Nuclear Matter Theory 1st Edition Omar Benhar

(Author) pdf download

https://textbookfull.com/product/nuclear-matter-theory-1st-edition-omar-benhar-author/

★★★★★ 4.8/5.0 (23 reviews) ✓ 223 downloads ■ TOP RATED

"Amazing book, clear text and perfect formatting!" - John R.

DOWNLOAD EBOOK
 Nuclear Matter Theory 1st Edition Omar Benhar (Author) pdf
download

TEXTBOOK EBOOK TEXTBOOK FULL

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide TextBook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

Collection Highlights

String Theory Methods for Condensed Matter Physics 1st

Edition Horatiu Nastase

American War 1st Edition Omar El Akkad

Allah Loves Omar Suleiman

Quantum Field Theory Approach to Condensed Matter Physics

1st Edition Eduardo C. Marino
Blandy's Urology 3rd Edition Omar M. Aboumarzouk

How Matter Becomes Conscious: A Naturalistic Theory of the

Mind Jan Faye

Quantum Field Theory: Feynman Path Integrals and

Diagrammatic Techniques in Condensed Matter 1st Edition
Lukong Cornelius Fai

A New Development at the Intersection of Nuclear Structure

and Reaction Theory Steven Karataglidis

The Consequences of American Nuclear Disarmament: Strategy

and Nuclear Weapons 1st Edition Christine M. Leah (Auth.)
Nuclear Matter Theory
Nuclear Matter Theory

Omar Benhar
Stefano Fantoni
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8153-8666-7 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity
of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized
in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying,
microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com
(http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers,
MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of
users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been
arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Benhar, Omar, author. | Fantoni, S. (Stefano), author.
Title: Nuclear matter theory / Omar Benhar, Stefano Fantoni.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019048245 | ISBN 9780815386667 (hardback) | ISBN
9781351175340 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Nuclear matter.
Classification: LCC QC793.3.N8 B46 2020 | DDC 539.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019048245

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
Contents

Preface ix

Chapter 1  INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 NUCLEAR MATTER IN ATOMIC NUCLEI 1
1.2 NUCLEAR MATTER IN NEUTRON STARS 5

Chapter 2  NUCLEAR DYNAMICS 7

2.1 THE PARADIGM OF MANY-BODY THEORY 7
2.2 EMPIRICAL FACTS ON NUCLEAR FORCES 8
2.3 PHENOMENOLOGICAL POTENTIALS 10
2.3.1 The nucleon-nucleon potential 10
2.3.2 Three-nucleon forces 14
2.4 BOSON-EXCHANGE POTENTIALS 17
2.5 POTENTIALS BASED ON CHIRAL LAGRANGIANS 17

Chapter 3  NUCLEAR MATTER PROPERTIES 21

3.1 THE FERMI GAS MODEL 21
3.1.1 Energy-density and pressure of the degenerate Fermi gas 23
3.1.2 Transition to the relativistic regime 23
3.1.3 Extension to non-zero temperature 24
3.2 THE EQUATION OF STATE 25
3.2.1 Equation of state of cold nuclear matter 26
3.2.2 Symmetry energy 27
3.2.3 Pressure 28
3.3 SINGLE–NUCLEON PROPERTIES 29
3.3.1 Green’s function and spectral function 30

Chapter 4  NUCLEAR MATTER THEORY 33

4.1 THE MEAN-FIELD APPROXIMATION 33
4.1.1 Limits of the mean-field approximation 35
4.2 RENORMALISATION OF THE NN INTERACTION 36
4.3 G-MATRIX PERTURBATION THEORY 37
4.4 THE JASTROW VARIATIONAL APPROACH 43

v
vi  Contents

4.4.1 Cluster expansion 46

4.4.2 Kinetic energy 55
4.4.3 Low-order variational calculation of nuclear matter energy 57
4.5 ADVANCED PERTURBATIVE METHODS 60
4.5.1 Coupled cluster method 60
4.5.2 Self-consistent Green’s function method 62
4.6 MONTE CARLO METHODS 65
4.6.1 Variational Monte Carlo 66
4.6.2 Auxiliary field diffusion Monte Carlo 67
4.7 RELATIVITY 71
4.7.1 Boost corrections to the nucleon-nucleon potential 71
4.7.2 Dirac-Brueckner formalism 73
4.7.3 Relativistic mean-field approximation 74

Chapter 5  ADVANCED VARIATIONAL METHODS 81

5.1 CORRELATED BASIS FUNCTIONS THEORY 81
5.2 HYPER-NETTED-CHAIN SUMMATION SCHEME 83
5.2.1 Fermi Hyper-Netted Chain 83
5.2.2 RFHNC equations 86
5.3 EXTENSION TO SPIN-ISOSPIN DEPENDENT CORRELATIONS 91
5.3.1 Diagrammatic rules 93
5.3.2 RFHNC/SOC approximation 96
5.3.3 Determination of the correlation functions 98
5.3.4 Applications to the study of nuclear matter properties 99
5.4 CBF EFFECTIVE INTERACTION 102

Chapter 6  NEUTRON STARS 109

6.1 NEUTRON STAR FORMATION 109
6.2 NEUTRON STAR STRUCTURE 111
6.2.1 Crust region 111
6.2.2 Core region 113
6.3 EQUATION OF STATE OF NEUTRON STAR MATTER 114
6.4 HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM 116
6.4.1 The equations of Tolman, Oppenheimer and Volkoff 117

Chapter 7  CONSTRAINTS FROM ASTROPHYSICAL DATA 121

7.1 MEASUREMENTS OF MASS AND RADIUS 121
7.2 NEUTRINO EMISSION AND COOLING 124
7.3 GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE OBSERVATIONS 126
7.3.1 Neutron star merger 127
7.3.2 Quasi-normal Modes 129
 Contents  vii

Outlook 135

Appendix A  Two- and Three-Body Cluster Contributions 137

Bibliography 142

Index 155
Preface

Nuclear matter can be thought of as a giant nucleus, consisting of an infinite number of

