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TEACHING READING
 SOLVING PROBLEMS IN THE TEACHING OF LITERACY
Cathy Collins Block, Series Editor

Recent Volumes

Independent Reading: Practical Strategies for Grades K–3

Denise N. Morgan, Maryann Mraz, Nancy D. Padak, and Timothy Rasinski

Assessment for Reading Instruction, Second Edition

Michael C. McKenna and Katherine A. Dougherty Stahl

Literacy Growth for Every Child: Differentiated Small-Group Instruction K–6

Diane Lapp, Douglas Fisher, and Thomas DeVere Wolsey

Explaining Reading, Second Edition:

A Resource for Teaching Concepts, Skills, and Strategies
Gerald G. Duffy

Learning to Write with Purpose: Effective Instruction in Grades 4–8

Karen Kuelthau Allan, Mary C. McMackin, Erika Thulin Dawes, and Stephanie A. Spadorcia

Exemplary Literacy Teachers, Second Edition:

What Schools Can Do to Promote Success for All Students
Cathy Collins Block and John N. Mangieri

Literacy Development with English Learners:

Research-Based Instruction in Grades K–6
Edited by Lori Helman

How to Plan Differentiated Reading Instruction: Resources for Grades K–3

Sharon Walpole and Michael C. McKenna

Reading More, Reading Better

Edited by Elfrieda H. Hiebert

The Reading Specialist, Second Edition:

Leadership for the Classroom, School, and Community
Rita M. Bean

Teaching New Literacies in Grades K–3: Resources for 21st-Century Classrooms

Edited by Barbara Moss and Diane Lapp

Teaching New Literacies in Grades 4–6: Resources for 21st-Century Classrooms

Edited by Barbara Moss and Diane Lapp

Teaching Reading: Strategies and Resources for Grades K–6

Rachel L. McCormack and Susan Lee Pasquarelli
Teaching Reading
Strategies and Resources for Grades K–6

Rachel L. McCormack
Susan Lee Pasquarelli

THE GUILFORD PRESS

New York   London
© 2010 The Guilford Press
A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.
72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012
www.guilford.com

All rights reserved

Except as indicated, no part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

LIMITED PHOTOCOPY LICENSE

These materials are intended for use only by qualified professionals.

The publisher grants to individual purchasers of this book nonassignable permission to

reproduce all materials for which photocopying permission is specifically granted in a
footnote. This license is limited to you, the individual purchaser, for personal use or use
with individual students. This license does not grant the right to reproduce these materials
for resale, redistribution, electronic display, or any other purposes (including but not
limited to books, pamphlets, articles, video- or audiotapes, blogs, file-sharing sites, Internet
or intranet sites, and handouts or slides for lectures, workshops, webinars, or therapy
groups, whether or not a fee is charged). Permission to reproduce these materials for these
and any other purposes must be obtained in writing from the Permissions Department of
Guilford Publications.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McCormack, Rachel L.
Teaching reading: strategies and resources for grades K–6 / Rachel L. McCormack, Susan
Lee Pasquarelli.
   p. cm. — (Solving problems in the teaching of literacy)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-60623-483-9 (hardcover: alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60623-482-2 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. Reading teachers—Training of. 2. English language—Composition and exercises—
Study and teaching (Elementary) 3. Reading (Elementary) I. Pasquarelli, Susan
Lee. II. Title.
LB2844.1.R4M35 2010
372.41—dc22
2009037260
 About the Authors

Rachel L. McCormack, EdD, is Associate Professor of Literacy Education at Roger Wil-

liams University in Bristol, Rhode Island, where she teaches undergraduate and gradu-
ate courses in reading and writing methods and children’s literature. She is a frequent
presenter at national conferences; her research interests include strategies for improv-
ing comprehension, literature discussions, and teaching reading to children with hear-
ing disabilities.

Susan Lee Pasquarelli, EdD, is Professor of Literacy Education at Roger Williams Uni-
versity in Bristol, Rhode Island. For the past 3 years, she has been conducting research in
urban classrooms on using multicultural literature to teach children in grades 1–6 about
tolerance and diversity. Dr. Pasquarelli teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in
reading and writing methods and adolescent literature.

v
 Preface

Teachers of reading have one important goal: to prepare children to be independent,

strategic readers in real life. This text is intended to help teachers and reading special-
ists achieve this goal by providing research-based instructional strategies for teaching
phonological/phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, all aspects of compre-
hension, and writing in response to literature. The strategies are geared toward teach-
ing diverse learners in grades K–6.
This book includes many special features: sample scripted lessons; classroom-ready
instructional materials; and photographs of classroom-­literate environments with bul-
letin boards and other elements that support effective reading instruction.

