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@Seismicisolation
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Soft Ground
Tunnel Design

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@Seismicisolation
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Soft Ground
Tunnel Design
Benoît Jones

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First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Jones, Benoît, author.

Title: Soft ground tunnel design / Benoît Jones.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, [2022] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021013258 (print) | LCCN 2021013259 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367419592 (hbk) | ISBN 9781482254679 (pbk) | ISBN 9780429470387 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Tunnels--Design and construction. | Tunneling. | Soil stabilization.
Classification: LCC TA815 .J66 2022 (print) | LCC TA815 (ebook) | DDC
624.1/93--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021013258
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021013259

ISBN: 978-0-367-41959-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-4822-5467-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-47038-7 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9780429470387
Typeset in Sabon
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

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Contents

Prefacexv
Books on tunnel construction methods xvii
Acknowledgementsxix
Authorxxi

1 Real tunnel behaviour 1

1.1 In situ stress states 2
1.2 Overview of tunnel behaviour 3
1.2.1 Undrained soil behaviour 7
1.2.2 Drained soil behaviour 8
1.3 Movements of the ground surface 8
1.3.1 Transverse vertical settlements 9
1.3.2 Transient settlements 10
1.3.3 Horizontal surface movements 13
1.3.4 Long-term settlements 15
1.4 Subsurface ground movements 19
1.5 Stability 19
1.5.1 The consequences of instability 20
1.5.2 The causes of instability 22
1.6 Tunnel lining movements 24
1.6.1 Case studies of tunnel lining
movements 25
1.7 Tunnel lining stresses 28
1.7.1 How do tunnel lining stresses develop
over time? 28
1.7.2 Design based on precedent practice 33
1.7.3 Heathrow Express Terminal 4 Station
concourse tunnel case study 34
1.8 Summary 41
References 41

v
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vi Contents

2 Undrained stability 45
2.1 Overview of stability theory 46
2.2 Undrained stability 47
2.2.1 Heading stability in homogeneous clay 49
2.2.2 Heading stability in clay with undrained
shear strength increasing with depth 59
2.2.3 Heading stability in clay with
overlying coarse-grained soils 61
2.2.4 Numerical modelling of heading stability
in clay 63
2.2.5 Summary of undrained stability 65
2.3 Blow-out failure in clay 66
2.3.1 Softening and erosion 66
2.3.2 Hydraulic fracturing in clay 67
2.3.3 Passive failure in clay 69
2.3.4 Uplift failure of a tunnel heading invert
in clay 76
2.3.5 Summary of undrained blow-out failure 76
2.4 Problems 77
References 80

3 Drained stability 83
3.1 Drained stability without seepage 83
3.1.1 Dry cohesionless soils 84
3.1.2 Dry drained soils with cohesion 85
3.1.3 Comparison of analytical methods with
centrifuge tests and finite element models 90
3.1.4 Summary of drained stability theory 92
3.2 Application of drained stability to closed-face TBMs 93
3.2.1 Application to slurry TBMs 93
3.2.2 Slurry infiltration during TBM standstills 96
3.2.3 Slurry infiltration during excavation 98
3.2.4 Application to earth pressure balance
TBMs 100
3.3 Blow-out failure in drained soils 103
3.3.1 Passive failure in drained soils 103
3.3.2 Blow-outs caused by hydraulic fracturing 111
3.3.3 Summary of blow-outs in drained soils 113
3.4 Piping 114
3.1 Problems 115
References 120

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 Contents vii

4 Stability of shafts123
4.1 Hydraulic failure in a shaft during excavation 123
4.2 Base heave failure of a shaft in clay 131
4.3 Uplift failure in a shaft during excavation 134
4.3.1 Verification of the uplift ultimate
limit state using Eurocode 7 134
4.3.2 Geometry of uplift failure during
excavation 138
4.4 Uplift failure of a shaft after base
slab construction 139
4.5 Long-term heave under a shaft base slab 145
4.6 Summary of shaft stability 146
4.7 Problems 146
References 148

5 Stability and Eurocode 7 151

5.1 Size of the zone of ground governing
the occurrence of the limit state 152
5.2 Correcting for confidence in the site
investigation 153
5.3 Modelling spatial variability of soil
parameters explicitly 155
5.4 Applying partial factors 157
References 158