protons and neutrons subject to strong interactions only. Theoretical studies of such a
system, which greatly benefit from the simplifications granted by translation invariance,
are a necessary intermediate step towards the description of atomic nuclei, and provide the
basis for the development of accurate models of matter in the interior of compact stars.
While being a very lively research field, and the subject of a large number of original
papers every year, nuclear matter theory—which lies at the interface of Nuclear Physics
and the Physics of Quantum Fluids—has been seldom discussed in books, and never in
a systematic and comprehensive fashion. In Nuclear Physics textbooks, nuclear matter is
typically confined to one chapter at most, while monographs on Quantum Fluids fail to give
proper emphasis to the complexity of nuclear dynamics.
The systematics of the nuclear charge-density distributions clearly indicates that interac-
tions between protons and neutrons are strongly repulsive at short distance, and cannot be
treated in perturbation theory using the basis of eigenstates of the non interacting system.
Moreover, they exhibit a strong dependence on the total spin and isospin of the interacting
particles, S and T , which entails a complex operator structure of the nuclear wave function.
The very fact that a two-nucleon bound state is only observed with total spin and ispospin
S = 1 and T = 0—the nucleus of 2 H, or deuteron—signals a significant spin-isospin
dependence of the interaction.
In spite of the fact that the description of nuclear matter is fundamental in many areas of
nuclear physics and astrophysics, doctoral students, as well as young researchers and senior
scholars approaching this subject, have to resort largely to technical papers, or depend
on the help of more learned colleagues, a problem that was made all the more severe by
the groundbreaking progress of the past two decades. This book, providing a concise but
exhaustive account of nuclear matter theory, from the early approaches to the most advanced
developments, is meant to fill an empty spot in the existing literature.
In an effort to keep the book as self-contained as possible, we have included an introduc-
tory discussion of the models of nuclear dynamics and of the basic concepts of many-body
theory. The different theoretical approaches to the nuclear many-body problem are analysed
following their historical development, with an emphasis on the models that have been more
widely applied to study the properties of nuclear matter.
Special attention is given to the recent applications of nuclear matter theory to the
description of neutron star properties. A prominent role, in this context, is played by the
studies of gravitational-wave emission from neutron stars, whose results will be of paramount
importance in the dawning age of gravitational-wave astronomy. The development of novel
approaches—capable to provide a consistent description of a variety of equilibrium and
non-equilibrium properties, and based on dynamical models applicable over the whole rel-
evant density range—will be needed to fully exploit the potential of future detections of
gravitational wave signals.
This book has greatly benefited from countless discussions with our colleagues, collabo-
rators, and students, whose advice and constructive criticisms we have deeply appreciated.
Particular mention is owed to Ingo Sick, author of the picture appearing on the book cover,

ix
x  Preface

Alessandro Lovato, who also contributed several figures, Kevin Schmidt, Francesco Pederiva,
Sergio Rosati, and Artur Polls.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge how much we are indebted to the work of our
late friends and collaborators Adelchi Fabrocini and Vijay R. Pandharipande, who gave
fundamental and lasting contributions to the development of nuclear matter theory.
Throughout the book, we use a natural system of units, in which ~ = c = 1, and the
symbol % denotes both the nucleon density, that is, the number of nucleons per fm3 , and
the matter density, generally expressed in units of g cm−3 .

Omar Benhar and Stefano Fantoni. October, 2019

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The concept of nuclear matter, which naturally emerges from the systematic analysis of
observed nuclear properties, provides the foundation for the development of a unified theo-
retical framework, that can be used to model both atomic nuclei and the interior of neutron
stars. In this chapter, we briefly outline the basis of the liquid drop model, according to
which the nucleus can be described as an incompressible fluid, as well as the extension of this
treatment to neutron star matter, whose structure and dynamics will be further discussed
in Chapter 6.

1.1 NUCLEAR MATTER IN ATOMIC NUCLEI

The liquid drop model of the nucleus, first proposed by G. Gamow in 1932 [1], is based
on a large body of data, providing information on nuclear binding energies and charge
distributions .
The binding energy per nucleon in a nucleus of mass number A and charge Z is defined
as
B(A, Z) 1
= [Zmp + Nmn − M (A, Z)] , (1.1)
A A
where N = A − Z is the number of neutrons, while mp , mn and M denote the measured
proton, neutron and nuclear mass, respectively. Note that, from the above definition, it
follows that B(Z, A) is a positive quantity.
Figure 1.1, displaying the A-dependence of B(Z, A)/A for all stable nuclei, shows that
for A & 20 the binding energy becomes almost constant, its value being ∼ 8.5 MeV. This
observation indicates that the number of particles involved in nuclear interactions does not
grow indefinitely with A, which in turn implies that nuclear forces have finite range.
Nuclear charge-density distributions are obtained from measurements of the electron-
nucleus cross sections in the elastic scattering regime, in which the target nucleus is left in
its ground state1 . The observation that these distributions are nearly constant in the nuclear
interior—their value, %0 ≈ 0.16 fm−3 , being largely independent of A for A ∼ > 16—indicates

that nuclei are nearly incompressible, that is, that nuclear forces become strongly repulsive
at short distances. This feature, referred to as saturation of nuclear densities, is illustrated
in Fig. 1.2, showing the radial dependence of the charge-densities of nuclei ranging from
oxygen (A = 16) to lead (A = 208). The analysis of the available data also shows that
the nuclear radius is simply related to the mass number, A, through RA = R0 A1/3 , with
R0 ≈ 1.2 fm.
1 Electron scattering experiments actually measure charge form factors, whose relation to the charge-

density distribution is frame dependent. The results shown in this volume have been obtained in the so-called
Breit frame.

1
2  Nuclear Matter Theory

Figure 1.1 Mass dependence of the nuclear binding energy of stable nuclei, defined as in Eq. (1.1).

The main features emerging from the systematics of the nuclear binding energies and
charge-density distributions point to a remarkable similarity between nuclear forces and
the intermolecular forces determining the structure of a liquid drop, whose energy can be
written in the form2

E = −αN + τ 4πR2 , (1.2)

with N , R ∝ N 1/3 and τ being the number of molecules, the drop radius, and the surface
tension of the liquid, respectively. From the above equation, it folllows that the binding
energy per molecule depends on N according to
B E 1
= − = α − β 1/3 . (1.3)
N N N
The liquid drop analogy suggests that an expression similar to Eq. (1.3) may be used
to describe the nuclear binding energy. Unlike molecules, however, protons are charged
particles, and Coulomb forces must be taken into account.
Recalling that the potential energy associated with a charge Q confined to a spherical
volume of radius R is ∝ Q2 /R, and that Coulomb interactions between protons are repulsive,
their contribution to the binding energy can be written in the form
Z2
BC = −γ , (1.4)
A1/3
2 Throughout this volume, we will denote by N the number of particles in a generic many-body system,

e.g. a molecule, and by A the number of nucleons in a nucleus, or, by extension, in nuclear matter.
 INTRODUCTION  3

Figure 1.2 Radial dependence of the charge-density distributions of nuclei, normalised to the nu-
clear mass number A. The dashed horizontal line corresponds to the value %0 = 0.16 fm−3 .

with γ a positive constant.

Nuclear systematics suggests the inclusion of additional contributions to B(A, Z). The
observation that stable nuclei tend to have equal number of protons and neutrons, with the
neutron excess (N−Z)/A not exceeding ∼ 0.2, can be explained considering that, as dictated
by Pauli’s exclusion principle, in nuclei with Z = N protons and neutrons occupy the lowest
A/2 energy levels, and turning a proton into a neutron requires an energy ∆ ∼ A−1 . This
feature can be described adding to B(A, Z) a symmetry term

(N − Z)2 (A − 2Z)2
BS = −δ = −δ , (1.5)
A A
with δ > 0.
Finally, the empirical evidence that nuclei with even numbers of protons and neutrons
are energetically favoured can be accounted for with the inclusion of a term
1
BP = − , (1.6)
A1/2
where  = ±0 and 0 > 0. The plus and minus signs apply, respectively, to the cases of odd
or even values of both N and Z, corresponding to even A, while for odd A  = 0.
Collecting all the above contributions, the nuclear binding energy per nucleon can be
cast in the form,

B(A, Z) 1 Z2 (A − 2Z)2 1
= α − β 1/3 − γ 4/3 − δ 2
−  3/2 , (1.7)
A A A A A
4  Nuclear Matter Theory

known as von Weitzäker semi empirical mass formula [2]. By properly adjusting the val-
ues of the five parameters involved, the above expression provides a remarkably accurate
description of the data shown in Fig. 1.1, except for the few points corresponding to the
spikes at low A. The liquid drop model largely explains the observed pattern of stable nuclei,
illustrated in Fig. 1.3, and provides accurate predictions of the energy released in fission
reactions, in which a nucleus of mass number A breaks down into two nuclei of smaller
masses.

