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SUBCULTURE
THE MEANING OF STYLE
IN THE SAME SERIES

The Empire Writes Back: Theory and practice in post-

colonial literatures Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and
Helen Tiffin
Translation Studies Susan Bassnett
Rewriting English: Cultural politics of gender and class
Janet Batsleer, Tony Davies, Rebecca O’Rourke, and
Chris Weedon
Critical Practice Catherine Belsey
Formalism and Marxism Tony Bennett
Dialogue and Difference: English for the nineties ed. Peter
Brooker and Peter Humm
Telling Stories: A theoretical analysis of narrative fiction
Steven Cohan and Linda M. Shires
Alternative Shakespeares ed. John Drakakis
The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama Keir Elam
Reading Television John Fiske and John Hartley
Linguistics and the Novel Roger Fowler
Return of the Reader: Reader-response criticism Elizabeth
Freund
Making a Difference: Feminist literary criticism ed. Gayle
Greene and Coppélia Kahn
Superstructuralism: The philosophy of structuralism and
post-structuralism Richard Harland
Structuralism and Semiotics Terence Hawkes
Dialogism: Bakhtin and his world Michael Holquist
Popular Fictions: Essays in literature and history ed.
Peter Humm, Paul Stigant, and Peter Widdowson
The Politics of Postmodernism Linda Hutcheon
Fantasy: The literature of subversion Rosemary Jackson
Sexual/Textual Politics: Feminist literary theory Toril Moi
Deconstruction: Theory and practice Christopher Norris
Orality and Literacy: The technologizing of the word
Walter J. Ong
Narrative Fiction: Contemporary poetics Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan
Adult Comics: An introduction Roger Sabin
Criticism in Society Imre Salusinszky
Metafiction: The theory and practice of self-conscious fiction
Patricia Waugh
Psychoanalytic Criticism: Theory in practice Elizabeth Wright
DICK HEBDIGE

SUBCULTURE
THE MEANING OF STYLE

LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published in 1979 by Methuen & Co. Ltd

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2002.

© 1979 Dick Hebdige

All rights reserved. No part of this book

may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the
publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data available

ISBN 0–415–03949–5 (Print Edition)

ISBN 0-203-13994-1 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-22092-7 (Glassbook Format)
CONTENTS

General Editor’s Preface vii

Acknowledgements ix
INTRODUCTION: SUBCULTURE AND STYLE I

ONE
From culture to hegemony 5

Part One: Some case studies

TWO
Holiday in the sun: Mister Rotten makes the grade 23
Boredom in Babylon 27

THREE
Back to Africa 30
The Rastafarian solution 33
Reggae and Rastafarianism 35
Exodus: A double crossing 39

FOUR
Hipsters, beats and teddy boys 46
Home-grown cool: The style of the mods 52
White skins, black masks 54
Glam and glitter rock: Albino camp and
other diversions 59
Bleached roots: Punks and white ‘ethnicity’ 62
 vi CONTENTS

Part Two: A reading

FIVE
The function of subculture 73
Specificity: Two types of teddy boy 80
The sources of style 84

SIX
Subculture: The unnatural break 90
Two forms of incorporation 92

SEVEN
Style as intentional communication 100
Style as bricolage 102
Style in revolt: Revolting style 106

EIGHT
Style as homology 113
Style as signifying practice 117

NINE
O.K., it’s Culture, but is it Art? 128

CONCLUSION 134
References 141
Bibliography 169
Suggested Further Reading 178

Index 187
GENERAL EDITOR’S
PREFACE

I
T is easy to see that we are living in a time of rapid and
radical social change. It is much less easy to grasp the
fact that such change will inevitably affect the nature of
those disciplines that both reflect our society and help to shape it.
Yet this is nowhere more apparent than in the central
field of what may, in general terms, be called literary
studies. Here, among large numbers of students at all levels
of education, the erosion of the assumptions and
presuppositions that support the literary disciplines in
their conventional form has proved fundamental. Modes
and categories inherited from the past no longer seem to fit
the reality experienced by a new generation.
New Accents is intended as a positive response to the
initiative offered by such a situation. Each volume in the
series will seek to encourage rather than resist the process
of change, to stretch rather than reinforce the boundaries
that currently define literature and its academic study.
Some important areas of interest immediately present
themselves. In various parts of the world, new methods of
analysis have been developed whose conclusions reveal the
limitations of the Anglo-American outlook we inherit. New
concepts of literary forms and modes have been proposed;
 viii GENERAL EDITOR’S PREFACE