How to Read This Text

Interacting with the Text
This book is meant to be interactive. We hope you will read it with some type of writ-
ing implement in your hand. We know that good teaching requires practice, reflection,
and more practice, so we provide many opportunities for you to do these things. We
ask you questions periodically, and provide space for you to jot down your responses
or additional questions you may have. Sometimes we ask you to engage in a theoreti-
cal exercise; many of these exercises are applications of what we have described in the
chapters’ sections on pedagogy. At other times, we make suggestions for implementing
ideas in the future. We urge you to fill in the charts and figures as you read, and to use
the white spaces in the text to record additional notes and reflections. As a result, the
text can become a record of your growth as a teacher of reading, in addition to being a
good reference for teaching reading.

How the Book Is Organized

After Chapter 1, which encourages you to think about what makes a good teacher of
reading, we have organized this text according to the key literacy categories: contexts
for literacy learning (Chapter 2); phonological/phonemic awareness, phonics, and flu-
ency (Chapter 3); vocabulary (Chapter 4); comprehension (Chapters 5–8); writing in
response to literature (Chapter 9); culturally responsive classrooms (Chapter 10); and

vii
viii Preface

reading assessment (Chapters 11–12). We conclude with a discussion (Chapter 13) of

your continued professional development. Much of this volume is devoted to compre-
hension instruction, and this emphasis is deliberate. When we work with teachers on
their reading programs, most of their questions are about comprehension; we have tried
to answer them.
In each chapter, we remind you of the good work of experts who have preceded
us. Their work has been the basis for our own practice, and we often begin a chapter by
discussing the guiding principles derived from their work. Also included in this section
are our own current investigations.
Most of each chapter, however, is devoted to bringing best practices to life with
many illustrations from our own classroom experiences and those of teachers with
whom we have worked. Photographs of classrooms, student work, and other artifacts
accompany our descriptions.
Near the end of each chapter (except Chapter 13), we provide a Key Terms Chart
for that chapter. We encourage you to pause and reflect on the vocabulary and concepts,
and to jot down your understanding of the terms. We have selected the words and con-
cepts that are critical to your background knowledge as teachers of reading. Knowing
how to define and apply the key terms is essential for an excellent teacher of reading.
We urge you to use them when thinking and talking about teaching reading.
In the final section of each chapter from 2 through 12, we guide you through a self-
study review process, which is described step by step below. You may find this process
particularly useful if you systematically need to collect, analyze, and submit evidence
of your knowledge and performance as a teacher for a teacher education program or
for state certification. However, we would argue that the process of self-study is critical
to good teaching and that all teachers should engage in it, regardless of their require-
ments.

The Self-Study Review Process

If you interact in writing with each chapter, you will have a record of your thoughts,
ideas, and implementation of the topics presented. At the ends of Chapters 2–12, we ask
you to reflect on these interactions by engaging in a self-study review. To help you, we
have placed a Self-Study Review Chart (as shown here in Figure P.1) at the end of each
of these chapters.
The chart’s first column asks you to name an artifact. An artifact is any lesson or
learning event you create as a result of trying out the ideas in this book. Your artifacts
may include a drawing of a literate classroom, a plan for a reading lesson, or any other
learning event you design as a result of interacting with this book. The chart then asks
you to consider each artifact in terms of five categories of good pedagogy: (1) teacher
instructional actions and language; (2) provisions for individual differences; (3) vari-
ety of modes of communication; (4) critical thinking and active engagement; and (5)
opportunities for assessment. We selected these categories after researching profes-
sional teaching standards from state to state and identifying those that were consistent
across the states. We then restructured them into broad categories that represent good
pedagogy and an understanding of how students learn. We now outline the self-study
review process.
 Self-Study Review Chart

Teacher Instructional Provisions for Variety of Modes Critical Thinking and Opportunities
Name of Artifact Actions and Language Individual Differences of Communication Active Engagement for Assessment

ix
FIGURE P.1. Self-Study Review Chart.

From Teaching Reading: Strategies and Resources for Grades K–6 by Rachel L. McCormack and Susan Lee Pasquarelli. Copyright 2010 by The Guilford Press. Permission to pho-
tocopy this figure is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).
x Preface

Step 1: Try the Best-­Practice Suggestions in Each Chapter

Each chapter has model learning events for best-­practice teaching of reading. If you are
reading this book on your own, we hope you will design lessons and other learning
events that you might like to try out in your own classroom. If you are using this book
as a course text, you may be assigned to create lessons or other best-­practice tasks as
course assignments. Whenever you are able, we encourage you to try them out in real
classrooms.

