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Lecture Notes Series on Computing Vol. 11

editors
Falai Chen
Dongming Wang
 lacuivic i mi—
I_I-JIVII—I_I i r\ 1IUIV
LECTURE NOTES SERIES ON COMPUTING
Editor-in-Chief: D T Lee {Northwestern Univ., USA)

Published

Vol. 1: Computing in Euclidean Geometry

Eds. D-Z Du&F Hwang
Vol. 2: Algorithmic Aspects of VLSI Layout
Eds. DTLee&M Sarrafzadeh
Vol. 3: String Searching Algorithms
G A Stephen
Vol. 4: Computing in Euclidean Geometry (Second Edition)
Eds. D-Z Du&F Hwang
Vol. 5: Proceedings of the Conference on
Parallel Symbolic Computation — PASCO '94
Ed. H Hong
Vol. 6: VLSI Physical Design Automation: Theory and Practice
S M Sait & H Youssef
Vol. 7: Algorithms: Design Techniques and Analysis
Ed. M H Alsuwaiyel
Vol. 8: Computer Mathematics
Proceedings of the Fourth Asian Symposium (ASCM 2000)
Eds. X-S Gao & D Wang
Vol. 9: Computer Mathematics
Proceedings of the Fifth Asian Symposium (ASCM 2001)
Eds. K Yokoyama & K Shirayanagi
Vol.10: Computer Mathematics
Proceedings of the Sixth Asian Symposium (ASCM 2003)
Eds.ZLi& WSit
 l i i i J lliiiii liiiiiiiiip 1 W 1 d i I 1 m 1

LJIWII—'LJ i A i ILJIIH
^pPSfflSfflWfflflfflB^ SHE! ^SSHCT «ral SHSB ^saBSBSSaBB^JBS*" BBSS JS» ^BBSft. SS88 88889 '^8888SiB888^iMi»8iB^ 8KSS 'g&ss&SSft

editors
Falai Chen
University of Science and Technology of China, China

Dongming Wang
Universite Pierre et Marie Curie - • CNRS, France

l|jp World Scientific

NEW JERSEY * LONDON • SINGAPORE * BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: Suite 202,1060 Main Stteet, River Edge, NJ 07661
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

GEOMETRIC COMPUTATION
Copyright © 2004 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
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For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
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ISBN 981-238-799-4

Editor: Tjan Kwang Wei

Printed in Singapore.
 PREFACE

Algebraic methods have remarkable applications in the areas of automated

geometric reasoning, computer aided geometric design and modeling, and
computer graphics. These methods have been developed mostly in the area
of computer algebra. The interaction between algebraic computation and
the above-mentioned areas of modern engineering geometry has existed for
several decades, yet in a loose form. To facilitate this interaction, an infor-
mal Seminar on Geometric Computation was held in Hefei, China in April
2002 (see http://www-calfor.lip6.fr/~wang/SGC2002). It brought together
active researchers working on different subjects to survey their work, to
present their ideas, views and recent results, and to discuss future develop-
ment and cooperation. The seminar was very successful and it had attracted
over 50 participants.
The interest of the audience in the seminar talks motivated our at-
tempt in collecting the presented papers and other relevant work in a co-
herent volume. The idea of compiling this volume for formal publication
was supported enthusiastically by most of the speakers and several other
distinguished researchers who were invited to the seminar but were not able
to make their trip. The authors were encouraged to prepare their articles in
two categories: tutorial surveys and original research papers. All the sub-
missions underwent a careful review-revision process, and it is hoped that
this book, with 14 chapters coming out of these submissions, has reached
the usual standard of formally reviewed volumes.
The book comprises three closely related parts: the first is devoted
mainly to curve and surface modeling, and it contains a general survey on
theoretical and practical applications of algebraic methods and three spe-
cialized surveys on surface blending, parametrization, and implicitization,
followed by four research papers. The second part is concentrated on geo-
metric reasoning, with one tutorial survey on Clifford algebra approaches,
another on automated deduction in real geometry, and one research article.
The last part is highlighted by a chapter that outlines a theory of real ap-
VI Preface

proximation, based on a generalization of the central idea of exact geometric

computation. The book ends with one paper on ^.-resultant quotients and
another on face recognition, which show how computer algebra and artificial
intelligence meet geometry in the era of computation.
The contents of the book, though fundamental and focused, cross three
major areas of research: symbolic and algebraic computation, automated
reasoning, and computer aided geometric design. They are also related to
numerical and scientific computing, computer aided design, and computer
graphics. The design and graphic aspects of the book may even extend its
readership to the industry of geometric engineering. We hope that this book
will offer the reader a valuable source of reference and an easy access to the
intersection of these highly relevant disciplines.
The editors wish to thank all the authors for their valuable contributions
and the referees for their timely help. We acknowledge the generous support
provided by the Department of Mathematics, University of Science and
Technology of China for the above-mentioned seminar.

Hefei and Paris Falai Chen

September 2003 Dongming Wang
 CONTENTS

Preface v
1 Algebraic M e t h o d s in C o m p u t e r Aided G e o m e t r i c
Design: Theoretical a n d P r a c t i c a l Applications 1
Laureano Gonzalez-Vega, Ioana Necula, Sonia Perez-Diaz,
Juana Sendra, and J. Rafael Sendra

2 C o n s t r u c t i n g Piecewise Algebraic Blending Surfaces 34

Yuyu Feng, Falai Chen, Jiansong Deng, Changsong Chen,
and Xing Tang

3 R a t i o n a l Curves a n d Surfaces: A l g o r i t h m s a n d Some

Applications 65
J. Rafael Sendra

4 P a n o r a m a of M e t h o d s for Exact Implicitization of

Algebraic Curves a n d Surfaces 126
Bias S. Kotsireas

5 Implicitization a n d Offsetting via R e g u l a r S y s t e m s 156

Dongming Wang

6 D e t e r m i n i n g t h e Intersection C u r v e of Two 3D
Implicit Surfaces by Using Differential G e o m e t r y
a n d Algebraic Techniques 177
Laureano Gonzalez-Vega, Ioana Necula, and Jaime Puig-Pey