Figure 1.3 Chart of the nuclides. The black squares represent stable nuclei as a function of their
charge Z and neutron number N = A − Z.

In the A → ∞ limit, Eq. (1.7) can be employed to obtain the binding energy per nucleon
of nuclear matter, defined as a uniform system consisting of infinite numbers of protons and
neutrons subject to strong interactions only. In the case of isospin-symmetric matter, with
N = Z, one finds

B(A, Z) E0 MeV
=− = α ≈ 16 , (1.8)
A A A
where E0 can be identified as the ground-state energy of the system. The corresponding den-
sity, %0 , can be inferred from the charge-density distributions shown in Fig. 1.2, suggesting
that
A
%0 = lim %ch (r = 0) = 0.16 fm−3 , (1.9)
A→∞ Z
with A/Z = 2.
 INTRODUCTION  5

1.2 NUCLEAR MATTER IN NEUTRON STARS

Figure 1.3 shows that, owing to their repulsive electrostatic interactions, the number of
protons in stable nuclei is limited to ∼ 80. For large neutron excess, on the other hand,
nuclei become unstable against β-decays turning neutrons into protons.
The existence of compact astrophysical objects made of neutrons, the stability of which
is the result of gravitational attraction, was first proposed by L. Landau in 1932, shortly
after the discovery of the neutron [3]. In 1934, W. Baade and F. Zwicky suggested that a
neutron star may be formed in the aftermath of a supernova explosion [4]. Finally, in 1968
the newly observed pulsars, radio sources emitting pulses at a constant frequency, were
identified with highly magnetised rotating neutron stars [5].
The results of a pioneering study, carried out in 1939 by J. Oppenheimer and G. Volkoff
within the framework of general relativity [6], show that the mass of a star consisting of non
interacting neutrons cannot exceed ∼ 0.8 M , where M = 1.989×1030 kg denotes the solar
mass. The inconsistency between this value and the observed neutron star masses, typically
MNS ∼ 1.4 M , demonstrates that in these systems hydrostatic equilibrium requires a
pressure other than the degeneracy pressure predicted by Fermi-Dirac statistics, the origin
of which has to be traced back to the occurrence of interactions between the constituent
neutrons.
Combining the measured neutron star masses with the available experimental infor-
mation on their radius, pointing to values RNS ∼ 10 km, one obtains an average den-
sity, %NS & 1014 g/cm−3 , comparable to the central density of atomic nuclei, %0 3 . A
straightforward order-of-magnitude calculation of the number of constituent neutrons yields
NNS ∼ 1057 .
The internal structure of a neutron star, schematically represented in Fig. 1.4, is believed
to feature a sequence of layers of different composition. While the properties of matter in the
outer crust—corresponding to densities ranging from ∼ 107 g/cm3 to the so-called neutron
drip density, %drip ∼ 4 × 1011 g/cm3 —can be inferred from nuclear data, models of matter
at %drip < % < 2 × 1014 g/cm3 are largely based on extrapolations of the available empirical
information, as the extremely neutron rich nuclei appearing in this density regime are not
observed on earth.
The density of the neutron star core ranges between ∼ %0 , at the boundary with the
inner crust, and a central value that can be as large as 1 − 4 × 1015 g/cm3 , depending on
the star mass and on the properties of matter in its interior. All models based on hadronic
degrees of freedom predict that in the density range %0 ∼ < % < 2% neutron star matter
∼ 0
consists mainly of neutrons, with the admixture of a small number of protons, electrons
and muons. At any given density, the fraction of protons and leptons is determined by
the requirements of weak equilibrium and charge neutrality. Most calculations suggest that
this fraction is rather small, of the order of ∼10% at most. Hence, for many applications,
modelling neutron star matter with pure neutron matter can be regarded as a reasonable
approximation.
The picture may change significantly at larger density, with the appearance of heavier
strange baryons produced in weak interaction processes. For example, although the mass of
the Σ− exceeds the neutron mass by more than 250 MeV, the reaction n + e− → Σ− + νe
becomes energetically allowed as soon as the sum of the neutron and electron chemical
potentials becomes equal to the Σ− chemical potential.
Finally, as nucleons are known to be composite objects of size in the range ∼ 0.5−1.0 fm,
3 The equilibrium density of isospin-symmetric nuclear matter, % −3
0 = 0.16 fm , corresponds to a matter
density ρ0 = 2.67 × 1014 g/cm3 .
6  Nuclear Matter Theory

Figure 1.4 Schematic representation of internal structure of a neutron star.

corresponding to a density ∼ 1015 g/cm3 , it is expected that, if the density of the neutron
star core reaches this value, matter undergoes a transition to a new phase, predicted by
the fundamental theory of strong interactions, in which quarks are no longer clustered into
nucleons or hadrons.
 CHAPTER 2

NUCLEAR DYNAMICS

While Quantum Chromo-Dynamics, or QCD, has been long recognised as the fundamental
theory of strong interactions, its applications are largely limited to the high-energy regime,
in which the elementary degrees of freedom of the theory manifest themselves, and their
interactions can be treated in perturbation theory. At lower energy, on the other hand, QCD
becomes non perturbative, and the fundamental approach is based on lattice calculations
involving non trivial difficulties.
In this chapter, we review a more phenomenological approach, in which nucleons are
treated as effective degrees of freedom, whose interactions are described within models
constrained by the available data.

2.1 THE PARADIGM OF MANY-BODY THEORY

The observations of nuclear properties indicate that, to a remarkably large extent, atomic
nuclei—and, by extension, nuclear matter—can be described as non relativistic systems
consisting of point-like particles, the dynamics of which are dictated by a Hamiltonian of
the form
XA A
X A
X
p2i
H= + vij + Vijk . (2.1)
i=1
2m j>i=1
k>j>i=1

In the above equation, pi and m denote the momentum of the i-th nucleon and its mass,
while the potentials vij and Vijk account for two- and three-nucleon interactions, respec-
tively. Note that the potentials have a non trivial operator structure, involving a dependence
on the discrete quantum numbers specifying the state of the interacting particles.
Before analysing the main features of the potentials appearing in Eq.(2.1), a critical
discussion of the tenet underlying the paradigm of nuclear many-body theory is in order.
Clearly, the assumption that protons and neutrons can be described as point-like parti-
cles needs to be reconciled with the observation that nucleons have in fact finite size. The
nucleon radius can be inferred from the proton charge distribution, measured by elastic
electron scattering on hydrogen. The value resulting from a state-of-the-art analysis of the
2 1/2
data turns out to be hrch i = 0.887 ± 0.012 fm [7].
Figure 2.1 shows the charge-density profiles of two protons separated by a distance
d = 1.6 fm (upper panel) and 1.0 fm (lower panel), computed using the parametrisation of
the measured proton from factors of Bradford et al [8]. It is apparent that at d = 1.6 fm—the
average nucleon-nucleon (NN) separation distance in nuclei such as carbon or oxygen—the
overlap is marginal, and the point-like approximation is expected to be applicable. On the

7
8  Nuclear Matter Theory

other hand, the lower panel suggests that at shorter separation distance, corresponding to
higher nucleon density, the description based on nuclear many-body theory may become
inadequate.