Step 2: Gather Your Artifacts for Self-Study Review

If you design a lesson plan, you will probably have a written plan, instructional materi-
als you have designed for the children, and a companion assessment. All of these mate-
rials can be considered artifacts for self-study. These artifacts will allow you and others
to evaluate your performance in a given area of reading instruction, such as fluency,
vocabulary, or comprehension.

Step 3: Reflect on the Artifacts You Have Collected

Reflect on the artifacts you have collected that show evidence of using the five standards-
­derived categories discussed above. That is, look at them for evidence of (1) teacher
instructional actions and language; (2) provisions for individual differences; (3) variety
of modes of communication; (4) critical thinking and active engagement; and (5) oppor-
tunities for assessment. The following questions are intended to help you understand
each category and to guide your reflection.

Teacher Instructional Actions and Language

•• Does the artifact contain components of direct instruction providing clear expla-
nations, scaffolds, guided practice, and independent practice?
•• Does the artifact reflect a variety of explanations, analogies, and demonstrations
tailored to help meet the needs of all students?

Provisions for Individual Differences

•• Does the artifact reveal accommodations of individual differences, including
prior knowledge, cultural background, native language, specific challenges, and
learning differences?

Variety of Modes of Communication

•• Does the artifact support a variety of ways students and teachers can communi-
cate to promote student learning?
•• Does the artifact reflect opportunities for growth in written communication by
all students?
 Preface xi

•• Does the artifact illustrate the use of technological advances in communication

to enrich the discourse during the lesson?
•• Does the artifact demonstrate the use of discussion—­listening and responding
to the ideas of others?

Critical Thinking and Active Engagement

•• Does the artifact suggest opportunities for students to solve problems?
•• Does the artifact reflect opportunities for students to develop higher-level cogni-
tive skills?
•• Does the artifact reflect opportunities for students to engage in intellectual risk
taking?
•• Does the artifact include opportunities for students to discuss and understand
multiple perspectives?
•• Does the artifact reveal opportunities for students to work collaboratively and
independently?

Opportunities for Assessment

•• Does the artifact support appropriate formal or informal assessment strategies
with individuals and groups of students?
•• Does the artifact reflect provisions for sufficient feedback to plan for future
instruction and professional development?
•• Does the artifact demonstrate provisions for the students to evaluate their own
work?

Step 4: Take Time to Evaluate the Strength of Each Artifact

What did you learn about yourself as a teacher of reading from each of your artifacts?
How does each artifact reflect the professional standards of good pedagogy? We sug-
gest using the Self-Study Review Chart at the end of each chapter from 2 to 12 (again,
see Figure P.1 for an example) to note your answers. Also, record at the bottom what
went well, so that when you teach this lesson to another class, you will be sure to retain
the best parts.

Step 5: Make the Necessary Changes to the Lesson, and Attach These
to the Original Artifact
Chances are great that the process of self-­evaluation will generate new ideas. If so, be
sure to include these new ideas in the chart. Make the revisions to an artifact as soon as
you think of them; this way, there is less chance of forgetting your ideas. This process
will show your growth as you reflect on your work. Ask yourself, “How can I improve
the lesson next time I try this?” or “How can I make this plan better?”
xii Preface

Step 6: Organize and Store Your Artifacts in a Hard-Copy

or Electronic Portfolio
As the final step of your self-study, gather the chapter Self-Study Review Chart and
the artifacts for each chapter, including your revisions. Then devise a way to organize
and store them. For example, you may want to organize them according to the chapter
topics, as they represent a wide range of topics in teaching reading. You may elect to
store everything in a binder or portfolio, or you may decide to transfer everything to
an electronic portfolio program. Whatever you decide, set it up so that storing your
artifacts becomes an ongoing process. We are sure that as you progress through the text
and participate in chapter-by-­chapter self-study reviews, your teaching of reading will
improve.

Rachel L. McCormack
Susan Lee Pasquarelli
 Acknowledgments

We, the authors of this book, are literacy colleagues at Roger Williams University,
friends, and partners in many projects. While writing this book, we also took courses
in the Italian language. As second-­language learners, we found ourselves taking a fresh
perspective on literacy learning that has found its way into this book. We think it was
our success in learning the language that drove us to balance the demands of writing
a book, fulfilling our beloved teaching duties at the university, and practicing Italian
verb tenses. Whenever we had an experience of “getting it right,” we found ourselves
motivated to learn more. Our success led to more success. We hope this book inspires
you to help young children “get it right.”
In Chapter 1 of this book, we quote two Boston University professors who have
had an important impact on our own teaching: Dr. Roselmina Indrisano and Dr. Jeanne
Paratore. You will recognize them when we refer to “our revered professors.” Our debt
of gratitude to them both is very great.
We would also like to acknowledge our students in the Roger Williams University
MA in Literacy program, who have generously offered their thoughts, comments, and
revisions as they tried out our instructional materials in their own classrooms. They
will recognize their influence in our writing.
This book would not have been as colorful without lesson ideas and photographs of
bulletin boards, classrooms, and children’s work. For these materials, we would like to
thank and acknowledge the following teachers and reading specialists who have gener-
ously allowed us into their classrooms:

Dale Blaess, Carey School, Newport, Rhode Island

Christina Camardo, Underwood School, Newport, Rhode Island
Michelle Carney, The Atlantis Charter School, Fall River, Massachusetts
Rachael Ficke, The Atlantis Charter School, Fall River, Massachusetts
Sybil Grayko, Carey School, Newport, Rhode Island
Sue Moore, Carey School, Newport, Rhode Island
Liz Rosenthal, Carey School, Newport, Rhode Island
Aaron Sherman, Carey School, Newport, Rhode Island
Meghan Snee, Dighton–Rehoboth Schools, Dighton, Massachusetts

xiii
xiv Acknowledgments

For some of the beautiful charts and other figures, especially those that defied our
computer drawing ability, we thank our faculty secretary, Mary Gillette.
Rachel L. McCormack is grateful to her husband, Bill, who took over 100% of the
cooking and cleaning during the last revisions; and her children, Patrick and Ian, who
patiently waited for everything until “after the book is done.” She also thanks her niece
and nephew, Polly and Christian, for sharing their work and their love for reading.
Susan Lee Pasquarelli thanks her children, Rachael and Erik, for their words of
encouragement: “You go, Mom!” She also thanks them and her whole extended family
for the multitude of text and picture messages she received during the busiest part of
this writing, so she would not miss out on any of the family news.
Finally, we thank Chris Jennison of The Guilford Press, who believed in our project
and gave us sterling advice about writing a volume that our students might actually
read and enjoy.
In Chapter 9, you will read a short vignette that we wrote in Italy this past winter.
To practice our new language skills and to have time to work on this book together, we
packed up our computers and books and headed to Siracusa, Sicily, to finish writing this
volume. We would be remiss if we did not acknowledge our Sicilian friends, Salvo and
Giordana Baio, and Irene Randazzo Rizza, who encouraged us to put away our writing
night after night to eat sumptuous Sicilian food and practice the Italian language with
the locals. To them we say, “Grazie mille!”
This is the first book that we have written together, and we dedicate it to our stu-
dents, who will be our first critics.
 Contents

Chapter 1. Investigating Our Own Literacy: 1

What Makes a Good Teacher of Reading?

Chapter 2. Creating a Literacy-Rich Classroom Environment 9

Chapter 3. Developing Foundations for Fluent Readers: 37

Phonological/Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, and Fluency

Chapter 4. Cultivating Children’s Curiosity for Words: 68

Teaching Vocabulary

Chapter 5. Preparing Strategic Readers: Teaching Reading 91

through Cognitive Strategy Instruction

Chapter 6. Helping Children to Construct Meaning: 108

“Good-­Reader” Comprehension Strategies

Chapter 7. Teaching Expository Text across the Curriculum 132

Chapter 8. Appreciating Children’s Literature: Teaching the Language 162

of Narrative Text

Chapter 9. Supporting Children’s Voices: Response to Literature 185

through Writing

Chapter 10. Creating a Culturally Responsive Classroom Community 204

Chapter 11. Assessing Children’s Reading Development: 222

Part 1. Motivation, Phonological/Phonemic Awareness,
Word Identification, and Fluency

xv
xvi Contents

Chapter 12. Assessing Children’s Reading Development: 244

Part 2. Vocabulary, Comprehension, and Reader Response

Chapter 13. Viewing Ourselves as Professional Teachers of Reading 282

Appendix A. The Most Common Phonetic Elements and the Most Common 291
Onsets and Rimes

Appendix B. Second-Grade Sample Reading Performance Assessment 297

References 311

Index 321
TEACHING READING
 Chapter 1

Investigating Our Own Literacy

What Makes a Good Teacher of Reading?

If you are reading this book, you are—or will become—a teacher of reading. Anyone
who uses any text to teach children any subject teaches reading. Our primary goal in
writing this book is to show you, as best we can, what good reading instruction looks
like and sounds like. Throughout this text, you will find many lessons, activities, and
suggestions. We have used all of these with children in public school classrooms, so we
have had the benefit of modeling everything we present to you. Through your interac-
tion with this text, we hope to give you a clear picture of effective reading instruction.
Good instruction is ultimately defined by its goal. Our goal as teachers of reading
is to prepare students to be independent, strategic readers in real life. Let us begin this
book by looking at what this goal means.