new notions of the nature of literature itself, and of how it

communicates are current; new views of literature’s role in
relation to society flourish. New Accents will aim to
expound and comment upon the most notable of these.
In the broad field of the study of human communication,
more and more emphasis has been placed upon the nature
and function of the new electronic media. New Accents will
try to identify and discuss the challenge these offer to our
traditional modes of critical response.
The same interest in communication suggests that the
series should also concern itself with those wider
anthropological and sociological areas of investigation
which have begun to involve scrutiny of the nature of art
itself and of its relation to our whole way of life. And this
will ultimately require attention to be focused on some of
those activities which in our society have hitherto been
excluded from the prestigious realms of Culture.
Finally, as its title suggests, one aspect of New Accents will
be firmly located in contemporary approaches to language,
and a continuing concern of the series will be to examine the
extent to which relevant branches of linguistic studies can
illuminate specific literary areas. The volumes with this
particular interest will nevertheless presume no prior
technical knowledge on the part of their readers, and will aim
to rehearse the linguistics appropriate to the matter in hand,
rather than to embark on general theoretical matters.
Each volume in the series will attempt an objective
exposition of significant developments in its field up to the
present as well as an account of its author’s own views of
the matter. Each will culminate in an informative
bibliography as a guide to further study. And while each
will be primarily concerned with matters relevant to its own
specific interests, we can hope that a kind of conversation
will be heard to develop between them: one whose accents
may perhaps suggest the distinctive discourse of the future.
TERENCE HAWKES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

MANY people have assisted in different ways in the

writing of this book. I should like in particular to thank
Jessica Pickard and Stuart Hall for generously giving up
valuable time to read and comment upon the manuscript.
Thanks also to the staff and students of the University of
Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies,
and to Geoff Hurd of Wolverhampton Polytechnic for
keeping me in touch with the relevant debates. I should
also like to thank Mrs Erica Pickard for devoting so much
time and skill to the preparation of this manuscript.
Finally, thanks to Duffy, Mike, Don and Bridie for living
underneath the Law and outside the categories for so
many years.
INTRODUCTION:
SUBCULTURE AND
STYLE

I managed to get about twenty photographs, and with bits of

chewed bread I pasted them on the back of the cardboard
sheet of regulations that hangs on the wall. Some are pinned
up with bits of brass wire which the foreman brings me and
on which I have to string coloured glass beads. Using the
same beads with which the prisoners next door make
funeral wreaths, I have made star-shaped frames for the
most purely criminal. In the evening, as you open your
window to the street, I turn the back of the regulation sheet
towards me. Smiles and sneers, alike inexorable, enter me
by all the holes I offer. . . . They watch over my little
routines. (Genet, 1966a)

I
N the opening pages of The Thief’s Journal, Jean
Genet describes how a tube of vaseline, found in his
possession, is confiscated by the Spanish police during a
raid. This ‘dirty, wretched object’, proclaiming his
homosexuality to the world, becomes for Genet a kind of
guarantee – ‘the sign of a secret grace which was soon to save
me from contempt’. The discovery of the vaseline is greeted
 2 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

with laughter in the record-office of the station, and the police

‘smelling of garlic, sweat and oil, but . . . strong in their moral
assurance’ subject Genet to a tirade of hostile innuendo. The
author joins in the laughter too (‘though painfully’) but later,
in his cell, ‘the image of the tube of vaseline never left me’.

I was sure that this puny and most humble object would
hold its own against them; by its mere presence it would
be able to exasperate all the police in the world; it would
draw down upon itself contempt, hatred, white and
dumb rages. (Genet, 1967)