7 Analytical P r o p e r t i e s of Semi-Stationary Subdivision

Schemes 191
Hongxin Zhang and Guojin Wang

8 Meshless M e t h o d for N u m e r i c a l Solution of P D E

Using H e r m i t i a n I n t e r p o l a t i o n w i t h Radial Basis 209
Zongmin Wu and Jianping Liu

VI1
Vlll Contents

9 Clifford Algebras in Geometric Computation 221

Hongbo Li
10 Automated Deduction in Real Geometry 248
Lu Yang and Bican Xia
11 Automated Derivation of Unknown Relations
and Determination of Geometric Loci 299
Yong-Bin Li
12 On Guaranteed Accuracy Computation 322
Chee K. Yap
13 Dixon ^4-Resultant Quotients for 6-Point Isosceles
Triangular Corner Cutting 374
Mao-Ching Foo and Eng-Wee Chionh
14 Face Recognition Using Hidden Markov Models
and Artificial Neural Network Techniques 396
Zongying Ou and Bindang Xue
Index 407

List of Authors 413

 CHAPTER 1

ALGEBRAIC M E T H O D S IN C O M P U T E R AIDED
GEOMETRIC DESIGN: THEORETICAL A N D PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS

Laureano Gonzalez-Vega*, Ioana Necula*, Sonia Perez-Diaz*, Juana Sendra*,

and J. Rafael Sendra'
* Universidad de Cantabria, Dpto. de Matemdticas, Estad. y Comput., Spain
+ Universidad Carlos III, Departamento de Matemdticas, Spain
' Universidad de Alcald, Departamento de Matemdticas, Spain
E-mail: {gonzalezl,neculai} Qunican.es, [email protected],
{rajael. sendra, sonia. perez} Quah.es

In this chapter, we show how to adapt algebraic techniques to deal with

some problems, such as implicitization or parameterization, in computer
aided geometric design that involve floating-point real numbers. In addi-
tion, applications to the offsetting and blending problems are also con-
sidered.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

T h e usefulness of computer aided design and computer aided modeling

( C A D / C A M ) systems as a means of increasing t h e efficiency of t h e design
process is nowadays uncontested. Advantages such as

• reduction of lead times,

• quality improvements, and
• cost reduction by saving time spent for implementing engineering changes
in the design process

are often cited as the major benefits resulting from the introduction of
specialized software for C A D / C A M . From a mathematical point of view
almost all the C A D / C A M problems are related to the manipulation of ge-
ometric objects, mainly curves, surfaces and their combinations, in two or
three-dimensional space. Since these geometric objects may be represented
implicitly or parametrically through polynomials or rational functions, it is
clear t h a t computer aided geometric design (CAGD) must intersect com-

l
2 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

puter algebra, algebraic geometry, and real algebraic geometry.

In this chapter, we briefly survey some results and techniques from these
related areas for symbolic and symbolic-numeric manipulation of curves and
surfaces and discuss their applications in CAGD. Since some chapters 48 ' 61
of this volume are devoted to symbolic algorithms for curves and surfaces,
our discussions will be focused mainly on the approximate version of the
problems as well as their applications. More precisely, we will address

• implicitization and parametrization problems in the case when approxi-

mate objects are under consideration,
• applications such as computing with implicit curves, offsetting and blend-
ing in CAGD, and
• some examples on the practical performance of algebraic techniques in
CAGD.
For a complete and comprehensive introduction to CAGD, the reader
is referred to the first few chapters in the book 23 by Farin and others.

2. Implicitization and Parametrization Problems

Algebraic curves and surfaces, especially rational curves and surfaces, are
the main geometric objects in CAGD. In many practical applications para-
metric representation of varieties are used, 5 ' 6,41 ' 46 but in some situations
the availability of implicit equations is required or even an implicit equation
may be produced as output of a geometric operation since the new geomet-
ric object does not necessarily have a parametric representation. These facts
have motivated the emergence of a research area devoted to the construc-
tion of conversion algorithms, namely parametrization and implicitization
algorithms, 6 ' 42,48 ' 61 for algebraic varieties.
This section is devoted to analyzing the problem of adapting symbolic
and algebraic algorithms of implicitization and parameterization for the
(more real) case where the involved coefficients of polynomials are floating-
point real numbers. For a description of different ways of dealing with
the implicitization problem in the case of exact coefficients (using Grobner
bases, resultants, moving curves and surfaces, etc.), see Chapter 4 in this
volume 48 or the paper 59 by Sederberg. Similarly, for a description of sym-
bolic parametrization algorithms see Chapter 3 in this volume. 61

2.1. Implicitization: Exact versus Approximate

One of the main problems arising in the manipulation of curves and surfaces
in CAGD consists in finding efficient algorithms for computing the implicit
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 3

equations of curves and surfaces parametrized by rational functions (see

for example the books 14 ' 15 by Cox and others, or Chapters 5 and 7 in the
book 41 by Hoffmann). This is due, for example, to the fact that for tracing
the considered curve or surface the parametric representation is the most
convenient, while for determining in an efficient way the position of a point
on the curve or surface, the implicit equation is desired.
The implicitization problem for hypersurfaces (curves in the real plane
or surfaces in the three-dimensional real space for real applications)
parametrized in a rational way can be stated in the following terms: let V
be a hypersurface in E™ (n = 2 or n — 3 in real applications) parametrized
by
fi(ti,... ,i„-i) . . ,
Xi =
~u 7 v «e{l,...,n},
gi(ti,... ,tn-i)
where fi and gi belong to K[ti,... , tn-i] with gcd(/j, gi) = 1. The implicit-
ization problem for V consists in finding a non-zero element lZv{x\,... , xn)
in E[xi, • • • , xn] with the smallest possible total degree such that

^ f fl(h,- • - ,tn-i) fn(h, • • • ;*w-l)\ _ Q

\gi(t\, • • • ,tn-i)' ' gn(ti,... ,tn-\) J
More general formulations of the implicitization problem for arbitrary para-
metric varieties can be found in the papers by Alonso et al.,1 Canny
and Manocha, 9 Chionh, 11 Gao and Chou, 30 Gonzalez-Vega,34 and Kalk-
brener. 47
The implicitization problem can be seen as a problem in elimination
theory and therefore it can be approached by elimination techniques such
as Grobner bases and characteristic sets. Nevertheless, alternative methods
can be applied. Next example, extracted from the paper 34 by the first au-
thor, shows a non-standard way of computing the implicit equation of a
rational surface avoiding the use of Grobner bases or resultants (i.e., de-
terminants of polynomial matrices). In fact, it can be viewed as a way of
computing the corresponding determinant by computing the traces of the
powers of the considered matrix.