Preparing Students to be Independent,

Strategic Readers in Real Life

It is not enough that our students do well in our classrooms; the true measure of good
teaching is our students’ reading performance when they are on their own. Johnston
(2002) gives this sage advice: “Set your gaze on the endpoint.” Our endpoint consists of
students who can independently read and understand any text.
Readers become independent when they can read strategically—that is, when they
learn strategies for decoding and deciphering unknown words and can monitor their
comprehension in a variety of texts and situations. In other words, we are preparing
students for reading in real life outside the classroom. This goal has implications for the
way we teach.

In Real Life, We Do Not Read Something Aloud

Unless We Have Read It Silently First
In many classrooms, children are expected to read aloud a great deal of the time, and
too often they must do so without having had the chance to read the text silently. We

1
2 TEACHING READING

know many people, including ourselves, who have been asked to do readings at wed-
dings or other public occasions. After the initial panic, we agree to do it, but we request
a copy of the text before the event. We want to practice reading it before we must read
it aloud under “high-­stakes” circumstances. We do not want to make mistakes because
we would be embarrassed. It is not fun to make a mistake in public.
Children who are good readers (and some who are developing readers) love to
read aloud. There are many ways to foster this love for reading. Chapter 3 gives several
examples of fluency-­building oral reading activities that are fun and motivating, but
they provide for silent practice first. In the real world, most of the reading our students
will do will be silent reading. So, if we are preparing our children to be readers in the
real world, we should trust them to read silently, give them substantial practice in being
fluent, and check in as often as we need to with one-on-one assessment of their oral
reading.

In Real Life, Texts Are Not Read to Us First

It would be ideal if we woke up every morning and had someone read the newspaper
to us while we went about our morning routine. But, of course, that’s not reading. That’s
listening. In order to read the newspaper, we have to contend with the text on our own,
reading it silently. Teachers who read everything to their students are doing them a
great disservice. We think it is better to ask ourselves these questions: What texts can
our students read on their own? (Let them.) What texts do they need help with? (Help
them.)

Every Content-Area Text Is Different

Students encounter a wide range of texts during the school day. Reading a fictional
story (narrative text) is different from reading a text about rocks and minerals (exposi-
tory text). The two types of texts are set up differently. Their text structures and text
features vary. So it makes sense that each teacher has a responsibility to teach his or her
students how to read the text they will be using. In most elementary classrooms, one
teacher teaches all the content areas. In some of the upper elementary grades, teachers
may departmentalize their instruction so that one teacher teaches language arts and
social studies, for example, and another teaches math and science. Nevertheless, the
premise is the same: Each must teach the students to negotiate the text. Dispensing with
a text in a content area is not a good practice; it does not help students who will have to
read and understand text in every content area in real life.

Reading a Lot Really Matters

Reading has many benefits, and these benefits increase as we increase the amount of
reading our students do in a variety of texts and contexts. Their background knowl-
edge increases, and their knowledge of text structures and complex syntactic structures
improves.
Good readers often choose to read; conversely, struggling readers often avoid it.
So good readers get lots of practice getting better, and struggling readers often do not.
Stanovich (1986) refers to these outcomes as the Matthew effects in reading. The term Mat-
 Investigating Our Own Literacy 3

thew effects is a reference to a verse in the Biblical gospel of Matthew (Matthew 25:29),
the gist of which is that “the rich get richer and the poor get poorer.” Using this anal-
ogy, let us imagine two cycles in reading. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, good readers
are likely to be ones who have had the benefit of rigorous instruction in decoding and
comprehension. They are given opportunities for sustained practice; they get better at
reading; they choose to read more; “the rich get richer,” and the cycle continues. On the
other hand, struggling readers may have received less-than-­optimal instruction when
they started to learn to read; they have limited skills in reading; they do not choose to
read on their own; their reading does not improve; “the poor get poorer,” and the cycle
continues.
Allington and Cunningham (2007) also remind us that reading a lot really matters.
They advocate wide reading—an abundance of reading in a great variety of texts and
contexts—and describe the many benefits students obtain from this practice, ranging
from increased vocabulary knowledge to achievement in high-­stakes circumstances.

Students Students
choose receive
to read. instruction
in decoding.

Students Students
receive become
instruction in more skillful
comprehension at reading.
strategies.

Students Students
increase read more
background and get more
knowledge practice.
and vocabulary.