I have chosen to begin with these extracts from Genet

because he more than most has explored in both his life
and his art the subversive implications of style. I shall be
returning again and again to Genet’s major themes: the
status and meaning of revolt, the idea of style as a form of
Refusal, the elevation of crime into art (even though, in
our case, the ‘crimes’ are only broken codes). Like Genet,
we are interested in subculture – in the expressive forms
and rituals of those subordinate groups – the teddy boys
and mods and rockers, the skinheads and the punks – who
are alternately dismissed, denounced and canonized;
treated at different times as threats to public order and as
harmless buffoons. Like Genet also, we are intrigued by
the most mundane objects – a safety pin, a pointed shoe, a
motor cycle – which, none the less, like the tube of
vaseline, take on a symbolic dimension, becoming a form
of stigmata, tokens of a self-imposed exile. Finally, like
Genet, we must seek to recreate the dialectic between
action and reaction which renders these objects
meaningful. For, just as the conflict between Genet’s
‘unnatural’ sexuality and the policemen’s ‘legitimate’
outrage can be encapsulated in a single object, so the
tensions between dominant and subordinate groups can
be found reflected in the surfaces of subculture – in the
 INTRODUCTION: SUBCULTURE AND STYLE 3

styles made up of mundane objects which have a double

meaning. On the one hand, they warn the ‘straight’ world
in advance of a sinister presence – the presence of
difference – and draw down upon themselves vague
suspicions, uneasy laughter, ‘white and dumb rages’. On
the other hand, for those who erect them into icons, who
use them as words or as curses, these objects become
signs of forbidden identity, sources of value. Recalling his
humiliation at the hands of the police, Genet finds
consolation in the tube of vaseline. It becomes a symbol of
his ‘triumph’ – ‘I would indeeed rather have shed blood
than repudiate that silly object’ (Genet, 1967).
The meaning of subculture is, then, always in dispute,
and style is the area in which the opposing definitions
clash with most dramatic force. Much of the available
space in this book will therefore be taken up with a
description of the process whereby objects are made to
mean and mean again as ‘style’ in subculture. As in
Genet’s novels, this process begins with a crime against
the natural order, though in this case the deviation may
seem slight indeed – the cultivation of a quiff, the
acquisition of a scooter or a record or a certain type of
suit. But it ends in the construction of a style, in a
gesture of defiance or contempt, in a smile or a sneer. It
signals a Refusal. I would like to think that this Refusal
is worth making, that these gestures have a meaning,
that the smiles and the sneers have some subversive
value, even if, in the final analysis, they are, like Genet’s
gangster pin-ups, just the darker side of sets of
regulations, just so much graffiti on a prison wall.
Even so, graffiti can make fascinating reading. They
draw attention to themselves. They are an expression both
of impotence and a kind of power – the power to disfigure
(Norman Mailer calls graffiti – ‘Your presence on their
Presence . . . hanging your alias on their scene’ (Mailer,
1974)). In this book I shall attempt to decipher the graffiti,
 4 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

to tease out the meanings embedded in the various post-

war youth styles. But before we can proceed to individual
subcultures, we must first define the basic terms. The word
‘subculture’ is loaded down with mystery. It suggests
secrecy, masonic oaths, an Underworld. It also invokes the
larger and no less difficult concept ‘culture’. So it is with
the idea of culture that we should begin.
ONE

From culture to hegemony

Culture

Culture: cultivation, tending, in Christian authors, worship;

the action or practice of cultivating the soil; tillage,
husbandry; the cultivation or rearing of certain animals (e.g.
fish); the artificial development of microscopic organisms,
organisms so produced; the cultivating or development (of
the mind, faculties, manners), improvement or refinement
by education and training; the condition of being trained or
refined; the intellectual side of civilization; the prosecution
or special attention or study of any subject or pursuit.
(Oxford English Dictionary)

C
ULTURE is a notoriously ambiguous
concept as the above definition
demonstrates. Refracted through centuries of usage,
the word has acquired a number of quite different, often
contradictory, meanings. Even as a scientific term, it refers
both to a process (artificial development of microscopic
organisms) and a product (organisms so produced). More
6 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

specifically, since the end of the eighteenth century, it has

been used by English intellectuals and literary figures to focus
critical attention on a whole range of controversial issues. The
‘quality of life’, the effects in human terms of mechanization,
the division of labour and the creation of a mass society have
all been discussed within the larger confines of what Raymond
Williams has called the ‘Culture and Society’ debate
(Williams, 1961). It was through this tradition of dissent and
criticism that the dream of the ‘organic society’ – of society as
an integrated, meaningful whole – was largely kept alive. The
dream had two basic trajectories. One led back to the past and
to the feudal ideal of a hierarchically ordered community.
Here, culture assumed an almost sacred function. Its
‘harmonious perfection’ (Arnold, 1868) was posited against
the Wasteland of contemporary life.
The other trajectory, less heavily supported, led towards the
future, to a socialist Utopia where the distinction between
labour and leisure was to be annulled. Two basic definitions of
culture emerged from this tradition, though these were by no
means necessarily congruent with the two trajectories outlined
above. The first – the one which is probably most familiar to
the reader – was essentially classical and conservative. It
represented culture as a standard of aesthetic excellence: ‘the
best that has been thought and said in the world’ (Arnold,
1868), and it derived from an appreciation of ‘classic’ aesthetic
form (opera, ballet, drama, literature, art). The second, traced
back by Williams to Herder and the eighteenth century
(Williams, 1976), was rooted in anthropology. Here the term
‘culture’ referred to a

