholic. The king provided the monks
with a missionary base in Canterbury and became one of their earliest
converts. Towards the end of the year, Augustine was created
Archbishop of the English Church and soon afterwards built a
cathedral in the city and a Benedictine monastery just outside it.
Augustine’s cathedral, Christ Church, was destroyed in 1011 by
one of the periodic Danish raids, but the Middle Ages was marked by
a religious fervour which found expression in the construction of
glorious churches of unprecedented grandeur. After the Conquest the
Normans built not only castles (see 1066, page 17) but also cathedrals
and monasteries. Their first cathedral was at Canterbury in 1070:

King William . . . was a man ofgreat wisdom and power . . . Though

stern beyond measure to those who opposed his will, he was kind to
those good men who loved God . . . During his reign was built the great
cathedral at Canterbury; and many others throughout England.
(A n g l o - S a x o n C h r o n ic l e , 1086)

BISHOP Their Bishops, Mellitus and Justus, had

Following his appointment as been sent to England from Italy by
Archbishop of the English Church, Pope Gregory to help Augustine in his
Augustine established two further sees missionary efforts. The word bishop has
in 604, those o f London and Rochester. its origins in Greek episkopos,
26

a compound noun which was derived however, religious zeal inspired the
from epi-, ‘around’, and skopein/to glorification of God through buildings
look’, and meant ‘an overseer’. Episkopos of grandeur and magnificence. In an
was used outside a Church context in article in The History of
this general sense, and also more Christianity (1977), Henry Sefton
specifically as a tide for various civil explains how the essential features of
superintendents. With the birth, growth the bishop’s church - the high altar,
and organisation of the Christian faith, bishop’s throne and priests’ stalls —were
the word was appropriated to an partitioned off and a large area (the
ecclesiastical context where it denoted nave), containing an altar, a font and a
‘a Church officer’. Ecclesiastical Latin pulpit, was provided for the
had the Greek word as episcopus but in congregation. Over time side-altars
Vulgar Latin this was corrupted to the were constructed on either side o f the
more manageable biscopus, a form which nave which were bestowed by wealthy
then travelled into the Germanic citizens or guilds.
languages, arriving in Old English by In the thirteenth century such a
the ninth century. building was known as a cathedral church,
The Greek prefix arch-, meaning a term which was shortened to cathedral
‘highest status’ (ultimately from Greek in the second half o f the sixteenth
arkhos, ‘chief’) was added to bishop to century. Cathedral, then, was originally
form archbishop. The first Norman an adjective. Its source was the Greek
Archbishop o f Canterbury was King noun kathedra, ‘chair’, a word composed
William’s respected adviser Lanfranc. He from kata,‘down’, and hedra, ‘seat’ (from
was appointed in 1070 to replace the unattested Greek root hed-,‘to sit’).
Stigand, the incumbent at the time of A kathedra was a substantial chair with
the Conquest, who was removed from arms, particularly one used by a teacher
office. Under Lanfranc the English or professor and, hence, by a bishop.
Church gained a measure of Kathedra was taken into Latin as cathedra
independence from R om e and was from which Late Latin derived
protected from royal interference. His cathedralis, meaning ‘belonging to the
programme o f reform included the (bishop’s) seat’.The adjective was used
deposition of English prelates in favour to describe the building which housed
of Normans, a measure designed to the bishop’s throne, hence cathedralis
stamp out corruption and strengthen ecclesia, ‘cathedral church’.
Norman control. Sadly, Lanfranc’s Norman cathedral at
Canterbury did not survive. Its choir
CATHEDRAL burned down in 1174, a few years after
Construction of a Norman cathedral at Thomas a Becket was murdered there
Canterbury to replace that of Augustine (see 1173, page 57) and had to be
was undertaken by Lanfranc, the first rebuilt.
Norman Archbishop o f Canterbury.
A cathedral was originally simply a •The Greek kathedra was also
bishop’s church, a place where he and responsible for the English word chair.
his clergy could conduct the prescribed The Latin borrowing cathedra was taken
services. During the Middle Ages, into Old French as chaiere, ‘seat, throne’,
 27