FIGURE 1.1. One of the Matthew effects in reading (“the rich get richer,” for good readers). The
converse of this effect (“the poor get poorer”) occurs for struggling readers. Based on Stanovich
(1986).
4 TEACHING READING

Work done by Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding (1988) provides further evidence of the
effects of wide reading on achievement in reading. In their study, they investigated the
independent reading habits of fifth graders in and out of school. What did they find?
The students who typically scored at the 98th percentile on state tests read approxi-
mately 65 minutes independently per day (both in and out of school), which translated
to about 4½ million words a year. These were the “rich” students, in Stanovich’s anal-
ogy. However, the students who typically scored at the 50th percentile read about 4½
minutes independently per day, which translated into approximately 200,000 words a
year. These were students who might hardly, if ever, get a chance to read silently. These
were students who went home and did not choose to read. These were the “poor” stu-
dents, in Stanovich’s analogy. The more able students—the ones who probably didn’t
need it as much—were reading 20 times more words than their less able peers. These
two groups of students had unequal access to learning simply because of the amount of
text they read on a day-to-day basis.

Not All Reading Situations Are the Same

As adults in the real world, we read for many different reasons. The way we read is
determined by the type of text and our purpose (or the purposes others set for us). So it
is reasonable to say that each and every act of reading we do is different.
Look at the chart in Figure 1.2. In the first column, we list several different types of
texts. The second column is for noting the purposes for reading the texts. In the first row
is a real-life reading situation: reading an entertainment magazine while waiting for an
appointment with the dentist. We often read this kind of text while waiting for the den-
tist to call us into the office. It helps pass the time. If we are anxious about the appoint-
ment, it helps get our mind off the procedure. If we happen to have many choices for
reading material, we choose to read something that is easy, informative, and of interest
to us. We do not choose to learn something difficult or to read something lengthy. We
also know that the dentist is not going to ask us questions about the magazine to assess
our comprehension. So the text (entertainment magazine) and the purpose we set (pass-
ing time while we wait to be called) determine our reading behavior (skimming the text
and choosing things to read that are of interest).
The second row of the chart offers a very different situation: reading directions
for a task. The stakes are very different now; carefully reading and thoroughly under-
standing the text are necessary to get things done. The text (directions to assemble a
bookcase) and the purpose (successfully assembling the bookcase) have a direct effect
on the way in which we read. We will have to reread sections many times as we do the
assembling, particularly if this is the first bookcase we have assembled. We may employ
other strategies, such as reading aloud to purposefully slow down our reading. We may
have to ask someone questions about a term or tool or technique. The reading may be
interactive and collaborative. We keep the directions close at hand. Reading directions
to assemble a bookcase differs greatly from reading while waiting for an appointment,
but they are both examples of ways we read in the real world.
On the chart, we have suggested other situations in which adult readers use text to
get things done or for pleasure. Take a few minutes to jot down what you, as a reader,
experience in each of these situations. You will see that every reading situation is differ-
ent and puts different demands on you.
 TEXT + PURPOSE = BEHAVIOR
Entertainment To pass time while waiting to go I skim the magazine and find articles of interest. I know I’m not accountable for
magazine into the dentist’s office. remembering the information. I am merely reading for pleasure.

Directions for To guide me through the task of I read the text over once and see which parts of the task I can do without help. I get
assembling a assembling. started and reread the directions that need careful attention. I may have to read the
bookcase directions several times. I keep the directions close to me.

Course text

Novel (for a

5
book group)

Novel (for
pleasure)

Recipe

FIGURE 1.2. Text + purpose = behavior.

From Teaching Reading: Strategies and Resources for Grades K–6 by Rachel L. McCormack and Susan Lee Pasquarelli. Copyright 2010 by The Guilford Press. Permission to pho-
tocopy this figure is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).
6 TEACHING READING

The concept of text + purpose = behavior is a crucial one to teach, especially to our
developing and reluctant readers. Those students are the ones who often think that
they have to remember everything they read after reading aloud once, because that is
the way they do most of their reading. Consequently, they often dislike reading, and
their dislike escalates as they get older. These students, in particular, need to know that
there are low stakes as well as high stakes in reading. They need to get experience and
practice in all kinds of reading, so that they will choose to read more outside of school
and when they are adults. However, they will not choose to read if the stakes are always
high. When students’ reading is oral, their mistakes are always public. They may rarely,
if ever, get to choose their own purposes and texts. They may rarely, if ever, get a chance
to solve problems privately. It is no wonder to us that there are large numbers of adoles-
cents and adults who never read.