. . . particular way of life which expresses certain meanings and

values not only in art and learning, but also in institutions and
ordinary behaviour. The analysis of culture, from such a definition,
is the clarification of the meanings and values implicit and explicit
in a particular way of life, a particular culture. (Williams, 1965)
 FROM CULTURE TO HEGEMONY 7

This definition obviously had a much broader range. It

encompassed, in T. S. Eliot’s words,

. . . all the characteristic activities and interests of a people.

Derby Day, Henley Regatta, Cowes, the 12th of August, a
cup final, the dog races, the pin table, the dartboard,
Wensleydale cheese, boiled cabbage cut into sections,
beetroot in vinegar, 19th Century Gothic churches, the
music of Elgar. . . . (Eliot, 1948)

As Williams noted, such a definition could only be

supported if a new theoretical initiative was taken. The theory
of culture now involved the ‘study of relationships between
elements in a whole way of life’ (Williams, 1965). The
emphasis shifted from immutable to historical criteria, from
fixity to transformation:

. . . an emphasis [which] from studying particular

meanings and values seeks not so much to compare these,
as a way of establishing a scale, but by studying their
modes of change to discover certain general causes or
‘trends’ by which social and cultural developments as a
whole can be better understood. (Williams, 1965)

Williams was, then, proposing an altogether broader

formulation of the relationships between culture and society,
one which through the analysis of ‘particular meanings and
values’ sought to uncover the concealed fundamentals of
history; the ‘general causes’ and broad social ‘trends’ which lie
behind the manifest appearances of an ‘everyday life’.
In the early years, when it was being established in the
Universities, Cultural Studies sat rather uncomfortably on
the fence between these two conflicting definitions – culture
as a standard of excellence, culture as a ‘whole way of life’ –
unable to determine which represented the most fruitful line
of enquiry. Richard Hoggart and Raymond Williams
8 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

portrayed working-class culture sympathetically in wistful

accounts of pre-scholarship boyhoods (Leeds for Hoggart
(1958), a Welsh mining village for Williams (1960)) but their
work displayed a strong bias towards literature and literacy1
and an equally strong moral tone. Hoggart deplored the way
in which the traditional working-class community – a
community of tried and tested values despite the dour
landscape in which it had been set – was being undermined
and replaced by a ‘Candy Floss World’ of thrills and cheap
fiction which was somehow bland and sleazy. Williams
tentatively endorsed the new mass communications but was
concerned to establish aesthetic and moral criteria for
distinguishing the worthwhile products from the ‘trash’; the
jazz – ‘a real musical form’ – and the football – ‘a wonderful
game’ – from the ‘rape novel, the Sunday strip paper and the
latest Tin Pan drool’ (Williams, 1965). In 1966 Hoggart laid
down the basic premises upon which Cultural Studies were
based:

First, without appreciating good literature, no one will

really understand the nature of society, second, literary
critical analysis can be applied to certain social phenomena
other than ‘academically respectable’ literature (for
example, the popular arts, mass communications) so as to
illuminate their meanings for individuals and their
societies. (Hoggart, 1966)

The implicit assumption that it still required a literary

sensibility to ‘read’ society with the requisite subtlety, and
that the two ideas of culture could be ultimately reconciled
was also, paradoxically, to inform the early work of the French
writer, Roland Barthes, though here it found validation in a
method – semiotics – a way of reading signs (Hawkes, 1977).