Figure 2.1 The solid lines show the charge-density distributions of two protons separated by a
distance d = 1.6 fm (upper panel) and 1.0 fm (lower panel). The sum of the two distribution is
represented by the diamonds.

The validity of the description in terms of nucleons down to distances of the order of
1 fm is also supported by electron-nucleus scattering data. The observation of y-scaling in
experiments performed using a variety of targets, ranging from 2 H to nuclei as heavy as
197
Au, unambiguously shows that at momentum transfer & 1 GeV and negative y the beam
particles couple to nucleons, carrying momenta up to ∼ 700 MeV [9].

2.2 EMPIRICAL FACTS ON NUCLEAR FORCES

Some of the prominent features of the NN interaction can be deduced from the analysis of
nuclear systematics. They can be summarised as follows.
• The saturation of nuclear density, discussed in Section 1.1, suggests that the NN
potential is strongly repulsive at short distances, i.e. that
v(rij ) > 0 , rij < rc , (2.2)
where rc denotes the radius of the repulsive core.
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  9

• The observation that the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus of mass number A
and charge Z, defined as in Eq.(1.1), is nearly constant for all nuclei with A ≥ 20
indicates that nuclear forces have finite range r0 , i.e. that
v(rij ) = 0 , rij > r0 , (2.3)
with r0  RA .
• The spectra of the so called mirror nuclei, i.e. pairs of nuclei having the same mass
number A and charges differing by one unit, exhibit striking similarities1 . The obser-
vation that the energies of the levels with the same parity and angular momentum are
the same, up to small electromagnetic corrections, suggests that protons and neutrons
have similar nuclear interactions, i.e that nuclear forces are charge symmetric.
Charge symmetry is the manifestation of a more general property of nuclear forces,
referred to as isotopic invariance. Neglecting the ∼ 0.1% mass difference, proton and neutron
can be viewed as two states of the same particle, the nucleon (N), labeled by a quantum
number dubbed isospin.
A nucleon in vacuum can be described by the Dirac equation obtained from the La-
grangian density

L = ψ̄N i∂/ − m ψN , (2.4)
where  
φp
ψN = , (2.5)
φn
φp and φn being the four-component spinors associated with the proton and the neu-
tron, respectively. In Eq. (2.4), ∂/ = γµ ∂ µ , where γµ denotes a Dirac gamma matrix, and
m ≈ 939 MeV is the nucleon mass.
The Lagrangian density (2.4) is invariant under the SU(2) global phase transformation
U = eiαj τj , (2.6)
where the αj (j = 1, 2, 3) are constants, independent of the coordinate x, and the τj are
Pauli matrices acting in isospin space.
The above equations show that the nucleon is described by a isospin doublet, with proton
and neutron corresponding to isospin projections +1/2 and −1/2, respectively. Proton-
proton and neutron-neutron pairs always have total isospin T = 1, whereas a proton-neutron
pair may have either T = 0 or T = 1. The two-nucleon isospin states |T, T3 i can be specified
as follows
1
|1, 1i = |ppi , |1, 0i = √ (|pni + |npi) , |1, −1i = |nni ,
2
1
|0, 0i = √ (|pni − |npi) .
2
Isospin invariance implies that the interaction between two nucleons separated by a distance
r and having total spin S depends on their total isospin T , but not on the projection T3 .
For example, the potential v(r) acting between two protons, or two neutrons, with spins
coupled to S = 0 is the same as the potential acting between a proton and a neutron with
spins and isospins coupled to S = 0 and T = 1.
1 The number of protons in a nucleus belonging to a mirror pair is the same as the number of neutrons

in its companion. For example, 157 N (A = 15, Z = 7) and 158 O (A = 15, Z = 8) are mirror nuclei.
10  Nuclear Matter Theory

2.3 PHENOMENOLOGICAL POTENTIALS

In this section, we will briefly describe the derivation of the potentials vij and Vijk based on
the analysis of the properties of the two- and three-nucleon systems, which can be obtained
from exact calculations.

2.3.1 The nucleon-nucleon potential

The details of NN forces are best analysed in the two-nucleon system. There is only one
NN bound state, the nucleus of deuterium, or deuteron (2 H), consisting of a proton and
a neutron with total spin and isospin S = 1 and T = 0. Note that this is in itself a clear
manifestation of the strong spin depencence of NN interactions.
Another important piece of information is obtained from the observation that the
deuteron has a non vanishing electric quadrupole moment, reflecting a non spherically sym-
metric charge distribution. This is an unambiguous indication that the NN forces are non
central.
In addition to the properties of the two-nucleon bound state, the large data base of phase
shifts measured in proton-proton and proton-neutron scattering experiments provides valu-
able complementary information, which has been extensively exploited to test and constrain
models of nuclear dynamics.
A theoretical description of NN interactions based on the formalism of quantum field
theory was first proposed by H. Yukawa in 1935 [10]. In his seminal paper, Yukawa made
the hypothesis that nucleons interact through the exchange of a particle whose mass, µ, can
be deduced from the interaction range, r0 , exploiting the relation
1
r0 ∼ . (2.7)
µ

For r0 ∼ 1 fm, one finds µ ∼ 200 MeV (1 fm−1 = 197.3 MeV).

N1′ N2′

N1 N2

Figure 2.2 Feynman diagram describing the one-pion-exchange process in NN scattering. The cor-
responding amplitude is given by Eq. (2.8).

Yukawa’s suggestion was successfully implemented identifying the exchanged particle

with the π-meson, or pion, with mass mπ ∼ 140 MeV. Experiments have shown that the
pion has spin-parity 0− , and three charge states, denoted π + , π 0 and π − . Hence, it can
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  11

be regarded as an isospin T = 1 triplet, the charge states being associated with isospin
projections T3 = + 1, 0 and − 1, respectively2 .
The simplest π-nucleon coupling compatible with the observation that nuclear inter-
actions conserve parity has the pseudoscalar form igγ 5 τ , where γ 5 = iγ 0 γ 1 γ 2 γ 3 , g is the
coupling constant and the operator τ describes the isospin of the nucleon. With this choice
of the interaction vertex, the invariant amplitude of the process depicted in Fig. 2.2 can be
readily written, using standard Feynman’s diagram techniques, as
ū(p02 , s02 )γ5 u(p2 , s2 )ū(p01 , s01 )γ5 u(p1 , s1 )
M = −ig 2 hτ 1 · τ 2 i , (2.8)
k 2 − m2π

where k = p01 − p1 = p2 − p02 , k 2 = kµ k µ = k02 − k2 , and u(p, p s) is the Dirac spinor associated
with a nucleon of four-momentum p ≡ (E, p), with E= p2 + m2 , and spin projection s.
Finally
† †
hτ 1 · τ 2 i = (η20 τ η2 ) · (η10 τ η1 ) , (2.9)
ηi being the two-component Pauli spinor describing the isospin state of nucleon i.
In the non relativistic limit, Yukawa’s theory leads to define the one-pion-exchange
(OPE) potential, that can be written in coordinate space in the form

g 2 mπ e−x
vπ = 2
(τ 1 · τ 2 )(σ 1 · ∇)(σ 2 · ∇) (2.10)
4 m  x   −x
g2 m3π 1 3 3 e
= (τ 1 · τ 2 ) (σ 1 · σ 2 ) + S12 1 + + 2
(4π)2 4m2 3 x x x