Learning to Read Well Is Really Hard, So We Need as Much Help

as We Can Get
One of our revered professors began her classes on teaching reading with this saying:
“Let them in on the secret: Learning to read is hard work.” We always remember this
advice, and we pass it on to our own students. Our more able readers make reading
look easy. Our developing readers think there is something wrong with them if they
have to read something more than once, or if they have to decipher an unknown word
they encounter in the text, or if they have to stop for a while and think about what they
read. What they don’t know (and we don’t always tell them) is that good readers do
those things—that good readers encounter problems while reading, and good readers
fix them up. Learning to read well in a variety of situations is hard, and we are always
developing more skills as adult readers.

We Cannot Improve as Readers Unless We Are Willing to Step Outside

Our Comfort Zone
Learning something new involves taking a bit of risk and stepping out of our initial
comfort zone. We learn this from Vygotsky (1978), a Russian psychologist who first
described a concept known as the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky asserted that
a task a child does in collaboration with a “more knowledgeable other” today will be
accomplished independently tomorrow. In order for this to happen, learners have to take
the chance of trying something difficult, but know that there is someone available to
help them achieve success. The zone of proximal development is wide; in fact, it is prob-
ably wider than their initial comfort zone. By presenting students with an appropri-
ate level of challenge within their zone of proximal development, and giving them the
appropriate amount of support, we can guide all students in their attempts at learning
to be excellent readers.
We worry about our most fragile students a great deal. We worry about the effects
that challenges might have on their self-­esteem. And so we feel that we should not
encourage them to step outside of their comfort zone; this zone is very narrow. This
is the reason why we may read everything to them and explain everything in detail.
Ironically, attempting to make them feel good about themselves may take away their
opportunities to think, take chances, set goals, stumble, and get themselves back up
 Investigating Our Own Literacy 7

again. Another revered professor used to chastise us when we argued in support of this
practice: “You want to build their self-­esteem? Teach them to read!”

Every Child Has the Rights to Excellent Instruction by Qualified Teachers

of Reading
The International Reading Association (2000) has published a position statement that
includes a set of reading rights to be honored for all children. See www.reading.org for a
list of these rights. As teachers, we have a responsibility to prepare our students for the
reading demands they will encounter as adults. The demands on today’s readers are
far greater and the stakes are higher than in the past. This is why we need to prepare
students for the real-life demands they will encounter in reading. That is what this text
is about: preparing teachers to prepare students for these demands. If you are still read-
ing, we have accomplished what we set out to do. We are confident, if you have come
this far, that you will find this text useful and informative.
From what you have read so far, and from your own experience, what do you think
makes a good teacher of reading? Record your ideas in the space below. We have started
it for you.

An excellent teacher of reading does the following:

1. Provides many opportunities for students to read.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

In Chapter 2, we begin the process of guiding you through an interactive investiga-

tion of research-based reading instruction. We describe the physical environment for
delivering reading instruction and supporting literacy learning, as well as the routines
that should be part of the everyday instruction in teaching reading to children in grades
K–6.
Before you read the next chapter, take a few moments to assess your comprehen-
sion of this chapter by referring to the Key Terms Chart in Figure 1.3 (page 8). Try to
write definitions for the terms in your own words.
8 TEACHING READING

Key Terms for Chapter 1

In this chapter, the following key terms are essential to your understanding of reading
instruction. Think about what they mean, and try to define them in your own words.

Matthew effects in reading

wide reading

text + purpose = behavior

zone of proximal development

FIGURE 1.3. Key Terms Chart for Chapter 1.

 Chapter 2

Creating a Literacy-Rich
Classroom Environment

Pam’s Classroom

Pam, a third-grade teacher, is sitting at a table with five students. She is leading this
group of developing readers in reading “A List,” a chapter in Frog and Toad Together
(Lobel, 1972). The students are highly engaged and animated while reading with Pam.
“Toad is so silly,” cries Marco. “Doesn’t he know you don’t need a list to tell him to get
up?” Pam enjoys these small groups of learners, as she is able to give them individual
attention, and the students know that they are encouraged to speak freely and engage
in conversations without raising their hands.
Occasionally Pam sweeps her eyes around the classroom, to keep up with what is
going on in other areas. She sees a group of students in a center called “Word Sorts.”
They are taking turns leading the group as they participate in sorting the words they
learned during a lesson the day before.
In the classroom library, Pam observes two pairs of students who are reading books
on predators and prey—two concepts they are learning in science. They are reading
to each other, occasionally stopping to talk about the information they are obtaining.
Another group of students are at the computers, researching information about adopt-
ing wolves. Pam has set the computers on the website the students need, and given
explicit directions about how to navigate the website and record the information. Once
again, the students are talking softly to each other, pointing and helping each other.
After approximately 20 minutes, a chime goes off. The students stop what they are
doing and pay attention to Pam as she gives directions. The students who are in the
classroom library move to the word study center. The students who have been reading
with her go to the classroom library to choose books to read on their own. The students
in the computer center stay there and are given the extra time they need to work on their
research. The students rotate one more time in the hour dedicated to centers.
Establishing an efficiently-run classroom is hard work. Although it took Pam a
great deal of time and effort at the beginning of the year to build the structure and pro-
vide the practice, it has paid off for the students in her productive classroom.