6 Global design using analytical solutions 159

6.1 Simple wished-in-place equilibrium 160
6.2 Empirical methods 166
6.3 Soil-structure interaction using the
Curtis-Muir Wood solution 166
6.3.1 Notation used in the Curtis-Muir
Wood solution 167
6.3.2 Boundary conditions and ground
stresses 167
6.3.3 Elliptical deformation of a circular
opening 171
6.3.4 Elliptical deformation of a thin
inextensible lining 175
6.3.5 ‘Full slip’ - no shear between
lining and ground 177

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viii Contents

6.3.6 ‘No slip’ - full shear interaction

between lining and ground 178
6.3.7 Direct compression of the lining
due to uniform load 178
6.4 Global design of shafts 183
6.5 Bedded beam models 184
6.6 Summary 186
6.7 Problems 187
References 189

7 Global design using numerical modelling 191

7.1 Boundary conditions at the tunnel perimeter 193
7.1.1 Wished-in-place tunnel lining 194
7.1.2 The convergence-confinement method 195
7.1.2.1 The β-factor method 198
7.1.2.2 The target volume loss
method 199
7.1.3 Gap method 202
7.1.4 The grout pressure method 202
7.1.5 Surface contraction 204
7.1.6 Core softening 204
7.1.7 Summary 204
7.2 Boundary conditions at the edges of the model 205
7.3 Boundary distances 208
7.4 Element types for the lining and the ground 209
7.5 Mesh density and refinement 210
7.6 Modelling groundwater 211
7.6.1 Undrained behaviour 212
7.6.2 Long-term effects 215
7.7 Validation and error checking 216
7.7.1 Comparison with an analytical
solution 217
7.7.2 Validation by comparison with a
laboratory test or experiment 219
7.7.3 Validation by comparison with
a case history 222
7.8 Constitutive models 223
7.9 Interpretation and presentation of results 224
7.10 3D numerical analysis 224
7.10.1 Modelling an advancing tunnel in 3D 224
7.10.2 Modelling the tunnel lining 228

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 Contents ix

7.10.3 Modelling junctions 231

7.10.3.1 Kirsch solution 231
7.10.3.2 Wished-in-place 3D numerical
model 235
7.10.3.3 3D numerical model with
sequential construction 236
7.11 Summary 240
7.12 Problems 241
References 244

8 Lining materials247
8.1 Reinforced concrete 248
8.2 Steel fibre-reinforced concrete 248
8.2.1 Codes of practice and sources of design
guidance 249
8.2.2 Material behaviour 250
8.2.3 Design assisted by testing 252
8.2.4 Determination of characteristic strength
values 254
8.2.5 Determination of the characteristic
mean strength values 257
8.2.6 Durability 258
8.2.7 Watertightness 259
8.2.8 Fire resistance 261
8.3 Concrete reinforced with other fibres 262
8.4 Plain concrete 262
8.5 Cast iron 263
8.6 Summary 265
References 265

9 Segmental lining design269

9.1 Taking account of the effect of joints
in 2D plane strain analyses 270
9.2 Rotational rigidity - flat joints 272
9.2.1 Linear elastic packers 274
9.2.2 Nonlinear packers 281
9.2.3 Comparison of different packer types 283
9.3 Estimating local forces due to joint rotation 286
9.3.1 Calculating joint rotation from
a specified ovalisation 286

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x Contents

9.3.2 Using eccentricity of hoop force

to check joint capacity in crushing
and shear 294
9.4 Bursting stresses 299
9.5 Curved joints 301
9.6 Modelling joints in bedded beam analyses 304
9.7 Modelling joints in 2D or 3D numerical analysis 305
9.8 In service loads – ultimate limit state design 307
9.8.1 Application of partial factors to the lining
forces 308
9.8.2 Constructing a moment-axial
force interaction diagram 309
9.8.3 Design for shear 315
9.9 In service loads - serviceability limit state design 315
9.9.1 Estimating crack widths 315
9.9.2 Constructing a moment-axial force
interaction diagram for the SLS 316
9.10 Summary 317
9.11 Problems 318
References 320

10 Segment design for transient loads323

10.1 Demoulding 324
10.2 Storage 328
10.2.1 Actions 328
10.2.2 SFRC segment ultimate limit state
design for bending moment 333
10.2.3 SFRC segment ULS design for shear force 339
10.2.4 SFRC segment SLS design 339
10.3 Transportation and handling 348
10.4 Erection 349
10.5 Installation loads 349
10.5.1 Temporary TBM jacking loads 349
10.5.2 Longitudinal effects of TBM jacking loads 353
10.5.3 Grout pressures and tailseal brushes 355
10.5.4 Design for permanent effects of installation
loads 356
10.6 Gasket compression and bolt loads 357
10.7 Summary 359
10.8 Problems 360
References 361