Example 1: The parametric equations of a bicubic surface B are

x(u, v) = 3v(v - l)2 + (u- l)3 + 3u,

y(u, v) = 3u(u - 1 ) 2 +v3 + 3w,
z(u, v) = -Zu(u2 -5u + 5)«3 - 3(u3 + 6u2 -9u+ l)v2
+ v(6u3 + 9u2 - 18u + 3) - 3u{u - 1).
4 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

We look for an implicit equation HB for B. The first two equations, denoted
by Hi and H2 (and the third one will be denoted by Hz), do not have the
desired structure in order to apply the ad-hoc technique presented in the
paper 34 by the first author, but an easy linear combination of them, namely
-Hi + 3H2 , 3v2 15M 2 3V 3U 3y x 1
3
Fl = ; =U + —4 — + -4r + — - ^ - + ~ + 7T,
8
3Fi - H2 * 9v2 3u2 3v 15u y 3x
i 3„3
F2 = — =v - —4 —
8 + -T
4 + — +
gives a good shape for the polynomial system to be dealt with. This means
that any polynomial in Q[x, y][u, v] can be written in a unique way modulo
Fi and F2 as a Q[a;,j/]-linear combination of monomials u V (the so-called
normal form modulo i*\ and F2) with total degree strictly smaller than 3.
In this particular case the equation "HB has the following structure:
9
nB(x,y,z) = z9 + Yiri(x,y)z9-i= J] {z-H3(A)), (1)
«=1 Fi(A)=0,F 2 (A)=0

where A represents a zero of the system Fi = 0, F2 = 0 with coordinates

in the algebraic closure of Q(x,y).
The computation of the ri(x,y) is performed by computing the Newton
sums of order 9, Sk(x,y) (k € { 1 , . . . ,9}), for the equation (1):

Sk(x,y)= Yl (#3(A))*.
Fi(A)=0,F 2 (A)=0

For that, the Jacobian determinant of Fi and F2 is first computed:

T / N „ 2 2 2 7 2 9 2 45 2 „ 9 9 2 9 9
Jaciu, B = w u vu H—u v u + lavu — - u H—v v .
y
' ' 2 4 4 4 8 2 8
Denote by £ij (0 < i,j < 2) the coefficient of u2v2 in the normal form of the
polynomial u V J a c modulo F\ and F2; then every Sk(x,y) is determined
by the following expression:

i,j=0
where the c\, are the coefficients of the normal form of _H"f with respect
to F\ and F2:
2
(H3(s,t))k= ^ c g ^ V mod <^i,F 2 >.
i,j=0
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 5

Finally the desired result is obtained by using the classical Newton identities
of the univariate case. The first two coefficients in %B{x1y, z) are
_ 233469a; 188595?/ _ 112832595 81a;2 135x2/ 81j/2
ri[x,y) - 204g + 2Q4g 262144 64~ + _
32 64~'
, , 20972672709381a: 17975329363179?/ 729y4 729a;4
+
r 2 (x,y) - 536870912 536870912 8192 ~ "8192"
1215a;3;/ 1215a;?/3 41Q5971x3 3129597j/3
+ + +
2048 2048 65536 65536
2 2
14456151a; ;/ _ 13181049xy 48101467761a:;/
+ 65536 65536 +
8388608
2
_ 38812918311?/ _ 22656991982391171 _ 1 /233469a;
16777216 137438953472 2 V 2048
112832595 81a;2 __ 188595?/ 135xy Sly2
+ + +
262144 ~~64 2048 3T~ ~64~
233469x 188595;/ 135_a^/ 81y2 112832595
+
2048 2048 " + ~32 64 262144
4779a;
_ ^1^] - V _ 54187594407a;2
+
64 J 4096 16777216 "''
The computing time was less than 5 seconds by using Maple 9 on a Pow-
erPC G4 dual processor at 1MHz (the implicitization time for the previous
bicubic spline was 1500 seconds by using Grobner bases; see the book 41 by
Hoffmann). The size of the file containing the full implicit equation of B is
around 600 Kb.
It is important to mention that, in many cases, computer algebra pack-
ages can hardly verify the obtained result by substituting the parametric
equations of B into the computed implicit equation and obtaining 0 as re-
sult. However, since the parametric equations are available, it is very easy
to verify that several hundreds of points randomly generated on B satisfy
the computed implicit equation.

Other problems with a similar formulation to the implicitization prob-

lem described above, and where the solution is obtained by eliminating
some variables from the initial equations, are listed below (see the book by
Hoffmann41).
• Computation of offset curves and surfaces.
• Computation of constant-radius blending surfaces.
• Computation of the convolution of two plane curves or surfaces.
6 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

• Computation of the common tangent of two plane curves.