and then borrowed into Middle English preparing to work on the great vault of
in the thirteenth century. the cathedral, when suddenly the beams
broke under hisfeet, and hefell to the
MASON ground, stones and timbers accompanying
Building for permanence in stone was a hisfall William miraculously survived
costly enterprise that only the his fall of 50 feet (18 metres) but his
wealthiest could afford. Medieval injuries forced him to leave the
masons were thus itinerant craftsmen rebuilding project. It was completed by
who moved from one great project to another master mason —also named
another. Their search for employment William, but this time an Englishman
was not always confined to their own (see plumber, page 74.)
land, and this accounts for the spread of
technological and stylistic innovations QUARRY
throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. Choice o f stone fell to the master
The master mason was entrusted mason. It was obviously cheaper to use
with both the planning and stone from the nearest quarry but often
construction of a building. The man this consideration was put aside.
appointed from among several According to the monk Gervase,
contenders to rebuild the choir of William of Sens imported the stone for
Canterbury cathedral after the fire in rebuilding the choir at Canterbury from
1174 was William of Sens, a Frenchman Caen in Normandy, facilitating its
with a fine reputation. According to the transportation by constructing ingenious
contemporary account of Gervase, one machinesfor loading and unloading ships.
o f the monks at Canterbury, he was (There was sometimes an artistic
active and ready as a craftsman most skilful preference to consider. The alabaster
in both wood and stone. required for the reredos in St George’s
The origin of mason is unclear. Chapel, Windsor, for instance, had to be
Middle English borrowed the word brought from Nottingham.)
machun from Norman French in the To obtain the stone, quarrymen
early thirteenth century, the forms would first drive iron wedges into the
masoun and mason appearing in the rock face and then lever along the
following century, influenced by Old fissures with crowbars. The stone was
French masson. One theory maintains then rough dressed with an axe and
that the Old French term derived from finished with a mallet and chisel using
an unattested Frankish makjo, a wooden templates to get the shape and
derivative of the unattested verb makon, size specified by the customer. Each
‘to make’. An alternative view finds its stone bore three marks: the first showed
source in the unattested prehistoric its position in the cathedral, and the
Germanic stem mattjon-fz. cutter’, from other two were the individual marks of
the root mat-, ‘to cut’, which found its the quarryman and the stone cutter so
way into French by way of unattested that they could be paid.
Vulgar Latin matid, ‘mason’. The word quarry arose from this
The mason’s work was not without dressing o f the stone into blocks. It was
its dangers. Gervase tells us that William a fifteenth-century borrowing o f Old
o f Sens was on a scaffolding one day, French quarriere, which rendered
28

obsolete the noun quarter, a borrowing During the thirteenth century some
o f three centuries earlier from the same quarries began to produce ready-made
Old French source. Quarriere was a tracery and statues which they supplied
derivative of the unattested noun quatre rough-dressed for the masons on-site to
which denoted ‘a squared stone’.This, mount and finish, precursors o f Do It
in turn, came from Latin quadrum, . All and B & Q.
meaning ‘square’. N ot all stone left the (For another sense o f the word, see
quarry in square blocks, however. quarry in 1079, page 31.)

10 79
The N ew F orest Is E stablished as a
R oyal H unting Ground

In 1079 William the Conqueror took possession of a vast tract of

heath and woodland in present-day Hampshire to be preserved as a
royal hunting ground. It was his Nova Foresta, his ‘New Forest’, set
apart for his pleasure, a reward for his diligent care and protection of
the realm. Only the king, or one with royal authority, was permitted
to take any o f the game.
The Forest Law, a Norman regulation imposed in England and
much resented, was strictly imposed to ensure that forest dwellers
making their own livelihood in no way interfered with game animals,
their cover or their food. Penalties for transgressing the law were harsh,
and those for poaching horrific in their severity. According to the
medieval A n g l o - S a x o n C h r o n i c l e King William established a great
peace fo r the deer, and laid down laws therefor, that whoever should slay hart or
hind should be blinded. His successor, William Rufus, was reputedly even
more severe.

FO REST, DEFO RESTATIO N Latin adverb forts which meant ‘outside,

The Late Latin phrase forestis silva was out o f doors’. The word silva,1wood’,
originally applied to the great hunting was often dropped from the phrase,
grounds o f Charlemagne. The leaving the adjective forestis to stand
expression literally meant ‘outdoor alone as a noun. Medieval writers
wood’,forestis being a derivative o f the distinguished the parcus, the enclosed
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