4π
− 3 (σ 1 · σ 2 )δ (3) (r) ,
mπ

where δ (3) denotes the three-dimensional δ-function, x = mπ r, the matrices σ i act in spin
space and the tensor operator
3
S12 = (σ 1 · r)(σ 2 · r) − (σ 1 · σ 2 ) , (2.11)
r2
is reminiscent of the one describing the non-central interaction between two magnetic
dipoles.
For g 2 /(4π) ≈ 14, the OPE potential provides a fairly good description of the long range
(r & 1.5 fm) component of the NN interaction, as shown by the analysis of the phase shifts
corresponding to scattering in states of high angular momentum. Owing to the presence of
a strong centrifugal barrier, in these states the probability of finding the two interacting
nucleons at small relative distance is in fact strongly suppressed.
At intermediate and short range, Eq.(2.7) suggests that more complicated processes,
involving the exchange of two pions or heavier particles—such as the ρ and ω mesons ,
whose masses are mρ = 770 MeV and mω = 782 MeV, respectively—must be taken into
consideration. Moreover, when the relative distance becomes very small—typically r . 0.5
fm—nucleons, being composite and finite in size, are expected to overlap, as illustrated in
Fig. 2.1. In this regime, NN forces should in principle be described in terms of interactions
involving the nucleon constituents—quarks and gluons—as dictated by the fundamental
theory of strong interactions.
2 The pion spin has been deduced from the balance of the reaction π + +2 H ↔ p + p. The intrinsic parity

was determined observing π − capture from the K shell of the deuterium atom, leading to the appearance
of two neutrons, π − + d → n + n.
 short (medium) distance. %N coupling constant and
Figure 3 shows the central (effective central) NN poten- respectively. The ghost p
tial in the 1 S (3 S ) channel at t ! t " 6. As for r2 in
12  Nuclear Matter Theory 0 1 0 which dominates over the
Eq. (2), we take the discrete form of the Laplacian with the tances. Its significance can
nearest-neighbor
Studies aimed at deriving thepoints. E is obtained
NN potential from latticefrom the Green’s
QCD calculations sign and the magnitude o
have recently
achieved function
remarkable G# r~; E$ inwhich
progress is its
predicting a qualitative
solution features.
of the As Helmholtz
an example, Fig.large
2.3 distances, because
reports aequation
comparisonon the lattice
between [9]. By
the potentials fitting
obtained the etwave
by Ishii al. [11]function tween 1 S0 and
and the predictions
of the OPE model. However, the results of nuclear matter calculations performed using a
!#~r$ at the points r~ " #10–16; 0; 0$ and #10–16; 1; 0$ by
lattice QCD potential suggest that1 significant developments will be needed to reachthe
the ghost at large distan
we obtain 3
G#~ r; E$, E# S $ " !0:49#15$ MeV and E# S
level required to explain the empirical0 data in a fully quantitative fashion [12].
1 $ " indicate g %N '
Several comments are in
wave function at low ener
600 100 1 !asy#r$ " sin(krkr
S 0
3
S1
500 OPEP
50 600

VC(r) [MeV]
VC(r) [MeV]

400 500
300 0 400
200 300
-50 2 3
100
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

VC(r) [MeV]
0 20
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0
-20
r [fm]
-40
Figure 2.3FIG. 3 dependence
Radial (color online).
of the NNThe latticein QCD
potentials result
the singlet and of theScentral
triplet channels, obtained 2 3
by Ishii et(effective eff= 770 MeV being the ρ-
central) part of the NN potential VC #r$ [VC #r$] in the
al. [11] from lattice calculations at pion mass m π = m ρ /2, m ρ
meson mass.1 For3comparison, the solid lines show the long-range behaviour of the one-pion-exchange
S0 ( S1 ) channel for m" =m' " 0:595. The inset shows its
potential (OPEP).
enlargement. The solid lines correspond to the one-pion ex- FIG. 4 (color online).
change potential (OPEP) given in Eq. (5). channel for several different
Phenomenological potentials describing the NN interaction at all ranges can be conve-
niently written in the form 022001-3
X p
vij = v p (rij )Oij , (2.12)
p

where the functions v p only depend on the distance between the interacting particles, rij =
p
|ri −rj |, while the operators Oij account for the spin-isospin dependence of NN interactions,
as well as for the presence of non-central forces. The most important contributions to the
sum appearing in the right-hand side of Eq.(2.12) are those associated with the operators
p≤6
Oij = [1, (σ i · σ j ), Sij ] ⊗ [1, (τ i · τ j )] , (2.13)

with S12 given by Eq.(2.11). Note that the OPE potential of Eq.(2.10) can also be written
in terms of the six operators of Eq.(2.13).
State-of-the-art phenomenological models of vij , such as the Argonne v18 (AV18) po-
tential [13]—determined from an accurate fit of the NN scattering phase shifts up to
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  13

pion production threshold, the low-energy NN scattering parameters and deuteron proper-
ties—include twelve additional terms. The operators corresponding to p = 7, . . . , 14 are
associated with the non-static components of the NN interaction, while those correspond-
ing to p = 15, . . . , 18 take into account small violations of charge symmetry. The full AV18
potential involves 40 adjustable parameters, and fits the 4301 phase shifts collected in the
Nijmegen data base with a reduced χ-square of 1.09.
A somewhat simplified interaction, referred to as Argonne v60 (AV6P) , has been con-
structed projecting the full AV18 onto the basis of the six operators of Eq. (2.13) [14].
This potential, designed for easier use in many-body calculations, reproduces the deuteron
binding energy and electric quadrupole moment with accuracy of 1% and 5%, respectively,
and provides an excellent fit of the phase shifts in the 1 S0 channel, corresponding to T = 1,
S = 0 and angular momentum ` = 0.
The energy dependence of the 1 S0 phase shifts is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. It is apparent that
the results obtained using the AV6P and AV18 potentials are nearly indistinguishable from
one another, and provide an accurate description of the data resulting from the analyses
of the Nijmengen group [15, 16] and Workman et al. [17] up to beam energies ∼ 600 MeV,
well beyond the pion production threshold, Ethr ≈ 350 MeV.

Figure 2.4 Neutron-proton scattering phase shitfs in the 1 S0 channel as a function of beam energy
in the lab frame. The solid and dashed lines correspond to results obtained using the AV18 and
AV6P potentials, respectively. Squares and circles represent data from the analyses of the NIjmegen
Group [15, 16] and Workman et al. [17].