• Computation of the inversion formula for parametric surfaces.
These geometrical operations are often used for generating the boundary
of configuration space obstacles, in order to construct collision-free motion
paths for translating objects.
Two main difficulties are encountered when one uses the usual elimina-
tion techniques (resultants, Grobner bases, triangular sets, etc.) offered by
computer algebra to deal with the variable elimination problems mentioned
above. For example the implicitization of a rational surface defined by
_ X(u,v) _ Y(u,v) _ Z(u,v)
X V Z
~ W(u,v)' ~ W{u,vY ~ W{u,v)
appearing in a real-world problem is difficult to achieve by directly applying
resultants or Grobner bases because, first, it is usually a very costly alge-
braic operation (due mainly to the sizes of the intermediate coefficients or
the size of the involved matrices) and, second, the coefficients of the poly-
nomials in the parametrization are usually floating-point real numbers (not
allowing the use of Grobner bases, for example, or producing stability or
robustness problems in the computation of the determinant of a polynomial
matrix).
These difficulties can be currently overcome in practice for some partic-
ular (mainly low degree) cases in two different ways.
• By using multivariate resultants (see the paper by Canny and Manocha 9 ),
the implicit equation is described as a non-evaluated determinant. Then
any question about the considered surface, requiring the implicit equa-
tion, is reduced to a Numerical Linear Algebra question over such a ma-
trix (usually an eigenvalue problem).
• By taking into account that, in general, a concrete object to be modeled
is made by several hundreds (or thousands) of small patches, all of them
sharing the same algebraic structure. For such an object a database is con-
structed containing the implicit equation of every class of patch appearing
in its definition. This database must also contains the inversion formu-
lae (providing the parameters in terms of the Cartesian coordinates) and
must be pruned to avoid specialization problems. Moreover the database
for a specific object is kept into a bigger and general database for further
use (see the paper 19 by Espinola and others).
For this reason, a first option for the study of numeric implicitization
algorithms is the precomputation of the implicit representation of the alge-
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 7

braic models of the patches, defined in a generic way by means of param-

eters. This approach, called "generic implicitization", generates databases
which allow a quickly problem solving. For instance, the implicit equation
of the parametric surface of the form

x = a\v2 + a2v, y = bin2 + b2, z = c\uv + c2u + c3v (2)

is
cfx2y2 - 2c\a1blxyz2 + b\a\zl + {-2c\b2 - 2c\bxc\)x2y
+ {2c\c2a2 — 2c\c\ai)xy2 + (2bicfc3a2 — &cibiaic2c-s)xyz
+ (2claibib2 - 2a\c\b\)xz2 + (2bic1a2aic2 - 2b\a\c\
- bic\al)yz2 + 2a1a2b\c2,zz + {c\b\ + 2c\b2c\bx + clb\)x2
+ (4cf C2&2fli - 2c 2 cia 2 6ic| - 2b\a\c\<?3 - Ac\c2b2a2)xy
+ (-2c2a2b1c3b2 + 8c2c1ai&2C3&i - 2a2b\cl)xz .
+ (-2clciaia2 + c\a\+c\c\a\)y2-2c\aia2biC2,yz
+ ( a 2^i c i _ 2c2Ciaib2b\a2 + c\b2b\d\ + 2c2,ajb1b2)z2
+ (2c2cia2b1clb2 + 2c2c\b\a2 - 2c2,cja1b2 + 2c22a1b2c\b1)x
+ (Aaa2claib2 - 2a\c^b2 — 2c\a\c\b2 - c\a\bic\)y
+ 2c\a\a2bic3b2z + c\d\b\ - 2c?2c\a\b\a2 + c\aL2b\c\b2
+ c2c2b2a2=0

for almost all the values of the undetermined parameters aj, b% and c».
The database may also contain the conditions which imply that the pre-
vious representation provides after specialization a bad implicit equation:
for instance, if a\ is considered to be equal to 0 in the previous representa-
tion, then the resulting implicit equation after specialization is

{c\y - cjbi - c\b2) • {c\x2y - (b2c\ + hc^x2 + a22c22b2) = 0,

which contains not only the implicit equation of the surface in (2) with
«i = 0, but also the extraneous factor corresponding (if c\ ^ 0) to the
equation of the plane

2/=(C261+C2&2)/C2.

Even in this case this "bad" implicit equation can be useful since the avail-
ability of the parametric representation allows one to discard in practice
those points coming from the extraneous factor.
Moreover, the database should contain the algebraic expressions which
describe u and v in function of x, y and z. For the surface defined by (2),
whose implicit equation appears in (3), the value of v in function of x, y
8 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

and z is given by the formula

_ bjdiz2 - c\xy + (&ic§ + c\b2)x - aic\y + Qic|6 2
2&iaic32: + (2aic 2 ci - cfa 2 )y - 2aic 2 c 1 6 2 + a26iCg + cfa 2 6 2 '
The main drawback of the first approach is due to the existence of base
points, i.e., solutions of the polynomial system

X(u, v) = 0, Y(u, v) = 0, Z{u, v) = 0, W{u, v) = 0,

since their existence implies the vanishing of the determinant defining the
implicit equation. This problem is solved for some instances by looking for
an appropriate submatrix of full rank in the resultant matrix defining the
implicit equation. 50 In the general case the computation of the greatest
common divisor of several determinants of submatrices in order get the
right implicit equation is required.
It is also not easy to deal in advance with specialization problems: up
to this moment these are detected by substituting several points in the
surface, uniformly generated by the parametrization, into the candidate to
be the implicit equation.
The main drawback provided by the second approach is due to the fact
that some algebraic structures arising in the database construction are very
complicated and the implicit equation cannot be generated or cannot be
easily used because of its huge size. Namely:
_ X(u,v) __ Y(u,v) Z(u,v)
X V Z
~~ W{u,vY ~ W{u,vY ~ W{u,v)
with
3