Barthes: Myths and signs

Using models derived from the work of the Swiss linguist

Ferdinand de Saussure 2 Barthes sought to expose the
 FROM CULTURE TO HEGEMONY 9

arbitrary nature of cultural phenomena, to uncover the

latent meanings of an everyday life which, to all intents and
purposes, was ‘perfectly natural’. Unlike Hoggart, Barthes
was not concerned with distinguishing the good from the
bad in modern mass culture, but rather with showing how
all the apparently spontaneous forms and rituals of
contemporary bourgeois societies are subject to a
systematic distortion, liable at any moment to be
dehistoricized, ‘naturalized’, converted into myth:

The whole of France is steeped in this anonymous

ideology: our press, our films, our theatre, our pulp
literature, our rituals, our Justice, our diplomacy, our
conversations, our remarks about the weather, a murder
trial, a touching wedding, the cooking we dream of, the
garments we wear, everything in everyday life is
dependent on the representation which the bourgeoisie
has and makes us have of the relations between men and
the world. (Barthes, 1972)

Like Eliot, Barthes’ notion of culture extends beyond the

library, the opera-house and the theatre to encompass the
whole of everyday life. But this everyday life is for Barthes
overlaid with a significance which is at once more insidious
and more systematically organized. Starting from the
premise that ‘myth is a type of speech’, Barthes set out in
Mythologies to examine the normally hidden set of rules,
codes and conventions through which meanings particular
to specific social groups (i.e. those in power) are rendered
universal and ‘given’ for the whole of society. He found in
phenomena as disparate as a wrestling match, a writer on
holiday, a tourist-guide book, the same artificial nature, the
same ideological core. Each had been exposed to the same
prevailing rhetoric (the rhetoric of common sense) and
turned into myth, into a mere element in a ‘second-order
semiological system’ (Barthes, 1972). (Barthes uses the
10 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

example of a photograph in Paris-Match of a Negro soldier

saluting the French flag, which has a first and second order
connotation: (1) a gesture of loyalty, but also (2) ‘France is
a great empire, and all her sons, without colour
discrimination, faithfully serve under her flag’.)
Barthes’ application of a method rooted in linguistics to
other systems of discourse outside language (fashion, film,
food, etc.) opened up completely new possibilities for
contemporary cultural studies. It was hoped that the
invisible seam between language, experience and reality
could be located and prised open through a semiotic analysis
of this kind: that the gulf between the alienated intellectual
and the ‘real’ world could be rendered meaningful and,
miraculously, at the same time, be made to disappear.
Moreover, under Barthes’ direction, semiotics promised
nothing less than the reconciliation of the two conflicting
definitions of culture upon which Cultural Studies was so
ambiguously posited – a marriage of moral conviction (in
this case, Barthes’ Marxist beliefs) and popular themes: the
study of a society’s total way of life.
This is not to say that semiotics was easily assimilable
within the Cultural Studies project. Though Barthes shared
the literary preoccupations of Hoggart and Williams, his
work introduced a new Marxist ‘problematic’3 which was
alien to the British tradition of concerned and largely
untheorized ‘social commentary’. As a result, the old debate
seemed suddenly limited. In E. P. Thompson’s words it
appeared to reflect the parochial concerns of a group of
‘gentlemen amateurs’. Thompson sought to replace Williams’
definition of the theory of culture as ‘a theory of relations
between elements in a whole way of life’ with his own more
rigorously Marxist formulation: ‘the study of relationships in
a whole way of conflict’. A more analytical framework was
required; a new vocabulary had to be learned. As part of this
process of theorization, the word ‘ideology’ came to acquire a
much wider range of meanings than had previously been the
 FROM CULTURE TO HEGEMONY 11

case. We have seen how Barthes found an ‘anonymous

ideology’ penetrating every possible level of social life,
inscribed in the most mundane of rituals, framing the most
casual social encounters. But how can ideology be
‘anonymous’, and how can it assume such a broad
significance? Before we attempt any reading of subcultural
style, we must first define the term ‘ideology’ more precisely.

Ideology: A lived relation

In the German Ideology, Marx shows how the basis of the

capitalist economic structure (surplus value, neatly defined
by Godelier as ‘Profit . . . is unpaid work’ (Godelier, 1970)) is
hidden from the consciousness of the agents of production.
The failure to see through appearances to the real relations
which underlie them does not occur as the direct result of
some kind of masking operation consciously carried out by
individuals, social groups or institutions. On the contrary,
ideology by definition thrives beneath consciousness. It is
here, at the level of ‘normal common sense’, that ideological
frames of reference are most firmly sedimented and most
effective, because it is here that their ideological nature is
most effectively concealed. As Stuart Hall puts it:

It is precisely its ‘spontaneous’ quality, its transparency, its

‘naturalness’, its refusal to be made to examine the
premises on which it is founded, its resistance to change or
to correction, its effect of instant recognition, and the
closed circle in which it moves which makes common
sense, at one and the same time, ‘spontaneous’, ideological
and unconscious. You cannot learn, through common
sense, how things are: you can only discover where they fit
into the existing scheme of things. In this way, its very
taken-for-grantedness is what establishes it as a medium in
which its own premises and presuppositions are being
rendered invisible by its apparent transparency. (Hall, 1977)
12 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

Since ideology saturates everyday discourse in the form

of common sense, it cannot be bracketed off from everyday
life as a self-contained set of ‘political opinions’ or ‘biased
views’. Neither can it be reduced to the abstract dimensions
of a ‘world view’ or used in the crude Marxist sense to
designate ‘false consciousness’. Instead, as Louis Althusser
has pointed out:

. . . ideology has very little to do with ‘consciousness’. . .

. It is profoundly unconscious. . . . Ideology is indeed a
system of representation, but in the majority of cases
these representations have nothing to do with
‘consciousness’: they are usually images and
occasionally concepts, but it is above all as structures
that they impose on the vast majority of men, not via
their ‘consciousness’. They are perceived-accepted-
suffered cultural objects and they act functionally on
men via a process that escapes them. (Althusser, 1969)

Although Althusser is here referring to structures like the

family, cultural and political institutions, etc., we can illustrate
the point quite simply by taking as our example a physical
structure. Most modern institutes of education, despite the
apparent neutrality of the materials from which they are
constructed (red brick, white tile, etc.) carry within themselves
implicit ideological assumptions which are literally structured
into the architecture itself. The categorization of knowledge
into arts and sciences is reproduced in the faculty system which
houses different disciplines in different buildings, and most
colleges maintain the traditional divisions by devoting a
separate floor to each subject. Moreover, the hierarchical
relationship between teacher and taught is inscribed in the very
lay-out of the lecture theatre where the seating arrangements –
benches rising in tiers before a raised lectern – dictate the flow
of information and serve to ‘naturalize’ professorial authority.
Thus, a whole range of decisions about what is and what is not
 FROM CULTURE TO HEGEMONY 13

possible within education have been made, however

unconsciously, before the content of individual courses is even
decided.
These decisions help to set the limits not only on what is
taught but on how it is taught. Here the buildings literally
reproduce in concrete terms prevailing (ideological)
notions about what education is and it is through this
process that the educational structure, which can, of
course, be altered, is placed beyond question and appears
to us as a ‘given’ (i.e. as immutable). In this case, the
frames of our thinking have been translated into actual
bricks and mortar.
Social relations and processes are then appropriated by
individuals only through the forms in which they are
represented to those individuals. These forms are, as we
have seen, by no means transparent. They are shrouded in
a ‘common sense’ which simultaneously validates and
mystifies them. It is precisely these ‘perceived-accepted-
suffered cultural objects’ which semiotics sets out to
‘interrogate’ and decipher. All aspects of culture possess a
semiotic value, and the most taken-for-granted phenomena
can function as signs: as elements in communication
systems governed by semantic rules and codes which are
not themselves directly apprehended in experience. These
signs are, then, as opaque as the social relations which
produce them and which they re-present. In other words,
there is an ideological dimension to every signification:

A sign does not simply exist as part of reality – it reflects and

refracts another reality. Therefore it may distort that reality or
be true to it, or may perceive it from a special point of view,
and so forth. Every sign is subject to the criteria of ideological
evaluation. . . . The domain of ideology coincides with the
domain of signs. They equate with one another. Whenever a
sign is present, ideology is present too. Everything ideological
possesses a semiotic value. (Volosinov, 1973)
14 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