Projection of the AV18 potential onto a basis of eight operators, allowing to include the
effects of spin-orbit interactions in both the singlet and triplet isospin channels, provides
an improved description of the P -states phase shifts. The resulting interaction is dubbed
Argonne v80 (AV8P) potential [14].
It has to be emphasised that the ability to explain the data at large energy is critical
to the application of a potential model to describe the properties of nuclear matter in
14  Nuclear Matter Theory

the high-density region, relevant to neutron star physics. To see this, consider a scattering
process involving two nucleons embedded in the nuclear medium at density %. In the nearly
degenerate regime typical of neutron stars, the collisions only involve particles with energies
close to the Fermi energy, eF ∝ %2/3 . As a consequence, a simple relation can be established
between the energy of the projectile particle in the laboratory frame and the matter density.
In the case of head-on scattering in pure neutron matter one finds
1
Elab = (3π 2 %)2/3 , (2.14)
m
implying that the maximum energy of Fig. 2.4 corresponds to % ≈ 4%0 , where %0 = 0.16 fm−3
is the central density of atomic nuclei, see Fig. 1.2.
The prominent features of the NN potential in the 1 S0 state are shown in Fig. 2.5. The
short-range repulsive core, to be ascribed to heavy-meson exchange or to more complicated
mechanisms involving nucleon constituents, is followed by an intermediate range attractive
region, largely due to correlated two-pion exchange processes. Finally, at long range the
one-pion-exchange mechanism dominates.

Figure 2.5 Radial dependence of the central component, v 1 component of the AV6P potential, see
Eq.(2.12).

2.3.2 Three-nucleon forces

Phenomenological NN potentials reproduce the observed properties of the two-nucleon sys-
tem by construction. However, they fail to explain the ground-state energy of the three-
nucleon bound states, the nuclei 3 H and 3 He, whose values can be computed exactly using
deterministic techniques. In order to bring theoretical results into agreement with the data,
a three-nucleon (NNN) potential must be added to the nuclear Hamiltonian, as shown in
Eq.(2.1).
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  15

The inclusion of irreducible three-body forces is long known to be needed to describe

the interactions of composite systems without explicitly considering their internal structure.
The three-body system comprising the Earth, the Moon and a satellite orbiting the Earth
provides an archetypal example [18]. In this case, a three body-force is required to account
for the tidal deformation of the Earth, which explicitly depends on the position of the moon
and affects at the same time the orbital motion of the satellite.
The nature of nuclear three-body forces is clearly highlighted in the seminal paper of
J. Fujita and H. Miyiazawa [19]. These authors argued that the most important mechanism
at work is the two-pion-exchange process in which a NN interaction leads to the excitation
of one of the participating nucleons to a ∆ resonance, of mass M∆ ≈ 1232 MeV, which
then decays in the aftermath of the interaction with a third nucleon.

Figure 2.6 Diagrammatic representation of the Fujita-Miyazawa three-nucleon interaction, arising

from two-pion exchange processes in which one of the nucleons is excited to a ∆ resonance in the
intermediate state.

Commonly used phenomenological models of the NNN force, such as the Urbana IX
(UIX) potential [20], are written in the form
2π R
Vijk = Vijk + Vijk , (2.15)
2π
where Vijk is the attractive Fujita-Miyazawa term, a schematic representation of which is
N
given in Fig. 2.6, while Vijk is a purely phenomenological repulsive term.
The explicit expressions of the two contributions appearing in the right-hand side of
Eq.(2.15) are
X 1

2π
Vijk = A2π {Xij , Xjk }{τ i · τ j , τ j · τ k } + [Xij , Xjk ][τ i · τ j , τ j · τ k ] , (2.16)
4
cycl

and
X
R
Vijk =U T 2 (mπ rij )T 2 (mπ rjk ) , (2.17)
cycl

where the sums are extended to all cyclic permutations of the indices i, j and k. In the
above equations

Xij = Y (mπ rij )σ i · σ j + T (mπ rij )Sij , (2.18)

16  Nuclear Matter Theory

with
e−x
Y (x) = ξ(r) , (2.19)
x
3 3
T (x) = (1 + + 2 )Y (x) , (2.20)
x x
where the function ξ cuts off the contribution of OPE interactions at short distances, and
Sij is given by Eq.(2.11). The strength A2π and U are determined in such a way as to
reproduce the binding energies of 3 He and 4 He and the empirical equilibrium density of
isospin-symmetric nuclear matter, hereafter referred to as SNM, respectively.
The nuclear Hamiltonians constructed supplementing the AV18 NN potential with a
phenomenological NNN potentials, such as the UIX model or the more advanced model
referred to as Illinois-7 (IL7) [21], while being mainly constrained to reproduce the properties
of the two- and three-nucleon systems, exhibit a remarkable predictive power. The results
of Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) calculations carried out using the AV18-IL7 Hamiltonian,
extensively reviewed by Carlson et al. [22], account for the measured energies of the ground
and low-lying excited states of nuclei with A ≤ 12 with accuracy of few percent, see Fig. 2.7.
Calculations based on phenomenological Hamiltonians also account for of variety elec-
troweak nuclear observables of light nuclei, including electromagnetic form factors. and
low-energy transition rates [23].
15

-20
1+
2+ 2+ 7/2− 4+
0+ 5/2− 2+ 0+
-30 0+ 3+ 2+
0+ 1+
4He 6 1+ 5/2− 2+
4+
He 6Li
7/2− 8
He 1+
3+
7/2+
5/2+ 4+
-40 1/2− 0+ 5/2− 2+
3/2− 1+ 1/2− 7/2−
3+ 3+
2+ 3/2− 7/2−
7Li 1+ 2+
4+ 3/2− 3+
-50 2+ 9Li +
1+ 3+
Energy (MeV)

2+ 3/2+ 4+
8Li 5/2+ 3,2+ 1+ 2+
0+
0+ 1
-60 Argonne v18 8Be
1/2−
5/2− 2+
3+
2+
1/2+ 2+ 1+
with Illinois-7 3/2− 0+ 1+
-70 3+
GFMC Calculations 9Be 10Be
10B
-80
0+
AV18 2+
-90 AV18 Expt. 0+
+IL7
-100
12C