W(u,v) = ^{AJV2 + BJV + Cj)uj

3=0

and

U(u, v) = £ > < V + pfv + 7j V

i=o
for U € {X,Y,Z},i € {x,y,z}. Thus, this strategy has no practical appli-
cability for such cases as the general bicubic patches, since in these cases
the generic implicit equation is too complex to be used in practice.
A way of solving this problem is using techniques to reduce the degree of
the considered surface. This degree reduction could affect the parametriza-
tion and the implicit equation as well. In the first case, by using a set of
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 9

techniques already usual in geometric design, the considered surface is ap-

proximated by another one with parametrizations of lower degrees, which
allows the use of the precomputed implicit equations in the database. In the
second case, an upper bound for the total degree of the implicit equation
of the considered surface is determined and established from the beginning.
Then, for each patch, the coefficients of the implicit equation are obtained
such that the error produced in the computations is smaller than the tol-
erance chosen to solve the problem.
It is important to mention that the algorithms sketched here involve
techniques for computing singular values, formal expansion at infinity of
rational functions constructed with the parametrization of the initial curve
or surface, rewriting symmetric polynomials in terms of the solutions of
certain equation systems like in our initial example, etc.
For instance, in the case of reducing the degree of the implicit equa-
tion, it is possible to reduce even the number of components/patches of
the considered curve or surface (see the paper 18 by Dokken or for a sim-
ilar formulation in the paper 13 by Corless and others). If the curve to be
implicitized is defined by
fx{u)\ _ { {u,u2) if u > 0,
u 2
\y( )J ~ \(u,-u ) if « < o
with u £ [—1,1], and the total degree of the implicit equation is bounded
by 3, then by using the Bernstein bases and computing the singular values
of the matrix generated by replacing the parametrizations in the implicit
equation to be computed, the following is obtained as the implicit equation:
-0.14338002021536847y3 + 0.50872225217688360a;2/2
- 0.14431972674994731y - 0.69833143139600062a:2y
+ 0.017022876399572399x + 0.460281533430831x3 = 0.
In Fig. 1 the initial parametric curve and the curve associated to the implicit
equation are displayed, these two curves being indistinguishable. In this
case, using the Bernstein basis is essential; however, using the habitual
power basis does not produce the correct result with respect to the accuracy
of the obtained result.
Another strategy consists in replacing the computations of resultants or
Grobner bases by developing evaluation outlines which supply directly the
implicit equation. For instance, if the curve to be implicitized is defined by
the polynomial parametrization

x = f{u), y=g(u),
10 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

Fig. 1. Approximated implicitization

then its implicit equation is given by the "formula"

II (y~9(a)),
f(a)~x=0

where the solutions of the equation f(a) — x = 0 are considered in the

algebraic closure of K(x) (where K is the base field). Using Newton identities
together with the Laurent expansion of the rational functions

f'(x)g(x)k

one gets the desired result, without computing any determinant (which
could be a difficult task when the coefficients of f(t) and g(t) are given
in an approximated form) or Grobner bases. Another alternative, that one
may take into account, is to compute the Puiseux expansion of the solutions
of the equation f(u)—x = 0 (seen as equation in u) and to use the product
to recover the implicit equation.

2.2. Parametrization: Exact versus Approximate

61
Although many authors have addressed the problem of globally and sym-
bolically parametrizing algebraic curves and surfaces, only few results have
been achieved for the case of approximate algebraic varieties. Piecewise
parametrizations are provided in the papers by Corless et al.,12 Gahleitner
et al.29 and Hartmann 38 by means of combination of both algebraic and
numerical techniques for solving differential equations and rational B-spline
manipulations. In the paper 7 by Bajaj and Royappa, the problem of finding
a global approximate parametrization is studied for the case of approximate
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 11

irreducible conies, rational cubics and quadrics. In the paper 54 by Perez-

Diaz and others, the results of Bajaj and Royappa 7 are generalized to the
special case of curves parametrizable by lines.
The statement of the problem for the approximate case is slightly differ-
ent from that of the classical symbolic parametrization problem (see Chap-
ter 3 6 1 in this volume). Intuitively speaking, one is given an irreducible
affine algebraic plane real curve C, that may or may not be rational, and a
tolerance e > 0, and the problem consists in computing a rational curve C,
and its parametrization, such that almost all points of the rational curve C
are in the "vicinity" of C. The notion of vicinity may be introduced as the
offset region limited by the external and internal offsets to C at distance e,
and therefore the problem consists in finding, if possible, a rational curve
C lying within the offset region of C.
For instance, suppose that we are given a tolerance e = 0.001 and the
quartic C defined by
x4 + 2y4 + 1.001a:3 + 3x2y - y2x - 3y3 + O.OOl?/2 - 0.001a; - O.OOly - 0.001.

2 2

/yi /yi-

-2 s^-\ ~/ ^ 1 2 -2 y^-\ ^r~^ 1 2

X X

-1 -1-

-2 -2

Fig. 2. Curve C (right) and curve C (left)

Note that C has genus 3, and therefore the input curve is not rational.
Thus, an answer to the problem is given by the quartic C defined by
x4 + 2.y4 + 1.001a:3 + 3.x2y - y2x - 3.y3 + 1 0 ~ V
- .6243761996 • KT 13 a; - .6260915576 • 10~13y
+ .9744187291 • 10~ 23 - .3522924910 • 10"16a;2
+ .9991263887- l O - 6 ^
12 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

that can be parametrized by V(t) — {pi{t) ,p2{t)), where

p1 = -.487671-
2.0526 - 2.05055*2 + 6.15167* + .512063 • 10 6 t 4 - 6.15167*3
1 + 2*4 '
p2 = .487671-
-2.05260* + 2.05055*3 - 6.15167*2 + 6.15167*4 + .256287 • 10~ 6
1 + 2*4
One may check that C and C in Fig. 2 are close.
In the following, we briefly describe the ideas in the paper 54 by Perez-
Diaz and others for parametrizing approximate curves by lines. More pre-
cisely, given a tolerance e > 0 and an algebraic plane real curve C defined
by an e-irreducible polynomial f(x,y) € C[x,j/] of degree d, and having an
e-singularity of multiplicity d—1 (see below for the notion of e-singularity,
and the paper 12 by Corless and others for the concept of e-irreducibility),
the algorithm we describe computes a proper parametrization of a rational
curve that is exactly parametrizable by lines (see Chapter 3 6 1 in this volume
for the notion of properness). Furthermore, the error analysis shows that
under certain initial conditions that ensures that points are projectively
well defined, the output curve lies within the offset region of C at distance
at most
2 .v/2.el/(2d).e2_

We start with the notion of e-singularity. We say that P £ C2 is an

e-affine singularity of multiplicity r of an algebraic plane curve defined by
a polynomial f(x, y) € R[x, y] if, for 0 < i + j < r — 1,
di+jf
P
d{xdiy < ) /ll/ll < e,
where ||/|| denotes the infinity norm of / . Now, let C be an e-irreducible
(over C) real algebraic curve of degree d having an e-singularity P = (a, b)
of multiplicity d—1 (for checking the existence and actual computation of
e-singularities see the paper 54 by Perez-Diaz and others), and let f(x,y) be
its defining polynomials. Then the following theorems hold.