To uncover the ideological dimension of signs we must first

try to disentangle the codes through which meaning is
organized. ‘Connotative’ codes are particularly important. As
Stuart Hall has argued, they’. . . cover the face of social life
and render it classifiable, intelligible, meaningful’ (Hall, 1977).
He goes on to describe these codes as ‘maps of meaning’
which are of necessity the product of selection. They cut
across a range of potential meanings, making certain
meanings available and ruling others out of court. We tend to
live inside these maps as surely as we live in the ‘real’ world:
they ‘think’ us as much as we ‘think’ them, and this in itself is
quite ‘natural’. All human societies reproduce themselves in
this way through a process of ‘naturalization’. It is through
this process – a kind of inevitable reflex of all social life - that
particular sets of social relations, particular ways of
organizing the world appear to us as if they were universal
and timeless. This is what Althusser (1971) means when he
says that ‘ideology has no history’ and that ideology in this
general sense will always be an ‘essential element of every
social formation’ (Althusser and Balibar, 1968).
However, in highly complex societies like ours, which
function through a finely graded system of divided (i.e.
specialized) labour, the crucial question has to do with which
specific ideologies, representing the interests of which specific
groups and classes will prevail at any given moment, in any
given situation. To deal with this question, we must first
consider how power is distributed in our society. That is, we
must ask which groups and classes have how much say in
defining, ordering and classifying out the social world. For
instance, if we pause to reflect for a moment, it should be
obvious that access to the means by which ideas are
disseminated in our society (i.e. principally the mass media) is
not the same for all classes. Some groups have more say, more
opportunity to make the rules, to organize meaning, while
others are less favourably placed, have less power to produce
and impose their definitions of the world on the world.
 FROM CULTURE TO HEGEMONY 15

Thus, when we come to look beneath the level of ‘ideology-in-

general at the way in which specific ideologies work, how some
gain dominance and others remain marginal, we can see that in
advanced Western democracies the ideological field is by no
means neutral. To return to the ‘connotative’ codes to which
Stuart Hall refers we can see that these ‘maps of meaning’ are
charged with a potentially explosive significance because they are
traced and re-traced along the lines laid down by the dominant
discourses about reality, the dominant ideologies. They thus tend
to represent, in however obscure and contradictory a fashion, the
interests of the dominant groups in society.
To understand this point we should refer to Marx:

The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the

ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material
force of society is at the same time its ruling
intellectual force. The class which has the means of
material production at its disposal, has control at the
same time over the means of mental production, so that
generally speaking, the ideas of those who lack the
means of mental production are subject to it. The
ruling ideas are nothing more than the ideal expression
of the dominant material relationships grasped as
ideas; hence of the relationships which make the one
class the ruling class, therefore the ideas of its
dominance. (Marx and Engels, 1970)

This is the basis of Antonio Gramsci’s theory of hegemony

which provides the most adequate account of how
dominance is sustained in advanced capitalist societies.

Hegemony: The moving equilibrium

‘Society cannot share a common communication system so

long as it is split into warring classes’ (Brecht, A Short
Organum for the Theatre).
16 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

The term hegemony refers to a situation in which a

provisional alliance of certain social groups can exert ‘total
social authority’ over other subordinate groups, not simply by
coercion or by the direct imposition of ruling ideas, but by
‘winning and shaping consent so that the power of the
dominant classes appears both legitimate and natural’ (Hall,
1977). Hegemony can only be maintained so long as the
dominant classes ‘succeed in framing all competing
definitions within their range’ (Hall, 1977), so that
subordinate groups are, if not controlled; then at least
contained within an ideological space which does not seem at
all ‘ideological’: which appears instead to be permanent and
‘natural’, to lie outside history, to be beyond particular
interests (see Social Trends, no. 6, 1975).
This is how, according to Barthes, ‘mythology’ performs its
vital function of naturalization and normalization and it is in
his book Mythologies that Barthes demonstrates most
forcefully the full extension of these normalized forms and
meanings. However, Gramsci adds the important proviso that
hegemonic power, precisely because it requires the consent of
the dominated majority, can never be permanently exercised
by the same alliance of ‘class fractions’. As has been pointed
out, ‘Hegemony . . . is not universal and “given” to the
continuing rule of a particular class. It has to be won,
reproduced, sustained. Hegemony is, as Gramsci said, a
“moving equilibrium” containing relations of forces
favourable or unfavourable to this or that tendency’ (Hall et
al., 1976a).
In the same way, forms cannot be permanently normalized.
They can always be deconstructed, demystified, by a
‘mythologist’ like Barthes. Moreover commodities can be
symbolically ‘repossessed’ in everyday life, and endowed with
implicitly oppositional meanings, by the very groups who
originally produced them. The symbiosis in which ideology and
social order, production and reproduction, are linked is then
neither fixed nor guaranteed. It can be prised open. The
 FROM CULTURE TO HEGEMONY 17