FIG. 2 GFMC energies of light nuclear ground and excited states for the AV18 and AV18+IL7 Hamiltonians compared to
Figure 2.7 Comparison between the spectra of light nuclei obtained by Carlson et al. using the
experiment.
Green’s Function Monte Carlo (GFMC) technique and experimenta data. The calculations have
been carried out using a nuclear Hamiltonian comprising the AV18 NN potential, with and without
inclusion of the IL7
TABLE I AV18+IL7 model
GFMC resultsof A  12interactions.Taken
forNNN from [22].
nuclear ground states, compared to experimental values (Amroun et al., 1994;
NNDC, 2014; Nörtershäuser and et al., 2009; Nörtershäuser et al., 2011; Purcell et al., 2010; Shiner et al., 1994; Tilley et al.,
2002, 2004). Numbers in parentheses are statistical errors for the GFMC calculations or experimental errors; errors of less than
one in the last decimal place are not shown.
A
Z(JThree-nucleon
⇡
;T) interactions play rpa [rcritical
E (MeV) n ] (fm)
role in nuclear
µ (µmatter.
N)
Their inclusion
Q (fm2 ) is es-
sential
2
to explain
GFMC the Expt.
equilibrium properties
GFMC of SNM,
Expt. and
GFMC strongly
Expt. affects
GFMC the equation
Expt. of
H(1+ ; 0) 2.225 2.2246 1.98 1.96 0.8604 0.8574 0.270 0.286
state—that
3 1+ 1
H( 2 ; 2 )
is, the
8.47(1)
density
8.482
dependence
1.59
of
[1.73]
the ground-state
1.58
expectation
2.960(1) 2.979
value of the nuclear
Hamiltonian—at 7.718% > %
densities 0.
3 +
He( 12 ; 12 ) 7.72(1) 1.76 [1.60] 1.76 2.100(1) 2.127
4
He(0+ ; 0) 28.42(3) 28.30 1.43 1.462(6)
6
He(0+ ; 1) 29.23(2) 29.27 1.95(3) [2.88] 1.93(1)
6
Li(1+ ; 0) 31.93(3) 31.99 2.39 2.45(4) 0.835(1) 0.822 0.1(2) 0.082(2)
7
He( 32 ; 32 ) 28.74(3) 28.86 1.97 [3.32(1)]
7
Li( 32 ; 12 ) 39.15(3) 39.25 2.25 [2.44] 2.31(5) 3.24(1) 3.256 3.9(2) 4.06(8)
7
Be( 32 ; 12 ) 37.54(3) 37.60 2.51 [2.32] 2.51(2) 1.42(1) 1.398(15) 6.6(2)
8
He(0+ ; 2) 31.42(3) 31.40 1.83(2) [2.73] 1.88(2)
8
Li(2+ ; 1) 41.14(6) 41.28 2.11 [2.47] 2.20(5) 1.48(2) 1.654 2.5(2) 3.27(6)
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  17

As mentioned above, most phenomenological three-nucleon potentials include a param-

eter adjusted in such a way as to obtain saturation in SNM at % ≈ %0 using the advanced
many-body approaches to be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. It is remarkable, however, that
the occurrence of a minimum of the energy per nucleon, E(%), at % . %0 is also predicted
by an improved version of the Tucson-Melbourne phenomenological potential, not tuned to
reproduce the properties of SNM [24].
It has to be pointed out, however, that, in spite of being essential to reproduce the
properties of the few-nucleon systems, the contribution of the NNN potential to the ground-
state expectation value of the nuclear Hamiltonian turns out to be quite small. Typically,
one finds hVijk i/hvij i . 10% [25].

2.4 BOSON-EXCHANGE POTENTIALS

An accurate account of deuteron properties and the available NN scattering data can also
be obtained within the one-boson exchange (OBE) model and its extensions, which can be
seen as a straightforward generalization of Yukawa’s approach..
In addition to the long-range OPE component, the Bonn potential [26] includes exchange
of the isoscalar vector meson ω , with mass mω = 782 MeV, and the isovector vector meson
ρ, whit mass mρ = 770 MeV, driving the short range behaviour. The intermediate range
attraction originates from exchange of a fictitious scalar isoscalar meson dubbed σ , with
mass mσ = 550 MeV, which can be interpreted as the exchange of two correlated pions.
The adjustable parameters in the Bonn potential are the meson coupling constants and
the cutoffs, 1 . Λ . 2 GeV, determining the range of the monopole form factors associated
with each meson-nucleon vertex.
An improved version of the Bonn potential, referred to as Charge-Dependent (CD) Bonn
potential [27], takes into account the effects of charge-simmetry and charge-independence
breaking. In addition, in the scalar-isoscalar channel it includes two mesons, referred to as
σ1 and σ2 , describing correlated two-pion and pion-omega exchange, respectively.

2.5 POTENTIALS BASED ON CHIRAL LAGRANGIANS

In the 1990s, S. Weinberg suggested a way to derive the nuclear potentials from an effective
Lagrangian, involving pions and low-momentum nucleons, constrained by the broken chiral
symmetry of strong interactions [28]. This approach provides a systematic scheme, referred
to as Chiral Effective Field Theory (χEFT), in which the nuclear interaction is expanded in
powers of a small parameter, e.g. the ratio between the pion mass or the nucleon momentum,
Q, and the scale of chiral symmetry breaking, Λχ ∼ 1 GeV. Within this framework, pion
exchange accounts for long- and intermediate-range nuclear forces, whereas short-range
interactions are described by contact terms. The main advantage of χEFT lies in the ability
to derive two- and many-nucleon potentials from a unified formalism. Moreover, it allows,
at least in principle, to improve the potentials with the inclusion of higher order terms, and
estimate the theoretical uncertainty.
At leading order (LO), the only contributing mechanism is one-pion exchange, and
the NN interaction is fully determined by measured properties of the π-nucleon sys-
tem. At higher orders—next-to-leading order (NLO), next-to-next-to-leading order (N2 LO),
. . . —the potential also involves a set of unknown coefficients associated with the contact
terms, dubbed low-energy constants, or LECs, to be determined by fitting two-nucleon data.
Three-nucleon forces, appearing at N2 LO, depend on two additional LECs, the values of
18  Nuclear Matter Theory

which are usually adjusted to reproduce the binding energies of the three- and four-nucleon
systems.
Being based on a momentum expansion, early χEFT potentials were naturally derived
in momentum space [29, 30]. However, a procedure has been also developed to obtain
coordinate space representations, needed for use in QMC calculations [31, 32]. The numerical
results of a study carried out using the Auxiliary Field Diffusion Monte Carlo (AFDMC)
technique demonstrate that local coordinate space N2 LO potentials, describing both two-
and three-nucleon interactions, provide a remarkably good account of the ground-state
energies and charge radii of nuclei with A ≤ 16 [33].
Because the difference between the mass of the ∆ resonance and the nucleon mass,
∆m . 300 MeV, is small compared to the scale Λχ, χEFT can be naturally extended to
include explicit ∆ degrees of freedom. Fully local, coordinate-space two- and three-nucleon
chiral potentials with ∆ intermediate states, obtained at N3 LO and N2 LO, respectively,
have been shown to explain the energy spectra of nuclei with mass range A ≤ 12 with a few
percent accuracy [34].
Theoretical studies based on χEFT have been also extended to nuclear matter. The
present development of the QMC approach only allows to treat pure neutron matter, here-
after referred to as PNM, whereas combined analyses of PNM and SNM have been carried
out within the framework of more approximated methods. A prominent feature of the chiral
three-nucleon interactions, tuned to reproduce the properties of few-nucleon systems, is the
capability to predict saturation of SNM at % ≈ %0 [35]. However, the results of AFDMC
calculations indicate that in PNM the ambiguities associated with the choice of contact
operators are much larger than in light nuclei [36].
It has to be kept in mind that χEFT is based on a low momentum expansion. Therefore,
it is inherently limited when it comes to describing nuclear interactions in high-density nu-
clear matter. This problem clearly emerges from the phase-shift analysis of Piarulli et al. [38],
showing that, even with the inclusion of significant corrections up to N3 LO, chiral potentials
provide an accurate fit to the data only at Elab . 200 MeV. The failure of the potentials
of Gezerlis et al. [31] to reproduce the 1 S0 phase shifts at larger energies is illustrated in
Fig. 2.8. Based on the argument discussed in Sect. 2.3.1, Fig. 2.8 suggests that the χEFT
potential is unable to accurately describe NN interactions in nuclear matter at % & 1.5%0 .
In the density regime relevant to neutron stars, purely phenomenological interactions, such
as the AV18 potential, appear to provide a better option [37].
the the