Theorem 2: Let pj (t) be the root in R(t) of the quotient of / (x, tx + b — at)
and {x — a)d~l, and let p2(t) = tpi(t) +b — ta. Then the implicit equation
of the rational curve C defined by the parametrization P(t) = (Pi(t),p2(t))
is
7(x,y) = f(x,y) -T{x,y),
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 13

where T(x,y) is the Taylor expansion up to order d — 1 of f(x,y) at P.

T h e o r e m 3: C is contained in the offset region of C at distance at most

2-\/2-e55 -e2.

T h e following example illustrates the results stated in the previous the-

orems.

E x a m p l e 4: (Refer to the paper 5 4 by Perez-Diaz and others). We consider

e — 0.001 and the curve C of degree 6 defined by the polynomial

f(x, y)=y6+x6 + 2.yx4 - 2.y4x + 1 0 ' 3 x + .10~3y + 2 • 1 0 " 3 + H r V .

T h e point P = (.1875000000 • 1CT 5 , -.50000002 • 10~ 3 ) is an e-singularity

of multiplicity 5. Applying Theorem 2 one gets the curve C defined by the
polynomial

J(x,y) = - . 1 2 5 0 0 0 0 4 6 4 - 1 0 " 1 2 a ; + .1125000100- 10~uy

+ .9999999873 • 1 0 " 3 : E 4 + 2.yx4 - 2.y4x - .1000000173 • 10~ V
+ y6 + x6 - .7500000036 • 1 0 ^ 8 z 3 + .2499999700 • 1 0 _ V
+ .2109375029•10" 1 3 x 2 - .3000000180•10 1 2 y 4
+ .2812500000 • 1 0 " 1 V + .1562500311 • 10~ 1 8
- .1500000000 • 10~4x3y - .4000000160 • l O " 2 ^ 3
+ .4218750000 • 1 0 " 1 C V 2 - .3000000240 • 10~5y2x,

and its parametrization V(t) = (Pi(t),p2(i)), where

= _ -It + .300000012 • KT 2 * 5 + .1875 • l ( T 5 t 6 + 2.t4 - .9375 • 1CT5

Pi- ^T? ,
= _ -.48875002 • 10~ 3 - It4 - .300000012 • 1 0 ~ V +2t- .50000002 • 10~ 3 t 6
V2- ^ •

T h e reader may compare the input curve and the rational output curve
in Fig. 3.

3. Applications in C A G D

As we have mentioned, CAGD is a n a t u r a l frame for applications of alge-

braic curves and surfaces. In this section four of these applications, namely
computing with real plane curves defined implicitly, dealing with offset
curves and surfaces including the consideration of topological problems and
blending several surfaces, are analyzed.
14 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

1
n
0
0.8-
0.6
0.5
0.4-
x
0.2- X
1/
1
— -0.6
-0.8-
^
-1-
w\~
y-1 y
-1.2 -1.5 \ \
-1.4
-1.6
-1.8 ^ -2 ^ ^
-2
-2.5

Fig. 3. Curve C (left) and curve C (right)

3.1. Implicit Real Curves Plotting

A very common problem in CAD systems is the resolution of topological
questions when dealing with geometric entities defined by algebraic ob-
jects. Probably the simplest one is the determination of the topology of
an algebraic curve denned by its implicit equation. For instance, for the
polynomial
f(x,y) 279756.0a; 559692.(to/2 + 279936.(te/4 + 15588.0y2a;3
+ 217.0a;5- 745286.4?/215583.0a;3 + 26043.6a;2 - 2303.9a;4
+ 35.9a;6 + 370656.0y4 - 72774.0?/2a;2 + 2589.4y22„.4
a;
+ 1296.0?/6 + 46728.02A 2 + 373334.3900,
its real drawing appears on the left of Fig. 4. This picture (only quan-
titative) does not allow one to determine which is the real configuration
of the considered curve, while the graph appearing on the right of Fig. 4
gives the right qualitative information looked for. This graph can be com-
puted in a very fast way (a few seconds) by using the algorithms presented
by Gonzalez-Vega and others 35,36 and can be used to resolve topological
problems (see Subsection 3.3).
The problem of computing the graph (even topologically) of a planar
algebraic curve defined implicitly has received a special attention from com-
puter algebra, since it has been responsible of many advances regarding
subresultants, real root counting, infinitesimal computations, etc. From the
first papers 2,32 ' 58 in computer algebra and real algebraic geometry dealing
with this problem, the interested reader can find, in the papers by Cellini
et al,10 Cucker et al.,16 Feng,26 Gonzalez-Vega et al.35'36 and Hong, 45 how
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 15

r
r\
j \
<rx t x>

- * ' - * ' ' < •

Fig. 4. Topological resolution of implicitly defined algebraic curves: f(x,y) = 0

the theoretical and practical complexities of the algorithms dealing with

this problem have been dramatically improved.
The usual strategy to compute the graph (even topologically) of a planar
algebraic curve defined implicitly by a polynomial f(x,y) G E[x, y] proceeds
in the following way.
Step I: Compute the discriminant R(x) of / with respect to y and char-
acterize the real roots en of R(x): a\ < • • • < ar.
Step II: For every a*, compute the real roots /3ij of f(ai,y): / ^ i < • • • <
Pi,*-
Step III: For every oij and j3itj, compute the number of half-branches to
the right and to the left of the point (ai,(3itj).
Following the paper 36 by Gonzalez-Vega and others and in order to avoid
the numerical problems arising from the computation of the roots of R(x)
and of every f(ati,y) which always has multiple roots, before starting the
computations, a generic linear change of variables is performed in order to
have the following condition for every a G E:

# /?e /(a,/?)=0,|J(c*,/?)=oJ<l.
This assures that for every real root on of R(x), there is only one critical
point of the curve in the vertical line x = CCJ, whose y-coordinate can be
rationally described in terms of a^. Moreover this allows one to symbolically
construct, from every f(cti,y), a squarefree polynomial gi(cti,y) whose real
roots need to be computed in order to finish with the so-called Step II. Step
III is thus accomplished by merely computing the number of real roots of
the squarefree polynomials f(~fi,y) (i G { 0 , 1 , . . . ,r + I}) with 70 = - 0 0 ,
7 r + i = 00 and ji being any real number in the open interval ( a j , a , + i ) .
16 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

These computations provide a graph of the considered curve which is very

helpful when the curve is going to be traced numerically, since we know
exactly how to proceed when coming closer to a complicated point.
A more complicated example is given by the squarefree polynomial
g(x, y)=y8 + y7 + {-7x - 8)y6 + (21x2 - 7)y5 + (-35a; 3 + 35x + 20)|/4
+ (35x4 - 70x2 + M)?,3 + (-21x 5 + 70x3 - 42a; - 16)y2
+ (7a;6 - 35x4 + 42a;2 - 7)y - x7 + 7x5 - 14a;3 + 7x + 2.
In Fig. 5, both the topological structure and the true drawing of the real
algebraic plane curve defined by / are displayed. The real drawing of the
curve is obtained by using the information contained in the graph providing
the topological structure.

Fig. 5. Topological resolution of implicitly defined algebraic curves: g(x,y) =0

3.2. Offsetting
Given an algebraic variety, in practice a curve or a surface, in some com-
puter aided geometric design applications one needs to compute its offsets.
That is, one considers a geometric manipulation of the original variety that
generates a new algebraic variety. This offsetting construction essentially
consists in computing the envelope Oa(V) of a system of hyperspheres with
fixed, but probably undetermined, distance d and centered at the points
of the original algebraic set V (for a formal definition of offsets see for in-
stance the paper 3 by Arrondo and others). Alternatively, one may see the
offset OdiV) to a hypersurface V, at distance d, as the Zariski closure of the
constructible set consisting of the intersection points of the hyperspheres
of radius d centered at each point P £ VQ and the normal line to V at P,
where Vo C V is the set of regular points of V that have non-zero isotropic
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 17

normal vectors to V. In Fig. 6 we illustrate the offsetting of the parabola

y = x2 at distance 1.

Fig. 6. Offsetting of y = x2 at d - '

Some interesting problems concerning offsets, and related to Algebraic

Geometry, have been addressed by many authors. In particular, implici-
tization problems, 40 ' 41 ' 65 parametrization problems, 3 ' 49 ' 55 ' 56 * 63 analysis of
topological, algebraic, and geometric properties of the offset in terms of
the corresponding properties of the initial variety 4 ' 24 ' 25 ' 62 , etc., have been
considered.
In this section we report on the characterization of the unirationality of
offsets and on the direct parametrization algorithm for offsets to rational
surfaces following the ideas in the papers by Arrondo et al? and by Sendra
and Sendra; 63 a similar treatment can be done for the case of plane curves
(see the paper 3 by Arrondo and others or Sendra's Ph.D. thesis 60 ).
Unirationality of offsets to surfaces can be characterized by means of
the notion of Rational Pythagorean Hodograph (RPH) and, more effectively,
by means of the concept of reparametrizing hypersurface (see the paper 3
by Arrondo and others, and the paper 56 by Pottmann). These concepts do
not depend on the distance. They depend only on the initial surface. More
precisely, let

v(i) = (Pi(i),p2{t),p3{i))
be a rational parametrization of a surface V. Then, we say that V(i) is
RPH if the normal vector

M(i) = (Nl(i),N2(i),Nz(t))
18 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

associated with V(t) satisfies the condition

N^i)2 + N2{t)2 + N3(t)2 = m{if,
where m(t) is a rational function.
On the other hand, let Af(i) = (N1(i),N2(i),N3(i)) be the normal
vector of V associated with V{ t) (we assume, without loss of generality, that
N2(i) in not identically zero). Then, we define the reparametrizing surface
of the offset Od(V) to V associated with V(i) as the surface defined by the
primitive part, w.r.t. x3, of the numerator of the irreducible expression of
the rational function
3
x
i ^N2{x1,x2) - JVf (an, x2) - 2x3N1(xu x2) N2(xux2).
8=2

We denote by Q-p(V) t n e reparametrizing surface of Od(V) associated with

V(i).
In this situation, one deduces3 the following characterization of the ra-
tionality.

Theorem 5: The following statements are equivalent:

(1) V is rational and there exists an RPH parametrization of V.
(2) All the components of Oa(V) are rational.
(3) There exists a proper parametrization V of V such that Q-p(V) has, at
least, one rational component. Furthermore, if
f(ti,t2) = (fi(ti,t2),ip2(ti,t2),(p3(t1,t2))

is a rational parametrization of one component of Q-p (V), then the pa-

rametrization V(<pi(ti,t2),ip2(ti,t2)) is RPH.
(4) For all proper parametrizations V of V, Q-p (V) has, at least, one rational
component.

In addition, from the analysis of unirationality presented by Arrondo

and others 3 , one deduces that offsets of rational surfaces have the following
behavior: they are reducible with two rational components, or they are ra-
tional, or irreducible and non-rational. Furthermore, we can derive3 criteria
to distinguish among these cases.