9
10 TEACHING READING

Classroom Contexts That Foster

Motivation to Read

Researchers have learned a great deal about the effects of motivation on students’ atti-
tudes about reading and performance while learning to read. They agree strongly that
motivation improves performance (Gambrell, 1996, 2004; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). We
have drawn upon Gambrell’s (1996, pp. 194–197) guidelines for creating classrooms that
foster motivation to read:

•• Students are motivated to read when the environment is literacy-rich.

•• Students are motivated to read when they are involved in choosing texts and
materials they want to read.
•• Students are motivated to read when they have opportunities to engage in sus-
tained, independent reading.
•• Students are more motivated to read when they have opportunities to discuss
with others what they have read.
•• Students are more motivated to read when literacy activities recognize and value
their cultural identities.

Highly Effective Classrooms

In Cunningham and Allington’s (2007) review of the studies of highly effective class-
rooms, they have drawn the following conclusions (pp. 7–9) about what it takes to pro-
vide an environment in which all students can learn to read and write well:

•• The most effective classrooms provide balanced instruction.

•• Children in the most effective classrooms do a lot of reading and writing.
•• Science and social studies are taught and integrated with reading and writing.
•• Meaning is central, and teachers emphasize higher-level thinking skills.
•• Skills are explicitly taught, and children are coached to use them while reading
and writing.
•• Teachers use a variety of formats to provide instruction, as well as a wide variety
of materials.
•• Classrooms are well managed, with high levels of engagement.

At the beginning of this chapter, you have read about Pam’s classroom, a well-
­ esigned learning space that invites, encourages, and inspires her students to read and
d
write. Although an attractive physical environment is not a guarantee or a substitute
for effective reading instruction, it can clearly contribute to the overall comfort and
motivation of the learners within its walls. It is clear that Pam has put a great deal of
thought into the physical space in her classroom, and she uses the space effectively to
support the literacy routines that she has put in place. In the rest of this chapter, we
discuss ways you can establish a positive learning environment, with well-­designed,
literacy-rich physical spaces, and consistent daily routines that support the develop-
ment of excellent readers.
 Creating a Literacy-Rich Classroom Environment 11

Best Practices You Will See in This Chapter

Setting up a literacy-rich classroom.
99
Using a word wall.
99
Using flexible grouping.
99
Teaching reading in a variety of contexts and using a variety of materials.
99

The Physical Space

We have little, if any, control over the size of the spaces given to us to deliver reading
instruction. The spaces may range from cramped closets (where reading specialists are
often delegated to work with students one on one or in small groups) to large, airy
classrooms with high ceilings and windows that open to let in fresh air. Most classroom
spaces fall somewhere in between. The good news, however, is that once we are given
the space, much of what is inside is within our control, and we have the freedom to cre-
ate an inviting and motivating environment in which our students can thrive. Assum-
ing that this is, or will be, the case for you, we offer you suggestions for designing a
space that sustains and supports excellent reading instruction.

Seating
An efficiently running classroom has a variety of seating for the students: desks and
chairs, benches, rocking chairs, and beanbag chairs. We like to think of students’ desks
as their home bases, not the places where they spend the entire day learning. Students’
desks can provide the space to store some personal materials, such as writing instru-
ments and notebooks, and can serve as personal space in which to write or read. Move-
able desks are also ideal for group work or projects, as the desks can be moved close
together. The dynamic nature of the seating has many possibilities for supporting lit-
eracy learning.
In younger grades, trapezoid, rectangular, and round tables make it easy for stu-
dents to work together; in the upper elementary grades, larger bodies require more sub-
stantial personal spaces, so desks work well. We have seen classrooms in which desks
are grouped so that one empty desk serves as a place to store supplies (extra pencils,
erasers, markers, etc.). Or the empty desk can hold baskets of books that students can
read during transition periods, center time, or independent reading.

Wall Space
The classroom walls offer optimum opportunities to support literacy learning. We
encourage you to be thoughtful about the kinds of print you display on the walls. Too
much print is overwhelming. We advise against purchasing ready-made posters and
wall displays that simply decorate the room and fill up space. These are often distract-
ing, and the students stop noticing them after they have been up for a while. We encour-
age you to display purposeful print that the students can interact with and refer to
throughout the day. Figure 2.1 depicts an example of an interactive wall display. The
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