consensus can be fractured, challenged, overruled, and

resistance to the groups in dominance cannot always be lightly
dismissed or automatically incorporated. Although, as Lefebvre
has written, we live in a society where ‘. . . objects in practice
become signs and signs objects and a second nature takes the
place of the first – the initial layer of perceptible reality’
(Lefebvre, 1971), there are, as he goes on to affirm, always
‘objections and contradictions which hinder the closing of the
circuit’ between sign and object, production and reproduction.
We can now return to the meaning of youth subcultures,
for the emergence of such groups has signalled in a
spectacular fashion the breakdown of consensus in the post-
war period. In the following chapters we shall see that it is
precisely objections and contradictions of the kind which
Lefebvre has described that find expression in subculture.
However, the challenge to hegemony which subcultures
represent is not issued directly by them. Rather it is expressed
obliquely, in style. The objections are lodged, the
contradictions displayed (and, as we shall see, ‘magically
resolved’) at the profoundly superficial level of appearances:
that is, at the level of signs. For the sign-community, the
community of myth-consumers, is not a uniform body. As
Volosinov has written, it is cut through by class:

Class does not coincide with the sign community, i.e.

with the totality of users of the same set of signs of
ideological communication. Thus various different
classes will use one and the same language. As a result,
differently oriented accents intersect in every ideological
sign. Sign becomes the arena of the class struggle.
(Volosinov, 1973)

The struggle between different discourses, different

definitions and meanings within ideology is therefore always, at
the same time, a struggle within signification: a struggle for
possession of the sign which extends to even the most mundane
18 SUBCULTURE: THE MEANING OF STYLE

areas of everyday life. To turn once more to the examples used

in the Introduction, to the safety pins and tubes of vaseline, we
can see that such commodities are indeed open to a double
inflection: to ‘illegitimate’ as well as ‘legitimate’ uses. These
‘humble objects’ can be magically appropriated; ‘stolen’ by
subordinate groups and made to carry ‘secret’ meanings:
meanings which express, in code, a form of resistance to the
order which guarantees their continued subordination.
Style in subculture is, then, pregnant with significance.
Its transformations go ‘against nature’, interrupting the
process of ‘normalization’. As such, they are gestures,
movements towards a speech which offends the ‘silent
majority”, which challenges the principle of unity and
cohesion, which contradicts the myth of consensus. Our task
becomes, like Barthes’, to discern the hidden messages
inscribed in code on the glossy surfaces of style, to trace
them out as ‘maps of meaning’ which obscurely re-present
the very contradictions they are designed to resolve or
conceal.
Academics who adopt a semiotic approach are not alone in
reading significance into the loaded surfaces of life. The
existence of spectacular subcultures continually opens up
those surfaces to other potentially subversive readings.
Jean Genet, the archetype of the ‘unnatural’ deviant, again
exemplifies the practice of resistance through style. He is as
convinced in his own way as is Roland Barthes of the
ideological character of cultural signs. He is equally
oppressed by the seamless web of forms and meanings
which encloses and yet excludes him. His reading is equally
partial. He makes his own list and draws his own
conclusions:

I was astounded by so rigorous an edifice whose details

were united against me. Nothing in the world is
irrelevant: the stars on a general’s sleeve, the stock-
market quotations, the olive harvest, the style of the
 FROM CULTURE TO HEGEMONY 19

judiciary, the wheat exchange, the flower-beds, . . .

Nothing. This order. . . had a meaning – my exile.
(Genet, 1967)

It is this alienation from the deceptive ‘innocence’ of

appearances which gives the teds, the mods, the punks and
no doubt future groups of as yet unimaginable ‘deviants’
the impetus to move from man’s second ‘false nature’
(Barthes, 1972) to a genuinely expressive artifice; a truly
subterranean style. As a symbolic violation of the social
order, such a movement attracts and will continue to
attract attention, to provoke censure and to act, as we shall
see, as the fundamental bearer of significance in
subculture.
No subculture has sought with more grim determination
than the punks to detach itself from the taken-for-granted
landscape of normalized forms, nor to bring down upon
itself such vehement disapproval. We shall begin therefore
with the moment of punk and we shall return to that
moment throughout the course of this book. It is perhaps
appropriate that the punks, who have made such large
claims for illiteracy, who have pushed profanity to such
startling extremes, should be used to test some of the
methods for ‘reading’ signs evolved in the centuries-old
debate on the sanctity of culture.
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