Theorem 6: (Criterion of double rationality). Let V be rational; then the

following statements are equivalent:
(1) There exists an RPH proper parametrization of V.
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 19

(2) All proper parametrizations of V are RPH.

(3) Od{V) is reducible.
(4) There exists a proper parametrization V of V such that Gv(V) 1S re-
ducible.
(5) For all proper parametrizations V of V, Gv(V) is reducible.
(6) There exists a proper parametrization V of V such that Qv(V) has two
rational components.
(7) For all proper parametrizations V of V, Gv(V) has two rational com-
ponents.

Theorem 7: (Criterion of rationality). Let V be rational; then the follow-

ing statements are equivalent:

(1) There exists an RPH rational parametrization of V, but there does not
exist a proper RPH rational parametrization of V.
(2) Cd(V) is rational (and therefore irreducible).
(3) There exists a proper parametrization V of V such that Q-p (V) is ratio-
nal.
(4) For all proper parametrizations V of V, Gv{V) is rational.

From these results one may derive an algorithm that deduces the ratio-
nality of the components of the offset to a rational surface given parametri-
cally and that, in the affirmative case, obtains a rational parametrization.
We illustrate these ideas by the following example.

Example 8: (See the paper 63 by Sendra and Sendra). Let V be the surface
in C3 defined by

^(2/1,2/2,2/3) = 16 2/1 - 3 y f 2/3 ~yl - y% -2,y\y\.

V can be properly parametrized as

First, we compute the normal vector of V associated with V:

4*| - 3 t | ( - l + tj) - 6 M i N
M{hM) tl + V (t? + l)2 '(tj + ir)
and we check that

H^(*l.*a)ll = ^ ^ P ^ C ( * l , t 2 ) .
20 Gonzalez-Vega et al.

Therefore, "P is not RPH. As a consequence, Od(V) is irreducible. In order to

study whether Cd(V) is rational, we compute the reparametrizing surface
H = —3x2 + &x2x\ + 3x2x3 + 3x2x3xl + 6x2x3x2 — ?>x2x\ + 8x3xl - 8x3,
which is a rational surface and can be parametrized by
-3fr (*?-!)
K- (RUR2,R3) - [h, QU , / —rXo72TT74T'* 2
8 (t2 + 02+t 2 12\ + t2 t\4 - 1 + 2 i\ - t\)
In this situation, we conclude that Od(V) is rational and that it can be
parametrized as

S{tlM)=HRuR2)+d
Ml{RuR2)R3 + M2{RuR2y
where M\{t\,t2) and M2(h,t2) are the numerators of the first and second
components of the normal vector Af(ti,t2)-

3.3. Topological Problems

The resolution of topological problems in CAGD constitutes the main
source of qualitative information, which guides the major part of the com-
putation processes. In this section we present one problem in which the de-
termination of the topology represents an indispensable step before starting
the purely numeric resolution.
The problem is connected with the determination of the situations when
changes of topology (between the topology of the considered curve or surface
and the topology of the offset) appear. In the particular case of the parabola
y = x2, it can be proved that the topological change of the distance d offset
curve appears when d = 1/2.
The implicit equation of the distance d > 0 offset of the parabola y = x1
is
16x6 + 1 6 : c y - 40z 4 y - 32x 2 y 3 + (1 - 48d 2 )x 4 + (-32d 2 + 32)x2y2
+ 16y4 + (8d2 - 2)x2y + (-32d 2 - 8)y3 + (-20d2 + 48d4)x2
+ (-8d 2 + 1 + lQd4)y2 + (8d2 + Z2dA)y - 8d4 - 16d6 - d2 = 0
and its discriminant with respect to the variable y is
a;(64x6 + (48-192d 2 )x 4 + (192d 4 +336d 2 + 12)a; 2 -64d 6 -12d 2 +48d 4 + l ) .
Then, the offset of the parabola is not topologically a parabola when the
polynomial
64a;3 + (48 - 192d2)x2 + (192d4 + 336d2 + 12)x - 64d8 - 12d2 + 48d4 + 1
(4)
 Using Algebraic Methods in CAGD 21

has a real positive root. By using the Sturm-Habicht sequence together

with the techniques developed by the first author, 33 we conclude that:
• The number of real roots of the polynomial (4) is determined by the
behavior of the polynomials
[1,1, -rf 2 , -rf*(4tf2 + l ) 2 ] .
In this case, the number is always equal to 1 (for any d).
• The number of real positive roots of the polynomial (4) is determined
by the behavior of the polynomials
[1, (2d - l)(2d + 1), -d2(20d2 + l)(4d 2 + 5),
-d 4 (4d 2 + l) 2 (2d - l) 3 (2d + l) 3 ].
In this case, the number is always equal to 0 for any d £ (0,1/2).
The topological variation of the offsets of the parabola for different val-
ues of d is presented in Fig. 7. The isolated point appearing for d = 0 coin-
cides with the parabola focal point and appears in the cases corresponding
to d G (0,1/2) from the complex part: if

u = ± v / l + 4d 2 ,
then the parametrization of the offset
2<
i \ i ^M / \ 2 d

x(u) = u ± . =, v(u) = u =F / =
V yK
^ VI + 4M2 ' V l + 4u 2
gives the point (0, d2 + 1/4). However, the point (0,oP + 1/4) (when d €
(0,1/2)) may be seen as exceptional points of the offset to the parabola,
because it is not generated from a real point of the curve considered initially.

3.4. Blending
Computing blending and modeling surfaces is one of the central problems
in CAGD. 41 ' 46 In many applications, objects are modeled as a collection
of several surfaces whose pieces join smoothly. This situation leads directly
to the blending problem in the sense that a blending surface is a surface
that provides a smooth transition between distinct geometric features of an
object. 27 ' 43 ' 44 - 66
More precisely, if one is given a collection of surfaces V\,... , Vn (primary
surfaces) to be blended, and a collection of auxiliary surfaces U\,... ,Un
(clipping surfaces), then the blending problem deals with the computation
of a surface V (blending surface) containing the space curves d = Ui fl Vi
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