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 Contents xi

11 Sprayed concrete lining design363

11.1 Primary and secondary linings 364
11.1.1 Single-pass lining 365
11.1.2 Single-shell lining 365
11.1.3 Traditional approach 366
11.1.4 Double-shell lining system 366
11.1.5 Composite shell lining system 367
11.1.6 Initial layer 369
11.1.7 Regulating layer 370
11.1.8 Finishing layer 370
11.2 Designing the profile 370
11.2.1 Three arc profile 371
11.2.2 Two arc profiles 372
11.2.3 Other profile shapes 373
11.2.4 Optimising the profile 373
11.3 Dividing the face 379
11.3.1 Full-face excavation 380
11.3.2 Top heading–invert (TH-I) excavation 381
11.3.3 Top heading–bench–invert (TH-B-I)
excavation 383
11.3.4 Single sidewall drift and enlargement 384
11.3.5 Twin sidewall drift and enlargement 384
11.3.6 Pilot tunnels 385
11.3.7 Binocular caverns 386
11.3.8 Trinocular caverns 387
11.4 Toolbox measures 387
11.4.1 Pocket excavation 388
11.4.2 Reduction of advance length
or ring closure distance 389
11.4.3 Ground improvement 390
11.4.4 Support ahead of the face 390
11.4.5 Face dowels 393
11.4.6 Dewatering/depressurisation 393
11.5 Construction details and tolerances 393
11.5.1 Circumferential construction joints 394
11.5.2 Radial construction joints 394
11.5.3 Tolerances 395
11.6 3D numerical modelling 396
11.6.1 Linear elastic sprayed concrete constitutive
model 396
11.6.2 Ageing sprayed concrete properties 397

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xii Contents

11.6.3 Linear elastic – perfectly plastic sprayed

concrete constitutive model 399
11.6.4 More complex constitutive models 400
11.7 2D numerical modelling 401
11.8 Summary 403
11.9 Problems 404
References 407

12 Estimating ground movements411

12.1 Transverse surface settlements 411
12.2 Estimating volume loss 418
12.2.1 Estimating short-term volume loss
in stiff clays 419
12.2.2 Estimating volume loss in other
soil types 427
12.3 Longitudinal and transient surface settlements 427
12.4 Long-term ground movements 431
12.4.1 Long-term ground movements
due to excess pore pressures 432
12.4.2 Long-term ground movements due to
the tunnel lining acting as a drain 432
12.5 Subsurface ground movements 435
12.5.1 Subsurface ground movements
in undrained soils 435
12.5.2 Subsurface ground movements
in drained soils 441
12.6 Horizontal ground movements 443
12.7 Strains in the ground 446
12.8 Ground movements due to shaft construction 450
12.9 Summary 460
12.10 Problems 461
References 463

13 Estimating building damage467

13.1 Stage 1 assessment 469
13.2 Stage 2 assessment 472
13.2.1 Generic Stage 2 assessment 490
13.3 Stage 2b assessment 491
13.3.1 Buildings with discrete pad foundations 500
13.3.2 Steel or reinforced concrete frame
buildings 500

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 Contents xiii

13.4 Stage 3 assessment 508

13.4.1 Tunnel excavation 509
13.4.2 Soil-structure interaction 509
13.4.3 Modelling the building 510
13.5 Summary 511
13.6 Problems 512
References 514

Appendix A: Derivation of wedge-prism method519

Finding the vertical pressure on surface CDEF 520
Finding the sliding friction on surfaces ADE and BCF 525
Finding the sliding friction on ABEF 526
Calculating values for the F0 nomogram 529
Calculating values for the F1 nomogram 530
References 532

Appendix B: Details from derivation of Curtis–Muir

Wood equations 533
Integration by parts 533

Appendix C: Derivation of the deflection of a rectangular

simply-supported beam under a point load537
Bending deflection 538
Shear stress 539
Unit load method to calculate shear deflection – part 1 541
Form factor for shear for a rectangular section 544
Unit load method to calculate shear deflection – part 2 545
Comparison with Burland & Wroth (1974) equation 546
The effect of varying E/G ratio 549
References 551
Index 553

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