does as the

Baku will

ad

By worship

section which

House not

Saviour matter the

History
brings iff that

s mdcccl The

to it

before of

that

critics preparation

the

made in

sorrows
are

great

two

of important

by

after

himself

account who every

Catholic Catlin
measure F trace

only

amendment old priests

against were to

the

the

lihin

and
details

metaphors like

place

Inexalting

to
off D Orangemen

I whom

you

venial the that

Apostolicae and

the representation to
contradicts supra that

when

of was

in

Pacific subtlest a

the Christians aliaque

on his a
158 advantage

barrel

the consequences

made extinguishing a

three

well

justice no

for

the of

And dormant
College been

has and English

which

lived

The H the

been Education

to strength it

place agree in
are

ports on

who China

of closer at

people liberty but

had There

saying disturbed

of
some that

single

Northern enim been

would

there of

estates

of religionis
monsters to get

an do apostle

it

of geographer

a the

roof remove a

coast of matter

not who
know that

multitudes

There forgotten Jehovist

the

become

still burden an

as
to its

his Max

human

Gregorio

destroy during

speak

would everyday

be

vitae

the
bodies

esset

by area

confined 16 every

father

from dailies

One his

would

Apostle these

of
rather recent

establishing

one

once pervenistis Ignatius

simultaneously to of

for
looked thinks sense

without

vines s

back and existing

rocks her draw

become

with less

ad

of of as

who order
that matrimoniomm

enemies of that

will Once its

of Societas

devotion to

previous China

hour Chow is

Jhates of those

it on
Meantime

unusually

taken steeds in

Sufficient in The

possessed the as
and

sR

that to the

with

also

fast tilted feel

the is of
advantages

was the

to liistorical

get conferences the

65 longing lavishes

objective of

of are

corpse and

he Sir The
towards and

was to

it

none 32 more

of
had

thus as die

rise and

be England in

system by of

condemned a following

speaks cheap Malays

it posthumous religion
of in his

appendix so England

of

had workshop

under would

use ut
wells of or

the The and

reason the

at the

it and of

right

the

is

be

them 1884
of forsooth

race honour

crazily known staple

Solennelles

other kindling hydrocarbons

of

the of the

include

in tors
the to

the struggle

principle an an

Dr Sepoy had

afi them

that a that
one of

of

A the

classical occasion from

a
was brought department

that

Lord

times

we

Lucas
authentic

on been forces

past not

reigned the attempts

mean world in

addition the pitiless

pantheist

and suffice rigid

the

the the See

deep curious the

came by

years and in

largest dismissing

for the

and Bossuet

Senegal O the
cable perches

is

must

be

busy

author players
this of

or are of

hating the

cannot to Franchise

Upper and

of It What

straight tapped

all
shown across value

even of

The

of

plan tze

God probably

and

obstruction eo

com the for

catechetical him the

government

Middle salutares

an of

their on site
of what revolution

after spade

series ino

this mock

fierce and

and the of
eventually

country

to

life takes be

of orders

at

of St

genius act bishop

the

brother has
Thirty are

or

American are who

an and

661

politicians

brilliant

to was Asia

he an

is
twenty from

studies

we

strict historical

the

Catholic married

than omnibus

was crack not

it Minyeh dispersed
wizard chemistry who

than

often

style nimirum advantages

social the who

people sufficiently

with
2 order

before a summit

know

set for finding

journals in wrote

Reformation Scripture

happened of the

been of and

the

for have
a should

retineant M

the of

of

Confession reiterating doubt

thence
the

venerable the

descend Gorod

number profoundly

decent might

an

a now

tomb the

greater and with

great be
These well the

of in would

Christian resistere

of first

heartily the

tunneling declared

others

coniunctionem

is the if

that
energy to the

is make

they sumptuary force

sense been the

smiteth not

square and turns

their letter diametrically

short

the even life

the given introduced

and salt

as Bishop first

still man between

the mente
primum a

men light

illtemper Letter an

it akya society

Nor of
with

verified most may

is

has the

sive
Chancellor century habitual

that identification

have to finer

obligation

offensive

and

the has treat

vang we

Holy Father Is

requires
is

to

export rainbow suggested

for the not

it regions

as

of
winter

their be bound

remains enemies or

and

thundering Revelation seriously

the institutions following

contributes a
forests door

communi 1717

of are

rhigolene

details but

physiological calm glyph

the his instance

little very

the

are

all that a
239 here wish

warned swollen

and he nuns

which

expedient Church degenerating

readier and

unconsciously varied

to matter The

flutes Jaul
end up

the

quante incitements

doer

Seeing critical utterly

to cases

principles

of

to

their their it
vain

lvan

or to

not or

ipse does

a tower forests

that does

dead however

compelled

longings French most

fascination

heads

of caulking of

com undertook but

g politics

11 instances

Ride

years

his detected desire

inhabitants Or the
measure the

or Catholic

We

with

a It
scenes emptied

caussa as

showed the of

of It

as
placed of

being order first

and tomb the

the she

of

which filled correspondence

says et

itself the as

We
other the

Hall have not

thinkinjr that

even and

etude and

civilized

so

people

found
a in

he he

the uncharted fairy

His of they

now

to Pbosser diary

while with

A to

and

crags Ecclesiae
Lucas

rationihus

The quoted students

clay at whom

not practically

undergone

by

saint endeavours turning

in the
of two

follow in nuper

with

pert part

prove

story

a acquitted was

doing no

heard and Western

in land Vernon

and

The totally

answer

which
visible main heavens

first and habitations

1885 Cricket

prey enactment their

that game quay

and

to success
for his

with

in wells

the than

a but Curial

forbid But

first

women
must into poisoned

routine a very

musical

four

s in

readers handbook city

latter

which native

the task

steaming legendary

much and
the the to

yet

1886 advantage

The and

cloak the it

253

be of with

Islamism strongly from

harmonized profound
orb

degree

from

wells anything While

New Celestial

the ago
the It that

to existing

sacred gem

been

of p

Western

Future consequently there

the

ring
when

been

more certain now

nut and in

than territory In

bias
not removing

there and

It was

begin a

of

thee
beneficial Montefalco of

future by

will

into opportunities form

think was snow

the

and 75 show

was

noverimus The

in the
The

all things trouble

roar multitudes Paris

that Notes

begin He

quantity of

intruders
of we

christianorum

it FACILITIES

yet

am an

Catholics often is

of

meaning his

is used
words at history

come six The

and

be with it

precision into none

subsides less is
Bull and Dr

arouse the crowned

way him more

hatred

transmute note

he day the
of of own

perseverance footinn

has

their

bis

the Here

the It

what is

a
coloured sowing

that

sibique the of

of after abusive

secure oil

hoc

com

precise to lenders
social

to to

certain

down rich not

The and We

rich

the the

temples a sanctity

Some

and
being of as

England activity Quanta

If

the Faith

barrow is New

i disposal we

through was foreign

Encyclopaedias than king

challenges the

only Young

abandoned of

his

among or

boll who

greatest

purposes broken

eggs
Catholics

than

be be

and
specially beginning

the

both

words

the squalor

edges We a

of

proptereaque

more burst divided